The public value of folklore. Oral folk art: types, genres of works and examples
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>> Folklore and fiction
The appearance of fiction was preceded by a long period when, long before the invention
tenia of writing, for many centuries, ancient peoples created true art artistic word- folklore. “The beginning of the art of words is in folklore,” Aleksey Maksimovich Gorky justly asserted. Reflecting on the main features (signs) in the structure of life of ancient people and their understanding of the world around them, Gorky wrote:
“These signs have come down to us in the form of fairy tales and myths, in which we heard echoes of work on the domestication of animals, on the discovery of medicinal herbs, the invention of tools. Already in ancient times, people dreamed of the possibility of flying through the air - the legends about Phaethon, Daedalus and his son Icarus tell us about this, as well as the tales of the “flying carpet”. We dreamed of accelerating movement on the ground - a tale of "running boots". Thought about the possibility of spinning and weaving in one night great amount matter - they created a spinning wheel, one of the most ancient tools of labor, a primitive manual weaving machine and created a fairy tale about Vasilisa the Wise ... "
In Ancient Russia, new types of oral poetry were also created: songs, legends, legends, epics, explaining the origin of cities, villages, tracts 1, barrows, telling about heroic deeds defenders of their native land.
Many of them were included in the first works of written literature - the annals. Thus, the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XI-XII centuries) contains folk legends about the founding of Kiev by three brothers - Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv, who were known even in Constantinople, where they were given great honor. In the "Tale of Bygone Years" you can also find oral and poetic legends about Russian princes - Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav, etc. The legend about Oleg the thing, for example, tells about an outstanding ancient Russian commander who defeated the Greeks
not only by force, but also by wise ingenuity.
Later, with the spread of writing and the appearance of the first books, oral folk art not only did not lose its role in the life of the people, but also exerted the most beneficial influence on the development of fiction.
Seeking deeper insight folk life, many writers drew from folklore not only information about everyday life, but also themes, plots, images, ideals 2, learned the art of bright, expressive speech. In most of the world's literatures, works have been created that were widespread in folklore: songs, ballads, romances8, fairy tales.
You well know that Alexander Pushkin wrote his wonderful ballad "The Song of the Prophetic Oleg"
based on what he heard folk legend about the death of Prince Oleg, allegedly predicted to him by a sorcerer (priest of the Slavic god Perun). In his fairy tale poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" Pushkin widely used from childhood, according to his nanny Arina Rodionovna, the fairy-tale episodes and images that he remembered.
The imagination of readers is amazed by the very introduction to this poem ("A green oak near the sea ..."), in which amazingly there are fabulous images of a mermaid, huts on chicken legs, Baba Yaga with a stupa, Koschei and other magic from Russian fairy tales, familiar to everyone from childhood. The poet exclaims: "There is a Russian spirit, there it smells of Russia!"
Tract- an area that is different from the surrounding area, for example, a swamp, a forest in the middle of a field.
Ideal- that which is the highest goal of activity, aspirations.
Romance- a small vocal work of a lyrical nature.
Pushkin's "The Tale of dead princess and about the seven heroes ”is a poetic reworking of the Russian folk tale“ Self-Looking Mirror ”.
Based folk stories the Danes Hans Christian Andersen ("Wild Swans"), the Frenchman Charles Perrault ("Cinderella"), the German brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm (" The Bremen Town Musicians") and etc.
In the minds of people of many generations, the tales of writers have merged with the tales of the people. And this is explained by the fact that every writer, no matter how original his own work, experiences a deep connection with the folklore of his people. It was in oral folk art that writers found vivid examples loyalty to moral principles, an expression of the people's dream of a just, happy life.
An important place in Russian folklore is occupied by epics of heroic songs that tell about the mighty Russian heroes, defenders of the Motherland. Singing heroes, epics called for a feat for the glory of the Fatherland, raised the spirit of the people in a difficult time, brought up in young people a love for their native land and the desire to protect it from conquerors. Epics about invincible heroes inspired Russian writers and poets to create their own works about the fearless and glorious warriors of the Russian land. Get acquainted with an excerpt from a poem by Nikolai Rylenkov, in which the poet told about his impressions of the epic about Ilya Muromets, told to him by his grandfather. This is how he imagined the hero as a child:
Winter and childhood. The evening is long
Under the crown of cramped housing.
Rises over grandfather's epic
Peasant Muromets Ilya.
Not having fun in a clean field,
He hurries to Kiev without roads,
And the Nightingale the Robber whistle
I could not stop him.
Many writers, seeking deeper to show the life of the people, national characteristics heroes are used in their works folk songs, legends, legends and other types of oral folk art. Let us remember how Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol worked on his book Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka. In a letter to his mother, he asked to tell him everything that she knows about the morals and customs of her fellow countrymen: “I really, really need this ... If there are, in addition, any brownies, then more about them with their names and deeds ; a lot is worn between common people beliefs, terrible legends, legends, different jokes, and so on, and so on, and so on. All this will be extremely interesting for me ... "
You know from literature lessons how unprecedented was the success of the first book, Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka. Pushkin wrote: “I have just read“ Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka ”. They astonished me. This is real fun, sincere, unconstrained, without pretense 1, without stiffness. And in some places what poetry! What sensitivity! All this is so extraordinary in our literature that I have not yet come to my senses. Congratulations to the audience on a truly merry book ... "
In the future, your knowledge of the inextricable connection of folklore with works of fiction will expand and deepen, but at the same time you should always remember the main thing: for artists, the word folklore is an inexhaustible source of unshakable ideas of the people about goodness, justice, true love and wisdom.
Let's talk
1. What types of oral poetry were created by the people long before the appearance of fiction? Name those that were included in the first annals.
2. Why do writers in their work often turn to folklore works?
3. Name the works of oral folk art that formed the basis of literary works known to you.
4. Among Russian folk tales there is a fairy tale called "The Golden Fish", the plot of which completely coincides with Pushkin's "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish". Why do you think this folk tale became the basis for the creation of one of the most beloved and popular fairy tales of the great poet?
5. If you are well aware of the content of Nikolai Gogol's Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka, remember what folk beliefs and legends the writer used in his stories “Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, “May Night, or Drowned Woman”, “Terrible Vengeance”.
6. In 1785 the German writer Rudolf Erich Raspe published the book "The Adventures of Baron Munchausen", which was a literary adaptation fantasy stories Baron Munchausen, who actually lived in Germany. Over time, this book gained worldwide fame. Which of the adventures described in the book do you know? How do you think this book attracts readers around the world?
7. Why AM Gorky argued that "the beginning of the art of words in folklore"?
Cimakova L.A. Literature: Pidruchnik for 7th grade. zagalnoosvitnіkh navalnyh pledges with Russian language navchannya. - K .: Vezha, 2007.288 p .: il. - Mova rosіyska.
Submitted by readers from the internet site
Creativity Nekrasov, no doubt, is closely connected with Russia and the Russian people. His works carry deeply moral ideas.
The poem "Who Lives Well in Russia" is one of best works the author. He worked on it for fifteen years, but never finished it. In the poem, Nekrasov turned to post-reform Russia and showed the changes that took place in the country during this period.
The peculiarity of the poem "Who Lives Well in Russia" is that the author depicts people's life as it is. He does not embellish or "exaggerate", talking about life difficulties peasants.
The plot of the poem is in many ways similar to the folk tale about the search for truth and happiness. In my opinion, Nekrasov refers to such a plot because he feels the changes in society, the awakening of the peasant consciousness.
The roll call with the works of oral folk art can be traced at the very beginning of the poem. It begins with a kind of beginning:
In what year - count
In which land - guess
On a pole track
Seven men got together ...
It is important to note that such beginnings were characteristic of the Russian folk tales and epics. But they are found in the poem and folk signs, which, in my opinion, help to better represent the peasant world, the worldview of the peasants, their attitude to the surrounding reality:
Cook! Cook, cuckoo!
Bread will be pricked
You choke on an ear -
You will not cuckoo!
We can say that oral folk art is closely related to the life of the people. In the happiest moments of their lives and in the harshest peasants turn to folk tales, proverbs, sayings, omens:
Mother-in-law
Served with omen.
Neighbors spit
That I brought trouble.
With what? A clean shirt
Put it on for Christmas.
Often found in the poem and riddles. To speak mysteriously, it was peculiar to a mystery common people since ancient times, as it was a kind of attribute of a magic spell. Of course, later, the riddles lost such a purpose, but love for them and the need for them was so strong that it has survived to this day:
Nobody saw him
And to hear - everyone has heard,
Without a body, but it lives,
Without a tongue, it screams.
In "Who lives well in Russia" there are a lot of words with diminutive-affectionate suffixes:
Like a fish in the blue sea
Yurknesh you! Like a nightingale
You will flutter out of the nest!
This work is also characterized by constant epithets and comparisons:
Nose with a beak like a hawk,
The mustache is gray and long.
And - different eyes:
One healthy one - glows,
And the left one is cloudy, cloudy,
Like a pewter penny!
Thus, the author resorts to portrait characterization, but at the same time creates an image similar to fairytale character because fantastic features prevail here.
The nationality of the poem is also given by the forms of short participles:
The fields are incomplete,
The crops are not sown,
There is no trace of order.
The portrait characteristics are built in the poem so that it is easy for the reader to divide all the characters in the poem into positive and negative. For example, Nekrasov compares peasants with Russian land. And the landowners are shown to them in a satirical perspective and are associated with the evil characters of fairy tales.
The characters of the characters are revealed through their speech. So, the peasants say simple, true folk language... Their words are sincere and emotional. Such is, for example, the speech of Matryona Timofeevna:
Keys to women's happiness,
From our free will,
Abandoned, lost ...
The landlords' speech is less emotional, but very self-confident:
The law is my desire!
The fist is my police!
Sparkling blow,
The blow is furious,
Blow to the cheekbone!
Nekrasov believes that they will come better times for the Russian people. Without a doubt, the significance of the poem "Who Lives Well in Russia" is difficult to overestimate.
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1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….………………. 3
2. Main part …………………………………………………………………………………. 4
2.1 Genres of Russian folklore ………………………………………………………… ... 4
2.2 The place of folklore in Russian literature …………………………………………… 6
3. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… ..12
4. List of used literature ……………………………………………………… .13
Introduction
Folklore - [eng. folklore] folk art, a set of folk actions.
The relationship of literature with oral folk art is an urgent problem of modern literary criticism in the context of the development of world culture.
In recent decades, a whole line of creative use of folklore has been defined in Russian literature, which is represented by talented prose writers who reveal the problems of reality at the level of intersection of literature and folklore. Deep and organic development of various forms of oral folk art has always been an integral feature of genuine talent.
In the 1970s and 2000s, many Russian writers working in a wide variety of literary trends turned to oral folk art. What are the reasons for this literary phenomenon? Why, at the turn of the century, writers of various literary trends and styles turn to folklore? It is necessary to take into account, first of all, two dominant factors: intraliterary patterns and the socio-historical situation. Undoubtedly, tradition plays a role: writers have turned to oral folk art throughout the entire development of literature. Another, no less important, reason is the turn of the century, when Russian society Summing up the results of the next century, he again tries to find answers to important questions of life, returning to national spiritual and cultural origins, and the richest folk heritage is the poetic memory and history of the people.
The problem of the role of folklore in Russian literature on the threshold of the 21st century is natural because it has now acquired a special philosophical and aesthetic value.
Folklore is an archaic, transpersonal, collective type of artistic memory that has become the cradle of literature.
Main part.
Genres of Russian folklore.
Russian folk poetry has passed a significant path of historical development and reflected the life of the Russian people in many ways. Its genre composition is rich and varied. The genres of Russian folk poetry will appear before us in the following scheme: I. Ritual poetry: 1) calendar (winter, spring, summer and autumn cycles); 2) family and household (maternity, wedding, funeral); 3) conspiracies. II. Non-ritual poetry: 1) epic prose genres: * a) a fairy tale, b) a legend, c) a legend (and a bylichka as its kind); 2) epic poetic genres: a) epics, b) historical songs (primarily older ones), c) ballad songs; 3) lyric poetic genres: a) songs of social content, b) love songs, c) family songs, d) small lyric genres (ditties, choruses, etc.); 4) small non-lyrical genres: a) proverbs; o) sayings; c) riddles; 5) dramatic texts and actions: a) dressing up, games, round dances; b) scenes and plays. In scientific folkloristic literature, one can find the formulation of the question of mixed or intermediate generic and genre phenomena: about lyric-epic songs, about fairy tales-legends, etc.
However, it must be said that such phenomena are very rare in Russian folklore. In addition, the introduction of this type of works into the classification of genres is controversial because mixed or intermediate genres have never been stable, at no time in the development of Russian folklore were they main in it and did not determine it. the overall picture and historical movement... The development of genres and genres does not consist in mixing them, but in the creation of new artistic forms and the withering away of old ones. The emergence of genres, as well as the formation of their entire system, is conditioned by many circumstances. First, by the social need for them, and, consequently, by the tasks of a cognitive, ideological, educational and aesthetic nature, which the diverse reality itself posed for folk art. Secondly, the originality of the reflected reality; for example, epics arose in connection with the struggle of the Russian people against the nomadic Pechenegs, Polovtsians and Mongol Tatars. Third, the level of development of the artistic thought of the people and their historical thinking; in the early stages could not be created complex shapes, the movement probably went from simple and small forms to complex and large, for example, from a proverb, parable (short story) to a fairy tale and legend. Fourth, preceding artistic heritage and traditions, previously established genres. Fifth, the influence of literature (writing) and other forms of art. The emergence of genres is a natural process; it is determined by both external socio-historical factors and internal laws of the development of folklore.
The composition of folklore genres and their connection with each other are also determined by the common task for them of multilateral reproduction of reality, and the functions of genres are distributed in such a way that each genre has its own special task - the image of one of the sides of life. The works of one group of genres have as their subject the history of the people (epics, historical songs, legends), the other - the work and life of the people (calendar ritual songs, labor songs), the third - personal relationships (family and love songs), the fourth - the moral views of the people and his life experience (proverbs). But all genres taken together broadly cover everyday life, labor, history, social and personal relations of people. Genres are interconnected in the same way as different sides and phenomena of reality itself are interconnected, and therefore form a single ideological and artistic system. The fact that the genres of folklore have a common ideological essence and common task multi-sided artistic reproduction of life, also causes a certain commonality or similarity of their themes, plots and heroes. Folklore genres are characterized by the common principles of folk aesthetics - simplicity, brevity, frugality, plot, poeticization of nature, definiteness of moral assessments of heroes (positive or negative). The genres of oral folk art are also interconnected by a common system artistic means folklore - the originality of the composition (leitmotif, unity of the theme, chain connection, screensaver - a picture of nature, types of repetitions, common places), symbolism, special types of epithets. This system, historically developing, has a pronounced national identity, due to the peculiarities of the language, life, history and culture of the people. The relationship of genres. In the formation, development and coexistence of folklore genres, a process of complex interaction takes place: mutual influence, mutual enrichment, adaptation to each other. The interaction of genres takes many forms. It serves as one of the reasons for significant changes in oral folk art.
The place of folklore in Russian literature.
“The Russian people have created a huge oral literature: wise proverbs and tricky riddles, funny and sad ritual songs, solemn epics - chanted to the sound of strings - about the glorious deeds of heroes, defenders of the land of the people - heroic, magical, everyday and ridiculous tales.
Folklore- This is folk art, very necessary and important for the study of folk psychology today. Folklore includes works that convey the main critical views people about the main values in life: work, family, love, social duty, homeland. Our children are being brought up on these works even now. Knowledge of folklore can give a person knowledge about the Russian people, and ultimately about himself.
In folklore, the original text of a work is almost always unknown, since the author of the work is not known. The text is passed from mouth to mouth and reaches our days in the form in which the writers wrote it down. However, writers retell them in their own way so that the works are easy to read and understand. Currently, a lot of collections have been published, including one or several genres of Russian folklore. These are, for example, "Epics" by L. N. Tolstoy, "Russian folk poetry" by T. M. Akimova, "Russian folklore" edited by V. P. Anikin, "Russian ritual songs" by Y. G. Kruglov, "Strings to the Roar: Essays on Russian Folklore" by V. I. Kalugin, "Russian Soviet Folklore" edited by K. N. Femenkov, "On Russian Folklore" by E. V. Pomerantseva, "Folk Russian Legends" and "People-Artist: myth, folklore, literature "A. N. Afanasyev," Slavic mythology"N. I. Kostomarov," Myths and Legends "K. A. Zurabov.
In all publications, the authors distinguish several genres of folklore - these are fortune-telling, conspiracies, ritual songs, epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, riddles, bylichki, pestushki, chants, ditties, etc. Due to the fact that the material is very huge, and for a short time it is impossible to study it, I use in my work only four books given to me in central library... These are "Russian ritual songs" by Yu. G. Kruglov, "Strings to the roar: essays on Russian folklore" by V. I. Kalugin, "Russian Soviet folklore" edited by K. N. Femenkov, "Russian folk poetry" by T. M. Akimova.
Contemporary writers folklore motives are often used in order to give the narrative an existential character, to combine the individual and the typical.
Oral folk poetry and book literature originated and developed on the basis of the national wealth of the language, their themes were associated with the historical and social life of the Russian people, their way of life and work. In folklore and literature, poetic and prosaic genres that were in many respects similar to each other were created, genres and types of poetic art arose and improved. Therefore, creative ties between folklore and literature, their constant ideological and artistic mutual influence, are quite natural and logical.
Oral folk poetry, having arisen in ancient times and having reached perfection by the time of the introduction of writing in Russia, became for Old Russian literature a natural threshold, a kind of "poetic cradle". On the basis of the richest poetic treasury of folklore, to a large extent, the original Russian written literature arose. It was folklore, in the opinion of many researchers, that brought a strong ideological and artistic stream into the works of Old Russian literature.
Folklore and Russian literature are two independent areas Russian national art... At the same time, the history of their creative relationship was to become the subject of self-study and folklore and literary studies. However, such targeted research in Russian science did not appear immediately. They were preceded by long stages of autonomous existence of folklore and literature without proper scientific understanding of the processes of their creative influence on each other.
Tolstoy's work, addressed to children, is vast in volume, polyphonic in sound. It expresses his artistic, philosophical, pedagogical views.
Everything Tolstoy wrote about children and for children marked a new era in the development of domestic and, in many respects, world literature for children. Even during the life of the writer, his stories from the "Alphabet" were translated into many languages of the peoples of Russia, and became widespread in Europe.
The theme of childhood in Tolstoy's work acquired a philosophically deep, psychological meaning. The writer introduced new themes, a new layer of life, new heroes, enriched the moral problems of works addressed to young readers... The great merit of Tolstoy, a writer and teacher, is that he raised the educational literature (alphabet), which was traditionally of an applied, functional nature, to the level of real art.
Leo Tolstoy is glory and pride domestic literature... 2 Beginning teaching activities Tolstoy dates back to 1849. When he opened his first school for peasant children.
Tolstoy did not neglect the problems of education and upbringing until last days life. In the 80s and 90s, he was engaged in the publication of literature for the people, dreamed of creating an encyclopedic dictionary for the peasants, a series of textbooks.
The constant interest of L.N. Tolstoy to Russian folklore, to the folk poetry of other peoples (primarily Caucasian) is a well-known fact. He not only wrote down and actively promoted fairy tales, legends, songs, proverbs himself, but also used them in his artistic creation, in teaching. Especially fruitful in this regard were the 70s of the XIX century - the time of intensive work on the "ABC" (1872), "New ABC" and supplementary books for reading (1875). Initially, in the first edition, "Azbuka" was a single set of educational books. Tolstoy summarized his teaching experience at the Yasnaya Polyana school, revised the stories for children published in the appendix to Yasnaya Polyana. First of all, I would like to note the serious, thoughtful attitude of L.N. Tolstoy to folklore material. The author of both "ABCs" was strictly guided by the primary sources, avoided arbitrary changes and interpretations and allowed himself some corrections only in order to adapt folklore texts that were difficult to comprehend. Tolstoy studied the experience of Ushinsky, criticized the language of his predecessor's educational books, too, from his point of view, conditional, artificial, did not accept descriptiveness in stories for children. The positions of both teachers were close in assessing the role of oral folk art, the experience of spiritual culture in mastering the native language.
Proverbs, sayings, riddles in the "ABC" alternate with short sketches, microscores, small stories from folk life 3(“Katya went to pick mushrooms”, “Varya had a siskin”, “Children of a hedgehog were found”, “Bug carried a bone”). Everything is close in them peasant child... Read in the book, the scene is filled with special significance, sharpens observation: “We put the ricks. It was hot, it was difficult, and everyone sang. " “My grandfather was bored at home. My granddaughter came and sang a song. ” The characters in Tolstoy's little stories are, as a rule, generalized - mother, daughter, sons, an old man. In the traditions of folk pedagogy and Christian morality, Tolstoy carries out the idea: love work, respect your elders, do good. Other everyday sketches are made so skillfully that they acquire a high generalized meaning, approaching a parable. For example:
“The grandmother had a granddaughter; before the granddaughter was small and kept sleeping, but the grandmother baked bread, chalked the hut, washed, sewed, spun and weaved for her granddaughter; and after that the grandmother became old and lay down on the stove and slept all over. And the granddaughter baked, washed, sewed, weaved and spun on the grandmother. "
Several lines of simple two-syllable words. The second part is almost a mirror image of the first. What is the depth? The wise course of life, the responsibility of generations, the transfer of traditions ... Everything is contained in two sentences. Here each word seems to be weighed, accentuated in a special way. The parables about the old man planting apple trees have become classic, “ old grandfather and granddaughters ”,“ Father and sons ”.
Children are the main characters in Tolstoy's stories. Among his characters are kids, simple, peasant children and noble children. Tolstoy does not focus on the social difference, although in each story the children are in their own environment. Village baby Filipok, in a big father's hat, overcoming fear, fighting off other people's dogs, goes to school. No less courage is worth little hero the story "How I learned to ride a horse" to ask adults to take him to the arena. And then, not afraid of the fall, sit down on Chervonchik again.
“I’m bad, I understood everything. What a clever passion I am, ”Filipok says about himself, having overcome his name in warehouses. There are many such "mischievous and clever" characters in Tolstoy's stories. Boy Vasya selflessly protects a kitten from hunting dogs ("Kitten"). And eight-year-old Vanya, showing an enviable ingenuity, saves the life of his little brother, sister and old grandmother. The plots of many of Tolstoy's stories are dramatic. The hero - the child must overcome himself, decide on an act. In this regard, the tense dynamics of the story "Leap" is characteristic. 4
Children are often disobedient, commit wrong actions, but the writer does not seek to give them a direct assessment. The reader has to make the moral conclusion himself. A conciliatory smile can be caused by the offense of Vanya, who secretly ate a plum ("Stone"). Seryozha's carelessness ("Bird") cost his life. And in the story "The Cow" the hero is in an even more difficult situation: the fear of punishment for broken glass led to dire consequences for a large peasant family - the death of the wet nurse Burenushka.
The famous teacher D.D. Semyonov, a contemporary of Tolstoy, called his stories “the height of perfection, as in the psychological. So in the artistic sense ... What an expressiveness and imagery of language, what a strength, conciseness, simplicity at the same time the elegance of speech ... In every thought, in every storyteller there is morality ... moreover, it is not striking, does not bother children, but is hidden in artistic image, and therefore asks for a child's soul and sinks deeply into it ”5.
The talent of a writer is determined by the significance of his literary discoveries. Immortal is that which does not repeat and is unique. The nature of literature does not tolerate secondary.
The writer creates his own image of the real world, not being satisfied with someone else's idea of reality. The more this image reflects the essence rather than the appearance of phenomena, the deeper the writer penetrates into the fundamental principles of being, the more precisely their immanent conflict is expressed in his work, which is the paradigm of a genuine literary "conflict", the more durable the work turns out to be.
Among the forgotten works are things that reduce the idea of the world and man. This does not mean at all that the work is intended to reflect the whole picture of reality. It's just that in the "private truth" of the work there must be conjugation with the universal meaning.
Question about nationalities This or that writer cannot be completely resolved without analyzing his connection with folklore. Folklore is an impersonal creativity closely associated with an archaic world outlook.
Conclusion
Thus, the creation of a cycle of "folk stories" by Tolstoy from the 1880s to the 1900s is due, in aggregate, to both external and internal reasons: socio-historical factors, laws literary process late XIX - early XX century, the religious and aesthetic priorities of the late Tolstoy.
In the conditions of socio-political instability in Russia in the 1880s-1890s, the tendency for a radical reorganization of society by violent methods that sow discord, disunity of people, Tolstoy puts into practice the idea of "active Christianity" - a religious and philosophical teaching about spiritual enlightenment based on Christian axioms, developed by him for a quarter of a century, and following which, according to the writer, should inevitably lead to the spiritual progress of society.
Objective reality, being unnatural, receives aesthetic condemnation from the writer. In order to oppose reality with the image of a harmonious reality, Tolstoy develops a theory religious art, as the most appropriate to the needs of the day, and radically changes the character of its own creative method... The method of "spiritual truth" chosen by Tolstoy, synthesizing the real and the ideal as a way of embodying harmonious reality, was most vividly realized in a cycle of works with a conventional genre definition"Folk stories".
In the context of the growing interest of modern literary criticism in Christian problems in the Russian classics, it seems promising to study "folk stories" in the context of spiritual prose of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, which makes it possible to present the spiritual literature of this period as an integral phenomenon.
Bibliography.
1. Akimova TM, VK Arkhangelskaya, VA Bakhtina / Russian folk poetry (manual for seminars). - M .: Higher. School, 1983 .-- 208 p.
2. Gorky M. Sobr. cit., vol. 27
3. Danilevsky I.N. Ancient Russia through the eyes of contemporaries and their descendants (XI-XII centuries). - M., 1998. - S. 225.
5. Kruglov Yu. G. Russian ritual songs: Textbook. manual for ped. in-tovspetspez "rus. lang. or T.". - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: Higher. shk. 1989 .-- 320 p.
6. Semyonov D.D. Fav. Ped. Op. - M., 1953
Folk art is original, multifaceted and by its nature is closely related to musical beginning... Hence such an incredible variety and diversity of forms in which genres of musical folklore are expressed.
What is folklore?
Folklore is called folk art. This is music, poetry, theater, dance, which were created by the people and are closely related to traditions, religious beliefs, and history.
The word "folklore" itself has English roots and is translated as " folk wisdom". By its nature, folklore is diverse and includes fairy tales, legends, legends, myths, proverbs, sayings, conspiracies, omens, various methods of fortune telling, all kinds of rituals, dances and much more. Surprisingly enough, rhymes, rhymes and anecdotes are also included in folklore. And the genres of musical folklore are only one of the parts of folk art.
Is it a genre?
We have already mentioned several times (in connection with the concept of folklore) the word "genre", but what is meant by it? A genre is a type of work characterized by certain features of form and content. Each genre has its own purpose, mode of existence (for example, oral or written) and performance (singing, recitation, theatrical performance, etc.). Examples include the following genres: symphony, song, ballad, story, story, novel, etc.
What is called musical folklore?
Ditties
A ditty is a small rhymed song consisting of 4-6 lines. It is usually performed at a fast pace and describes one event in a person's life. Chastooshkas were popular among both the villagers and the working class. The roots of this genre go back to the 18th century, but it reached its greatest popularity in the 20th century.
The theme of ditties is a reflection of life itself, the most pressing and pressing problems and bright events. The main focus of these short songs is social, domestic or love.
Studying folklore at school
All school general education programs are designed so that children can learn genres of musical folklore. Grade 5 begins acquaintance with genre diversity folk art, however, students begin to study its samples in elementary school.
The main emphasis in the middle school level is on the connection between literature and history, therefore, epic tunes are mainly studied. In addition, students are introduced to the main song genres. At the same time, the teacher talks about the parallels and connections between folk art and literature, about the main traditions and continuity.
Output
Thus, the genres of musical folklore, a list of which we tried to compile, are inextricably linked with the life of the people. Any change in the life of ordinary people or the whole country was immediately reflected in songwriting... Therefore, it is impossible to list all the genres of folklore created throughout the entire existence of mankind. In addition, today folk art continues its development, evolves, adapts to new conditions and lives. And it will live as long as humanity exists.
The concept of folklore. The set of principles that makes it possible in a given situation to construct a statement of a certain type is called a folklore genre (for a similar one, see B.N. Putilov). Units of formation of a folklore genre, if the genre is a set of folklore works, are complete statements, as units of verbal communication. Unlike units of speech (words and sentences), an utterance has an addressee, expression and author. The composition and style of the statement depend on these features.
Folklore texts are analyzed in terms of:
-social situation provoking the statement
-the speaker's intention
- basic social characteristics of the speaker
-ideological / mental attitudes
-the goal pursued by the speaker
-characterization of the relationship between the fact of the message and the fact itself
-response reaction
-language tools for creating utterances(Adonyeva S. B. "Pragmatics ..")
Genre is a set of works united by a common poetic system, everyday purposes of performance forms and musical structure. Propp, we restrict ourselves to narrative and lyric poetry. Dramatic poetry, as well as ditties, proverbs, sayings, riddles and conspiracies, may be the subject of other work.
Narrate the poetry propp divides into
Prosaic and
Poetic
Folk prose is one of the areas of folk art
Highlights trace genera and species
fairy tale - neither the performer nor the listener believe in what is being told (Belinsky), this is very important, since in other cases there are attempts to convey reality, but here is deliberate fiction
Fairy tales
According to Propp's definition, they are distinguished by a completely clear composition, by their structural features, by their own, so to speak, syntax, which is scientifically established with absolutely certainty about which in more detail in the Morphology of the tale and in the ticket about fairy tales.
Cumulative ones are based on repeated repetition of all-over, creating a heap, and referring. Possess a special composition, style, rich colorful language, gravitate towards rhythm and rhyme
For other types of fairy tales, except for magical and cumulative ones, the composition has not been studied, and it is still impossible to determine and divide them according to this criterion. Probably, they do not possess the unity of composition. If this is so, then some other principle has to be chosen as the basis for further systematization. Such a principle, which has scientific and cognitive significance, can be the definition of the characters by the nature.
We immediately recall the debate at the beginning of the Morphology of the Tale, where the story about Afanasyev and his classification by which no one classifies, but it is. From this we get 1 bit
animal tales
Tales of inanimate nature (all sorts of forces the wind of the wind)
Fairy tales about objects (bubble bast straw)
By types of animals (domestic wild)
Plant Tales (Mushroom War)
2) fairy tales about people (they are everyday) of actions, men, women, and so on
Here, in essence, we include a turnip, which is cumulative
Propp divides them into types of characters in terms of their actions.
About clever and clever guessers
Wise advisers
Unfaithful / faithful wives
Robbers
Evil and kind ... and so on
The same division by types of s.jets, atk how here the plot is determined by the character of the character, which redistributes his actions ...
In folklore, there is no particular difference between everyday stories about people and anectodati (propp)
3) fables - stories about unreal events in life (for example, Münghausen was built on this particular genre)
4) boring fairy tales - short jokes / nursery rhymes for children when they require fairy tales
From the point of view of propp, a fairy tale is not a genre yet, the types of fairy tales that we have identified are genres, they can be divided into rubrics. Genre is just one of the links in the classification.
Lyric epic and dramatic poetry is a kind of epic: epic prose \ epic poetry
A fairy tale is a kind of epic prose, it breaks down into the above genres, they are into types and those into versions and variants. Hence the following scheme has
Next area
2) stories you believe in
Here we have
A) ethnological about the origin of the earth and everything that is on it (creation myths)
B) about animals, they are also why: why does an elephant have a long nose
C) epics - in most cases these are scary stories about goblin, mermaids, and so on (there have been and so on)
D) legends - stories related to Orthodoxy, with characters B, H covenants since the legend is etymologically what the monks read at the meal, then with historical figures this is not a misnomer. In addition, the question of the relation of legends to folklore is controversial.Sokolov considered them legendary tales of Aarne, Andreev and Afanasyev considered them separate and published in separate collections
D) legends - this is where the historian of the person and event belongs
E) skazY - oral memoirs of individuals who convey the events that took place and save the facts
Poetic epic poetry
It is distinguished by the inextricable connection of the musical component with the text, that is, the genre is not important - they will always sing. RHYTHM. The plot, the verse, the melody - one art whole. (remember the Lord's descriptions of how the narrator learns to sing an epic) melodiousness expresses a lyrical attitude to the imagined. Although each epic separately does not have its own melody (different epics can be performed with one melody and vice versa), the style of epic musical performance is, within certain boundaries, integral and inapplicable to other types of epic creativity.
Epic is one of the types of song epic poetry. The epic itself is not a genre like a fairy tale, but it includes the very genres. Epics are characterized by a wild variety of plots, so they are more difficult to classify than fairy tales.
Epics by plot groups, by style and character of narration are divided into
heroic epics
- "classic" (the plot is the exploits of nat Russian heroes, as a prologue how the hero gained strength), for example, when after Ilya and Svyatogor the battles between Ilya and the idol begin. Or when, after healing Ilya, he goes to Kiev, defeating the nightingale of the robber along the way
Military (in kaom or idea they tell about a battle with a group of enemies, hordes of Tatars, for example. ADD WITH A PLOT !!! You can track the history and evolution of ‘b
Martial arts (Muromets and Turkish khan, alesha in battle with tararin)
When 2 heroes meet in the field, they will not recognize each other and fight (EXAMPLE !!)
The epic stories about the battle with the monster (is it possible to carry the IDOLISHE here ?? or the nightingale?) They are more ancient and from them you will grow what about battles
Epics about the hero's rebellion (one of the signs is actions in the interests of the state)
These were epics about Ilya's rebellion against Vladimir, about Ilya and the tavern’s heads, about Buyan the hero, about Vasily Buslaevich and Novgorodians and about the death of Vasily Buslaevich. One of the signs of heroic epics is that the hero acts in the interests of the state. From this point of view, the epic about the Danube and his trip for his wife for Vladimir undoubtedly belongs to the heroic epics.
Which is more correct: to believe that each of these groups constitutes a special genre, or to believe that, despite the difference in plots, heroic epics constitute one of the genres of epic creativity? The last position is more correct, because the genre is determined not so much by the subjects as by the unity of poetics - style and ideological orientation, and this unity is evident here.
Epic epics
The hero's antagonist in these cases is a woman. Unlike fairy tales, in which a woman is most often a helpless creature that he saves, for example, from a snake and whom he marries, or a wise wife or an assistant to a hero, women in epics are most often insidious and demonic creatures; they embody some kind of evil, and the hero destroys them. These epics include "Potyk", "Luka Danilovich", "Ivan Godinovich", "Dobrynya and Marinka", "Gleb Volodyevich", "Solomon and Vasily Okulovich" and some others. These are just epics, not fairy tales. They are given a fabulous character by the presence of witchcraft, turnover, various miracles; these plots are specific to epics and do not correspond to the poetics of the fairy tale plots. Along with this, fairy tales sung in epic verse are also circulated in the epic epic. Such works do not belong to epic creativity. Their plots appear in the indexes of fairy tales ("Untold Dream", "Stavr Godinovich", "Vanka
Udovkin's son "," Sunflower kingdom "and others). Such tales should be studied both in the study of fabulous and in the study of epic creativity, but they cannot be attributed to the genre of epics only on the basis of the use of epic verse. Such epics usually have no options. A special case is the epic about Sadko, in which there is no antagonist of the hero like the insidious women of other epics. Nevertheless, her belonging to the fabulous epics is quite obvious.
Can we consider that fairy-tale epics are one genre with heroic epics? It seems to us that it is impossible. Although the issue still needs to be studied specifically, it is still quite obvious that, for example, the epic about Dobryna and Marinka is a phenomenon of a completely different nature than the epic about the Lithuanian raid, and that they belong to different genres, despite the generality of the epic verse.
Novelistic epics - a certain number of realistically colored narratives, the plots of which differ from those discussed above, with a greater variety
- scam with obstacles
On the one hand, the style of the novel and the style of a monumental, heroic or fairy tale are incompatible. On the other hand, in the composition of the epics there are a number of realistically colored narratives, the plots of which have a significantly different character than those discussed above. CONDITIONALLY, such epics can be called novelistic. Their number is small, but they are very diverse. Some of them tell about matchmaking, which, after overcoming some obstacles, ends well ("Nightingale Budimirovich", "Khoten Sludovich", "Alyosha and the Petrovich's sister"). The epic about the departure of Dobrynya and the unsuccessful marriage of Alyosha occupies an intermediate position between the fabulous and short stories. The epic about Alyosha and the Petrovich's sister occupies an intermediate position between the genre of the epic and the genre of the ballad. The same can be said about "Kozarin". The epic about Danil Lovchanin is also ballad in nature, which we will talk about below, when studying ballads. Other plots that usually relate to epics, we would attribute to ballads ("Churilo and the unfaithful wife of Bermyaty").
The plots of novelistic epics can be divided into groups, but we will not do this here. The woman plays an important role in these epics, but there are novelistic epics of a different nature, such as, for example, the epic about Duke's competition with Churila or about Vladimir's visit to Churila's father.
songs about the saints and their deeds (about Alexey the man of God.)
I express the religious ideas of the people, but the worldview expressed in them often does not coincide with the dogma of the church, has uitsoric details and has special beauties.
In contrast to them, there are buffoons
songs about funny incidents (or about not funny but treatable humorously) there are many types
- parodies
- non-humans
–With sharp social satire
They do not always have a narrative character, sometimes in the subject of a funny essence, there is no special development. Commonality of genres = first of all commonality of style.
Significantly different from Western European, the sphere is the world human passions tragically interpreted
love (family content)
Sufferer-woman in the head role. Medieval Russian reality. The actions of the person mainly belong to the middle or upper class, depicted through the eyes of the peasants. They tend to depict terrible events, the murder of an innocent woman is a frequent denouement and the murderer is often a member of the family. Prince Roman, Fyodor and Martha, the slandered wife.
Prolonged absence of one of the family members with an unexpected accidental meeting, they do not recognize the friend of the friend and tragic events(brother robber and ssetsra) song recorded by pushkin?
2) historical ballads
Real historical heroes, such as Tatars, can act in them, but they do not attack with an army, but kidnap a woman. Concentration of attention around personal history, a characteristic sign of the presence of some intrigue of love or family content
Epics are less focused on personality than ballads, however there are many transient cases (EXAMPLES !!)
It is not always possible to draw a clear line between ballad and other genres. In this case, we can talk about an epic of a ballad character or a ballad of an epic warehouse. Such transitional or adjacent cases between ballad and epic, ballad and historical song, or ballad and lyric song, you can find some, although not a very large number. It is inappropriate to draw artificial edges. The epic and the ballad can also be distinguished from the musical side. The epic has a definite meter and semi-recitative melodies. The poetic dimensions of the ballad are very varied, as well as naive. From a musical point of view, the ballad does not exist as a folk music genre.
All of the above shows that ballads have such a specific character that one can speak of them as a genre. There are no sharp differences that are in the repertoire of epics or fairy tales. The difference between family ballads, about unrecognized meetings and the so-called historical ballads is a difference of types, not genres.
Historical songs
The question of the genre character of historical songs is very complicated. The very name "historical songs" indicates that these songs are determined from the side of the content and that the subject of historical songs are historical figures or events that took place in Russian history, or at least have a historical character. Meanwhile, as soon as we begin to consider what is called a historical song, we immediately discover an extraordinary variety and diversity of poetic forms.
This diversity is so great that historical songs do not constitute a genre in any way, if the genre is defined on the basis of some unity of poetics. Here it turns out the same as with a fairy tale and an epic, which we also could not recognize as a genre. True, the researcher has the right to stipulate his own terminology and conventionally call historical songs a genre. But such terminology would not have a cognitive meaning, and therefore B.N.Putilov was right when his book devoted to historical songs, he called it "Russian historical song folklore of the XIII-XVI centuries" (M.-L., 1960). Nevertheless, the historical song exists, if not as a genre, then as the sum of several different genres of different eras and different forms, united by the historicity of their content. A complete and accurate definition of all genres of historical song cannot be included in our task. But even with a superficial glance, without special and in-depth study, it is possible to establish at least some types of historical songs. The nature of historical songs depends on two factors: the era in which they are created and the environment that creates them. This makes it possible to at least outline the main categories of historical songs.
Songs of a buffoonery warehouse
The list of sitoric songs is opened because the first historical song was identified in this genre. About Shchelkan Dudentievich, the earliest belongs to the 14th century, the songs compiled later were of a different nature
songs about Grozny composed in the 16th century are terrible
Songs created in the Moscow urban environment - gunners (free artillerymen) were created by the means of the epic and the people called them antiquities (the terrible anger at his son, the capture of Kazan) in the further development lost touch with the epic
3) songs about internal events from the 16th to the beginning of the 18th century
Also created in Moscow by ordinary people, These are songs of a certain environment and a certain era.
Petersburg songs
With the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg, this type of urban songs about the internal events of Russian history ceases to be productive. In St. Petersburg, separate songs are created about the Decembrist uprising, about Arakcheev and some others, but this genre was at a loss in the 19th century. The songs of this group are created by the urban environment, from where they later penetrate the peasantry.
Songs of the Cossacks 16-17 c
Choral performance lengthy lyrical songs about the freemen., About the peasant wars. Here, songs about Pugachev are more real than songs about Razin, since St.
Warrior Soldier Songs 18-20
With the advent of the regular army, soldiers created the dominant type of people from the Poltava battle to World War II.
Lyric songs
Forms of existence and use
Round dance game dance
Executable without movement
2) household use
Labor day-to-day Christmas wedding, etc.
They sing about love, family, separation - human life.
Pseni express a well-known attitude to the world
Satirical reproaches
Glorious lamenters
3) by execution
Broaching high intermediate semi-continuous
4) Songs by social group
Workers, peasants, barge haulers, soldiers
Zhesnk man is young, old and so on.
To divide into genres, we start from the trail of positions
Unity of form and content. It is assumed that the first is still content since it creates a form
Since they are created by representatives of different social groups, then their songs are different
A social group of farm laborers will create a song of a certain content and, accordingly, the song will take a certain form
Songs of peasants torn off the ground
Workers songs
Social division of songs
Songs of peasants leading agricultural labor
Are divided into
Ritual
F) agricultural
Divided according to the holidays on which they were performed
For example, Christmastide = kolyatki, New Year = saucer for grabbing
Songs for each holiday = separate genre
I) family
Propp considers lamentations, they are
+) funeral
For each moment of the ceremony is different for a different performer
+ _) wedding
Other chanting, performed by the bride or the mourner, as well as the sentences of friends and majesty to parents are the basis of the genres of wedding songs
Non-cereal
Here propp again focused on the lament, they are called
A) Recruiting, as well as related to some kind of disasters in life, here are the rest of the songs not considered by the propp
According to the form of performance, songs can be divided into those that are performed with body movements and those that are performed without
A) Round dance, play, dance
Round dance, game and dance songs have a special style. Usually they have a verse structure (which is not in vocal songs). Such songs have special compositional laws. So, for example, the last lines of each verse can be repeated with a change of one or two words.
Round dance songs are distributed according to those figures that make up a round dance (Balakirev distinguishes round dance songs "circular", when the round dance moves in a circle, and "walking" songs, when the Singers stand or walk one after another.)
Game songs are usually associated with the game, but can be performed alone as a reminder of past games, differing in the place of performance allowing to illustrate what the game was about.
Games and play songs also differ in whether they are performed outdoors or in a hut. Games in the winter in the hut and in the summer in the field or on the street are different. Game songs are closely related to games, and very often it is possible to establish from the lyrics of the song what the game consisted of. The game song can be recognized regardless of whether it is designated as such by the collector or not. The boundaries between round dance and play songs can not always be established accurately, since the very conduct of a round dance is a kind of game
In dance songs, the content of the song is less closely related to the dance itself than the content of the play songs with the game. Any frequent song can be used as a dance song, you can dance to any frequent song. However, they do not necessarily dance to every frequent song. If the play song can be recognized regardless of whether it is designated as such or not, then the dance song cannot be recognized by the text. It follows from this that dance songs do not actually represent the genre. Nevertheless, the use of the song for dancing is an important feature of a number of frequent songs.
Performed both in chorus and singly, just sitting or while working
Pronounced lingering
Elegiac, lyrical, expressing deep feelings of singers usually sad
Frequent songs
Have a fun, comic character are more likely to express collective feelings
For 1,2, the tempo of the song = the character of the song, for 3 it does not matter
Semi-long
For redefining the genre of a song, it is important
An indication of a comic character, since this is a feature of frequent
Attention to the theme of the song content
The composition of non-ritual songs includes different genres, but they themselves do not constitute a genre
Songs of the peasants torn off the ground
The songs of the courtyards constitute an undoubted, moreover, a very specific genre. On the one hand, they reflect all the horror, all the humiliation of the peasant, who is entirely dependent on the arbitrariness of the master and is subjected to a cruel flogging for the slightest offense. On the other hand, they contain elements of some kind of frivolous or cheeky tone, which is completely alien to peasant songs and which testifies to the corruption of the peasant psyche under the influence of a “civilized” aristocratic environment.
Lackey city songs we are faced with songs with a social focus
Labor dogs created for accompaniment to work for example burlat when the song replaces the command and the like
Deleted songs - dedicated to the robbers who broke free and became a ruby buzzing (but songs about tragedy fate to the lingering ones)
Soldier songs - about the hardships of service and courage for the fatherland, etc.
It is very important to watch who is performing the song if the girl is more likely some kind of lingering or love, and if the guy means deleting, etc.
Prison songs 2 types: suffering and begging for freedom, and hardened convicts flaunting the past
Folklore of the urban bourgeois environment - genre cruel romance about the tragic end of unhappy love
Workers' songs - traditions come from literature, although the images and appeals are peasant and cry too, but the theme - the bitter life and the composition of words and images - is different. Early labor poetry - 4 hundred trochee = ditty. The verses of poets that are suitable for the meaning of literary works are converted into songs. Work songs combine folklore and literature, among them 3 categories stand out
Songs created by the workers themselves
Satirical psyche associated with class consciousness
Hymn songs, funeral marches were performed collectively
Thus, in the composition of labor poetry, several groups can be identified that have the character of genres: these are drawn-out songs of a folklore type, lyric-epic poetic songs with an increasing revolutionary content, satirical works, also with a growing revolutionary consciousness, and hymn poetry, already going beyond the boundaries of folklore. ...
Children's song folklore
Adults sing for children
Lullabies (even tune, words from everywhere)
Game tunes, fables
Nursery rhymes for the little ones
The children sing themselves
Game songs, not understandable without games + conditional counting rhymes
Teaser songs, taunts
Songs of children about life around (special discord, sometimes a set of words)
The composition and style of the statement depend on these features.
Specificity of folklore: collective and individual principles, stability and variability, the concept of tradition, the way of being.
According to Jacobson and Bogatyrev, folklore gravitates more towards language than towards speech from Saussure's theory. Speech uses language, and each speaker does it individually. So in folklore, a certain set of traditions, a body of foundations, beliefs, creativity is used by performers of works and creators. Tradition acts as a canvas, a work is created on its basis, it undergoes collective censorship and after a while turns into a tradition for subsequent works. the existence of a folklore work presupposes a group that assimilates and authorizes it. In folklore, interpretation is the source of the work.
Collective and individual beginnings. In folklore, we are faced with the phenomenon of collective creativity. collective creativity is not given to us in any visual experience, and therefore it is necessary to assume the existence of some individual creator, initiator. A typical young grammarian in both linguistics and folklore, Vsevolod Miller considered the collective creativity of the masses to be fiction, because, he believed, human experience had never observed such creativity. Here, undoubtedly, the influence of our daily environment finds its expression. Not oral creativity, but written literature is for us the usual and most famous form of creativity, and, thus, the usual ideas are egocentrically projected into the sphere of folklore. So, the moment of birth of a literary work is considered the moment it is fixed on paper by the author, and by analogy, the moment when an oral work is first objectified, that is, performed by the author, is interpreted as the moment of its birth, whereas in reality the work becomes a folklore fact only from the moment it is accepted by the collective ...
Supporters of the thesis about the individual character of folklore creativity tend to substitute an anonym for the collective. For example, one well-known guide to Russian oral creativity says the following: “Thus, it is clear that in the ritual song, if we do not know who was the creator of the rite, who was the creator of the first song, then this does not contradict individual creativity, but only speaks for the fact that the rite is so ancient that we can not indicate either the author or the conditions for the emergence of the oldest song, which is closely related to the rite, and that it was created in an environment where the author's personality was not of interest, why the memory of it and has not survived. Thus, the idea of “collective” creativity has nothing to do with it ”(102, p. 163). It is not taken into account that there can be no ritual without the sanction of the collective, that it is a contradictio in adjecto and that, even if an individual manifestation lay at the source of one or another rite, the path from it to the rite is as far as the path from an individual bias to speech before the change in language.
In folklore, the relationship between a work of art, on the one hand, and its objectification, that is! the so-called variations of this piece performed by different people, on the other hand, is quite analogous to the relationship between langue and parole. Like langue, a folklore work is impersonal and exists only potentially, it is only a complex of known norms and impulses, a canvas of an actual tradition, which performers colorize with patterns of individual creativity, just as parole producers do in relation to langue 2. To what extent are these individual new formations in the language (respectively in folklore) meet the requirements of the collective and anticipate the natural evolution of langue (respectively, folklore), so they socialize and become facts langue (respectively, elements of a folklore work).
The role of the performer of a folklore work should in no way be identified either with the role of the reader or reader of a literary work, or with the role of the author. From the point of view of the performer of a folklore work, these works are a langue fact, that is, an impersonal fact that exists independently of the performer, although it allows deformation and the introduction of new creative and topical material.
An individual beginning is possible in folklore only in theory, that is, if Ch speaks a hernia better than Sh, only after acceptance by the collective knowledgeable method Her version of the conspiracy will become a folklore work, and not just a local feature of a famous conspiracy (?)
Stability and variability
Folklore text as an oral text shares some of the features of the everyday oral speech, although much more regulated. As in everyday speech, in folklore there is a division into small structural links (in songs, these links can coincide with a line), subject to concatenation by certain syntactic means, much less strict than in written speech. But at the same time, folklore texts are traditional and reproduced anew in the act of performance. This act is to some extent ritualized, includes a close relationship between the singer and the audience (his own definite and permanent society, involved in the knowledge of tradition and ritual restrictions) and, which is especially important, is for the most part not recitation by heart, but more or less creative reproduction of plot , genre and stylistic models. Let us emphasize again: all kinds of repetitions and verbal formulas as the most important building blocks help to keep the text in the memory of the singer between acts of its reproduction in front of the audience. Singers and storytellers are able to memorize thousands and thousands of lines by heart, but the mechanism of creative transmission is far from being reduced to simply speaking by rote.
As already mentioned, the greatest degree of memorization, rigor in reproduction takes place in relation to ritual songs, first of all - conspiracies (due to the sacredness of the magic word), as well as proverbs and choral songs (the choral beginning itself goes back to the rite, on which A. Veselovsky), although within these limits there is a certain minimum of variation. Of course, the variability is minimal in sacred poetry (oral, but professional) such as Vedic poetry in India or Old Irish poetry of the Philids (and earlier Druids), etc. In songs and fairy tales that are no longer ideologically connected with the rite, the scale of variation is much greater, even when the performance is repeated by the same singer or storyteller.
In principle, variation is a primordial feature of folklore, and the search for a single prototype of the original text, as a rule, is a scientific utopia. .
On the whole, however, archaic folklore, which almost completely remains within the ritual framework, varies to a much lesser extent than the "classical" folklore that exists alongside literature.
Depending on the audience and other circumstances, the singer-storyteller can shorten his text or expand it through parallelisms, additional episodes, etc. Any kind of repetition, which constitutes the element of folklore and the element of archaic speech with its hegemony of the ritual principle, is the main and most powerful means of structuring archaic and folklore works and the most important feature of the archaic and folklore style. Having arisen on the basis of ritual and orality, the repetition of forms, phraseological turns, phonic and syntactic elements are perceived at the same time as a decorating device. Constant epithets, comparisons, contrasting juxtapositions, metaphors, playing with synonyms, anaphoric and epiphoric repetitions, internal rhymes, alliterations and assonances are increasingly beginning to feel like decorations.
As already noted, folklore continues to function even after the appearance of literary literature, but this traditional, or "classical" folklore in some respects differs from strictly archaic, as it were, primitive folklore. If such a "primitive" folklore is based on the most ancient mythology and religious system of the shamanic type, if it is, as it were, immersed in the atmosphere of primitive syncretism with its hegemony of ritual forms, then traditional folklore develops under the conditions of the disintegration of clan relations and the change of tribal unions by early state associations, under conditions transition from clan to family, the emergence of state consciousness (which was decisive for the creation of classical forms of epic), the development of more complex religious and mythological systems, up to "world religions" and the rudiments of historical or, at least, quasi-historical ideas, which leads to partial deritualization and desacralization of the most ancient plot fund. A very fundamental factor in the difference between earlier and later forms of folklore is the very fact of the existence of literary literature and its influence on oral tradition.
Developed folklore experiences the multifaceted influence of literature where the authority and weight of the written word is immeasurably higher both in religious, magical and aesthetic terms. Sometimes the spoken word disguises itself as a book, reproducing the norms of the written language, especially often in solemn rhythmic speech. On the other hand, there is a folklorization of book sources, which often leads to their archaization. Along with the bookish influence itself, it is necessary to take into account the influence of a more developed folklore (often already influenced by bookishness) on the creativity of neighboring peoples standing at a more archaic stage of cultural development (for example, the influence of Russian folklore on oral literature some other peoples of the USSR).
(Meltinsky, Novik and others .. the status of the word and the concept of the genre)
From the fact that each performance is the source of the yadl's production is a trace of the performer (jacobson), the variability of the folkloric work as such grows. However, all of them together are based on a strong tradition of = launge. Variation is observed within genres,….
The way of being is oral. Ritual, non-ritual. Tradition - setting on tradition, exit from tradition is a close relationship. TOO GENERAL QUESTION !!!