Directions of literature and their representatives. Literary directions (theoretical material)

The concepts of "direction", "flow", "school" refer to terms that describe the literary process - the development and functioning of literature on a historical scale. Their definitions are in literary science debatable.

The direction in the 19th century was understood as the general nature of the content, ideas of all national literature or any period of its development. V early XIX century the literary trend was associated in general with the "dominant direction of minds."

So, I. V. Kireevsky in his article "The Nineteenth Century" (1832) wrote that the dominant direction of the minds of the end of the 18th century is destructive, and the new consists in "striving for a soothing equalization of the new spirit with the ruins of old times ...

In literature, the result of this trend was the desire to reconcile the imagination with reality, the correctness of forms with the freedom of content ... in a word, what is in vain called classicism, with what is even more incorrectly called romanticism. "

Earlier, in 1824, V.K.Küchelbecker declared the direction of poetry as its main content in the article "On the direction of our poetry, especially lyric, in last decade". Ks. A. Polevoy was the first in Russian criticism to apply the word "direction" to certain stages in the development of literature.

In the article "On trends and parties in literature," he called the direction "that often invisible to contemporaries internal desire of literature, which gives character to all or at least very many of its works in the known the given time... Its foundation, in general sense, there is an idea of ​​the modern era ”.

For "real criticism" - N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov - the direction correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities.

But the main feature that unites them is that the unity of the most general principles embodiment of artistic content, community deep foundations artistic understanding of the world.

This unity is often due to the similarity of cultural and historical traditions, often associated with the type of consciousness literary era, some scholars believe that the unity of direction is due to the unity creative method writers.

There is no given list of literary directions, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of historical, cultural, social life society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, such trends as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism are traditionally distinguished, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal content features.

For example, within the framework of the romantic worldview, general directional features of romanticism can be identified, such as the motives for the destruction of familiar boundaries and hierarchies, the idea of ​​a “spiritualizing” synthesis that replaced the rationalistic concept of “connection” and “order”, the awareness of man as the center and the mystery of being , personality open and creative, etc.

But the concrete expression of these general philosophical and aesthetic foundations of the worldview in the work of writers and their very worldview are different.

So, within romanticism, the problem of the embodiment of universal, new, non-rational ideals was embodied, on the one hand, in the idea of ​​rebellion, a radical reorganization of the existing world order (D.G.Bairon, A. Mitskevich, P. B. Shelley, K. F. Ryleev) and, on the other hand, in the search for his inner self (V. A. Zhukovsky), the harmony of nature and spirit (W. Wordsworth), religious self-improvement (F. R. Chateaubriand).

As you can see, such a commonality of principles is international, in many respects of different quality, and exists in rather vague chronological framework, which is largely due to the national and regional specifics of the literary process.

The same sequence of changing directions in different countries usually serves as proof of their supranational character. One direction or another in each country acts as a national variety of the corresponding international (European) literary community.

According to this point of view, French, German, Russian classicism are considered varieties of the international literary trend - European classicism, which is a set of the most common typological features inherent in all varieties of the trend.

But it should be borne in mind that often the national characteristics of a particular direction can be manifested much more clearly than the typological similarity of varieties. In generalization, however, there is some schematism that can distort the real historical facts of the literary process.

For example, classicism manifested itself most vividly in France, where it is presented as a complete system of both substantive and formal features of works, codified by theoretical normative poetics ("Poetic Art" by N. Boileau). In addition, it is represented by significant artistic achievements that have influenced other European literature.

In Spain and Italy, where the historical situation developed differently, classicism turned out to be a direction in many ways imitative. The leading literature in these countries was the Baroque literature.

Russian classicism becomes a central trend in literature also not without the influence of French classicism, but acquires its own national sound, crystallizes in the struggle between the "Lomonosov" and "Sumarokov" trends. There are many differences in the national varieties of classicism, even more problems are associated with the definition of romanticism as a single pan-European trend, within which very diverse phenomena are often encountered.

Thus, the construction of pan-European and "world" models of trends as the largest units of the functioning and development of literature seems to be a very difficult task.

Gradually, along with "direction", the term "flow", often used synonymously with "direction", comes into circulation. So, D. S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article "On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature" (1893) writes that "between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, as between opposite poles, special mental currents, a special air, saturated with creative trends ”. It is they, according to the critic, that determines the similarity of "poetic phenomena", works of different writers.

Often, "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to "flow". Both concepts denote the unity of the leading spiritual, content and aesthetic principles that arises at a certain stage of the literary process, embracing the work of many writers.

The term "direction" in literature is understood as the creative unity of writers of a certain historical era using the general ideological and aesthetic principles of depicting reality.

The direction in literature is considered as a generalizing category of the literary process, as one of the forms of artistic perception of the world, aesthetic views, ways of displaying life, associated with a peculiar artistic style... In history national literatures European peoples distinguish such trends as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, naturalism, symbolism.

Introduction to literary criticism (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin, etc.) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

LITERARY DIRECTION (METHOD)- a set of the main features of creativity, formed and repeated in a certain historical period development of art.

Moreover, the features this direction can be traced among authors who worked in the epochs preceding the formation of the trend itself (features of romanticism in Shakespeare, features of realism in Fonvizin's "The Minor"), as well as in subsequent eras (features of romanticism in Gorky).

There are four main literary directions:CLASSICISM, ROMANCE, REALISM, MODERNISM.

LITERARY CURRENT- finer division in comparison with the direction; currents either represent branches of one direction ( german romanticism, French romanticism, Byronism in England, Karamzinism in Russia), or arise in the transition from one direction to another (sentimentalism).

MAIN LITERARY DIRECTIONS (METHODS) AND CURRENTS

1. CLASSICISM

The main literary direction in Russia XVIII century.

Main features

1. Imitation of the samples of ancient culture.
2. Strict rules for the construction of works of art. Chapter II. Literary directions(methods) and currents 9
3. Strict hierarchy of genres: high (ode, epic poem, tragedy); medium (satire, love letter); low (fable, comedy).
4. Hard boundaries between genres and genres.
5. Creation ideal scheme social life and ideal images members of society (enlightened monarch, statesman, military man, woman).

Major genres in poetry

Ode, satire, historical poem.

The main rules for the construction of dramatic works

1. The rule of "three unities": place, time, action.
2. Division into positive and negative characters.
3. The presence of a resonant hero (a character expressing the author's position).
4. Traditional roles: resoner (hero-reasoner), first lover (hero-lover), second lover, ingenue, subrette, deceived father, etc.
5. Traditional denouement: triumph of virtue and punishment of vice.
6. Five actions.
7. Speaking surnames.
8. Long moralizing monologues.

Main representatives

Europe - writer and thinker Voltaire; playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere; the fabulist La Fontaine; poet Guys (France).

Russia - poets Lomonosov, Derzhavin, playwright Fonvizin (comedy "Brigadier", 1769 and "Minor", 1782).

Classicism traditions in 19th century literature

Krylov ... Genre traditions of classicism in fables.

Griboyedov ... Features of classicism in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

The main literary trend in Russia in the 1st third of the 19th century.

Main features

1. Creation of an ideal dream world, fundamentally incompatible with real life, opposed to it.
2. In the center of the image is a human personality, her inner world, her relationship to the surrounding reality.
3. An image of an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances.
4. Denial of all the rules of classicism.
5. The use of fiction, symbolism, the lack of everyday and historical motivations.

Main genres

Lyric poem, poem, tragedy, novel.

The main genres in Russian poetry

Elegy, message, song, ballad, poem.

Main representatives

Europe - Goethe, Heine, Schiller (Germany), Byron (England).

Russia - Zhukovsky.

Traditions of Romanticism in the Literature of the 19th-20th Centuries

Griboyedov . Romantic traits in the characters of Sophia and Chatsky; a parody of Zhukovsky's ballads (Sophia's dream) in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

Pushkin ... Romantic period of creativity (1813-1824); the image of the romantic poet Lensky and discourses on romanticism in the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"; unfinished novel "Dubrovsky".

Lermontov ... Romantic period of creativity (1828-І836); elements of romanticism in poems mature period(1837-1841); romantic motives in the poems "Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov", "Mtsyri", "Demon", in the novel "A Hero of Our Time"; the image of the romantic poet Lensky in the poem "Death of a Poet".

The main literary direction of the 2nd half of the 19th-20th centuries.

Main features

1. Creation of typical (regular) characters.
2. These characters act in a typical everyday and historical setting.
3. Lifelike verisimilitude, fidelity to details (combined with conventional forms of artistic fantasy: symbol, grotesque, fantasy, myth).

In Russia, the formation of realism begins in the 1820s:

Krylov. Fables.

Griboyedov ... Comedy "Woe from Wit" (1822 -1824).

Pushkin ... Mikhailovsky (1824-1826) and the late (1826-1836) periods of creativity: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823-1831), the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), "Belkin's Tales" (1830), the poem "Copper horseman "(1833), the story" The Captain's Daughter "(1833-1836); late lyrics.

Lermontov ... Period mature creativity(1837-1841): novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1839-1841), late lyrics.

Gogol ... "Petersburg Stories" (1835-1842; "The Overcoat", 1842), the comedy "The Inspector General" (1835), the poem " Dead Souls"(1st volume: 1835-1842).

Tyutchev, Fet ... Traits of realism in the lyrics.

In the years 1839-1847, Russian realism developed into a special literary movement, which received the name "natural school" or "Gogol direction". The natural school became the first stage in the development of a new trend in realism - Russian critical realism.

Programming works of writers of critical realism

Prose

Goncharov ... The novel "Oblomov" (1848-1858).

Turgenev ... The story "Asya" (1858), the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1861).

Dostoevsky ... The novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866).

Lev Tolstoy ... Epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869).

Saltykov-Shchedrin ... "The History of a City" (1869-1870), "Fairy Tales" (1869-1886).

Leskov ... The story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (1879), the story "Lefty" (1881).

Dramaturgy

Ostrovsky ... Drama "Thunderstorm" (1859), comedy "Forest" (1870).

Poetry

Nekrasov ... Lyrics, poems "Peasant Children" (1861), "Who Lives Well in Russia" (1863-1877).

The development of critical realism ends at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century:

Chekhov ... The stories "Death of an Official" (1883), "Chameleon" (1884), "Student" (1894), "House with a Mezzanine" (1896), "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberry", "About Love" , "Darling" (all 1898), "Lady with the Dog" (1899), comedy " The Cherry Orchard" (1904).

bitter ... Feature article " Former people"(1897), the story" The Icebreaker "(1912), the play" At the Bottom "(1902).

Bunin ... The short stories "Antonov's apples" (1900), "The gentleman from San Francisco" (1915).

Kuprin ... The story "Olesya" (1898), " Garnet bracelet" (1910).

After the October Revolution, the term "socialist realism" appears. However, creativity best writers the post-revolutionary period does not fit into the narrow framework of this trend and retains traditional traits Russian realism:

Sholokhov ... Novel " Quiet Don"(1925-1940), the story" The Fate of a Man "(1956).

Bulgakov ... The story "Heart of a Dog" (1925), novels " White Guard"(1922-1924)," The Master and Margarita "(1929-1940), the play" Days of the Turbins "(1925-1926).

Zamyatin ... Dystopian novel "We" (1929).

Platonov ... The story "Pit" (1930).

Tvardovsky ... Poems, the poem "Vasily Terkin" (1941-1945).

Parsnip ... Late lyrics, the novel "Doctor Zhivago" (1945-1955).

Solzhenitsyn ... The story "One Day in Ivan Denisovich", story " Matrenin dvor" (1959).

Shalamov ... Cycle " Kolyma stories" (1954--1973).

Astafiev ... The story "Shepherd and Shepherdess" (1967-1989).

Trifonov ... The story "The Old Man" (1978).

Shukshin. Stories.

Rasputin ... The story "Farewell to Matera" (1976).

5. MODERNISM

Modernism - a literary direction that unites various trends in the art of the late 19th-20th centuries, engaged in experiments with the form of artistic works (symbolism, acmeism, futurism, cubism, constructivism, avant-garde, abstractionism, etc.).

IMAGINISM (imago - image) is a literary movement in Russian poetry of the І919-1925 years, whose representatives declared that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. The main expressive means Imagists - a metaphor, often metaphorical chains, juxtaposing various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creator of the current is Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. The fame of the Imagist group was brought by Sergei Yesenin, who was part of it.

POST-MODERNISM - various trends in the art of the 2nd half XX-beginning XXI century (conceptualism, pop art, social art, body art, graffiti, etc.), which put at the forefront the denial of the integrity of life and art at all levels. In Russian literature, the era of postmodernism opens with the almanac "Metropol", 1979; the most famous authors of the almanac:V.P. Aksenov, B.A. Akhmadulina, A.G. Bitov, A.A. Voznesensky, V.S. Vysotsky, F.A. Iskander.

Literary directions (theoretical material)

Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.

The main features of literary trends :

· unite writers of a certain historical era;

· represent a special type of hero;

· express a certain worldview;

· choose characteristic themes and plots;

· use characteristic artistic techniques;

· work in specific genres;

· stand out in style artistic speech;

· put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals.

Classicism

The trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, based on the samples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national - patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Peter the Great era.

Distinctive features:

· significance of themes and plots;

· violation life truth: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;

· far-fetched images, schematic characters;

· edification of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative;

· the use of a language that is little understood by the common people;

· appeal to the sublime heroic moral ideals;

· nationwide, civic orientation;

· establishment of a hierarchy of genres: "high" (odes and tragedies), "middle" (elegies, historical works, friendly letters) and "low" (comedies, satire, fables, epigrams);

· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of "three unities": time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).

Representatives of classicism

Western European literature:

· P. Corneille - tragedies "Sid", "Horace", "Cinna";

· J. Racine - tragedies "Phaedra", "Midridat";

· Voltaire - tragedies "Brutus", "Tancred";

· Moliere - comedies "Tartuffe", "Bourgeois in the Nobility";

· N. Boileau - a treatise in verse "Poetic Art";

· J. La Fontaine - "Fables".

Russian literature

· M. Lomonosov - the poem "Conversation with Anacreon", "Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747";

· G. Derzhavin - ode "Felitsa";

· A. Sumarokov - tragedies "Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor";

· Y. Knyazhnin - tragedies "Dido", "Rosslav";

· D. Fonvizin - comedy "Brigadier", "Minor".

Sentimentalism

Direction in literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Declared the dominant "human nature" is not reason, but feeling, and the path to the ideal is harmonious developed personality sought in the release and improvement of "natural" feelings.

Distinctive features:

· disclosure of human psychology;

· feeling is proclaimed the highest value;

· interest in common man, to the world of his feelings, to nature, to everyday life;

· idealization of reality, a subjective image of the world;

· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;

· the work is often written in the first person (the narrator is the author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.

Sentimentalists

· S. Richardson - novel " Clarissa Garlow»;

· - the novel "Julia, or New Eloise";

· - the novel "The Suffering of Young Werther".

Russian literature

· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;

· N. Karamzin - stories " Poor Lisa"- the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism," Bornholm Island ";

· I. Bogdanovich - the poem "Darling";

· A. Radishchev (not all researchers attribute his work to sentimentalism, it is close to this trend only in its psychologism; travel notes"Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow").

Romanticism

The trend in art and literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist's desire to oppose reality and dreams.

Distinctive features:

· unusual, exotic in the image of events, landscapes, people;

· rejection of prosaicity real life; expression of a worldview, which is characterized by dreaminess, idealization of reality, the cult of freedom;

· striving for the ideal, perfection;

· strong, bright, sublime image romantic hero;

· the image of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);

· contrast in a mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.

Representatives of romanticism

Western European literature

· J. Byron - poems Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Le Corsaire;

· - the drama "Egmont";

· I. Schiller - dramas "Robbers", "Treachery and Love";

· E. Hoffman - fantastic story"The Golden Pot"; fairy tales "Little Tsakhes", "Lord of the Fleas";

· P. Merimee - short story "Carmen";

· V. Hugo - historical novel"The cathedral Notre dame de paris»;

· W. Scott - historical novel "Ivanhoe".

Russian literature

The term literary movement usually denotes a group of writers linked by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. So, modernism - common name different groups in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes the departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to depicting being, - includes such trends as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc. ...

The fact that artists belong to the same direction or trend does not exclude their deep differences. creative individuals... In turn, in the individual work of writers, the features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves. For example, O. Balzac, being a realist, creates romantic romance « Pebbled leather", And M. Yu. Lermontov, along with romantic works, writes a realistic novel" Hero of Our Time ".

A current is a smaller unit of the literary process, often within a direction, characterized by its existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, by localization in a certain literature. The flow is also based on the commonality of substantive principles, but the similarity of ideological and artistic concepts is manifested more clearly.

Quite often the commonality of artistic principles in the course forms an "artistic system". So, within the framework of French classicism, two trends are distinguished. One is based on the tradition of rationalist philosophy of R. Descartes ("Cartesian rationalism"), which includes the works of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based primarily on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in the ideological principles of such writers as J. La Fontaine and J. B. Moliere.

In addition, both flows differ in the system of used artistic means... In romanticism, two main trends are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

The fact that a writer belongs to one or another direction or trend (as well as the desire to stay outside the existing currents of literature) presupposes a free, personal expression of the author's worldview, his aesthetic and ideological positions.

This fact is associated with the rather late emergence of directions and currents in European literature- the period of the New Time, when the personal, author's principle becomes leading in literary creation... This is the fundamental difference between the modern literary process and the development of literature of the Middle Ages, in which the content and formal features of the texts were “predetermined” by tradition and “canon”.

The peculiarity of the trends and trends is that these communities are based on a deep unity of philosophical, aesthetic and other substantive principles of largely different, individually author's artistic systems.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools(and literary groupings).

Introduction to literary criticism (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin, etc.) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

1. Literary direction - often identified with artistic method... It denotes a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groupings and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to single out the following literary trends:

   a) Classicism,
   b) Sentimentalism,
   c) Naturalism,
   d) Romanticism,
   e) Symbolism,
   f) Realism.

2. Literary movement - is often identified with a literary group and school. Indicates a collection creative personalities, which are characterized by ideological and artistic closeness and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a kind (sort of a subclass) of a literary movement. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism, they speak of "philosophical", "psychological" and "civic" trends. In Russian realism, some distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the 17th-early 20th century XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

1. Referring to images and forms antique literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, the advancement on this basis of the principle of "imitation of nature", which implies strict adherence to unshakable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
2. The aesthetics are based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin "ratio" - reason), which asserts the view on work of fiction as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically constructed.
3. Images in classicism are devoid of individual traits, since they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable, generic, permanent signs that act as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
4. Social educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into "high" (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is state life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious devotees) and "low" (comedy, satire , a fable that depicted a private daily life people of the middle class). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features, no mixing of the sublime and the low, tragic and comic, heroic and ordinary was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
6. Classicistic drama approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited by the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time about which the play was supposed to be told is one day), the unity of action meant that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side effects.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the assertion of absolutism (classicism with its concepts of "exemplary", strict hierarchy of genres, etc., in general, is often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. La Fontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc. Having entered a period of decline in late XVII century, classicism revived in the Age of Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the Great French revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism fell into decay, romanticism became the dominant style of European art.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism arose in the second quarter of the 18th century in the works of the founders of new Russian literature - A.D. Kantemir, V.K.Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West, merged with the general European literary development while maintaining their national identity. Characteristics Russian classicism:

a) Satirical orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressing specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national-historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, etc.);
v) High level the development of the ode genre (with M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) General patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

V late XVIII- early. XIX century Russian classicism is influenced by sentimental and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G.R.Derzhavin, the tragedies of V.A.Ozerov and the civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - "sensitive") - current in European literature and art XVIII century. Was prepared by the crisis of educational rationalism, was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, he mainly preceded romanticism, passing on a number of his features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

1. Sentimentalism has remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
2. Unlike classicism with its educational pathos, the dominant of "human nature" was declared by feeling, not reason.
3. He considered the release and improvement of “natural feelings” as the condition for the formation of an ideal personality.
4. The hero of the literature of sentimentalism is more individualized: by origin (or beliefs) he is a democrat, rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
5. However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), sentimentalism is alien to the "irrational": the contradictory moods, the impulsiveness of emotional impulses, he perceived as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took the most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed earlier - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabbe, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, the representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (naib, famous work - "Poor Liza"), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V. A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalistic tendencies are clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Educational tendencies;
d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular.

The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, message, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motives prevail.

Romanticism

One of the largest destinations in European and American literature late 18th-first half of the XIX century, which gained worldwide importance and distribution. In the 18th century everything that was fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. A new literary movement began to be called "romanticism".

The main signs of romanticism:

1. Anti-enlightenment orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and in romanticism reached its highest point... Socio-ideological prerequisites - disillusionment with the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, a protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaic nature of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of "reason", irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen, and the modern world order - hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.
2. The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world sorrow" (the heroes of the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). The theme of "lying in evil" " scary world"Was especially vividly reflected in the" drama of rock "or" tragedy of rock "(G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. TA Hoffman, E. Poe).
3. Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. For them, man is a microcosm, a small universe. Hence - the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center romantic piece there is always a strong, exceptional person who opposes society, its laws or moral and ethical standards.
4. "Duality", that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual illumination, inspiration, which are subject to the romantic hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially vividly in: "The Golden Pot", "The Nutcracker", "Little Tsakhes nicknamed Zinnober") ... The romantics contrasted the classicist "imitation of nature" with the creative activity of the artist with his right to transformation the real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
5. "Local flavor". A person opposing society feels a spiritual closeness to nature, its elements. That is why romantics so often have exotic countries and their nature (the East) as a place of action. Exotic wild nature quite consistent in spirit with a romantic personality striving beyond the ordinary. Romantics are the first to pay close attention to creative heritage people, their national, cultural and historical features... National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the romantics, was part of one large single whole - the "universe". This was clearly realized in the development of the genre of the historical novel (such authors as W. Scott, F. Cooper, W. Hugo).

Romantics, absolutizing the creative freedom of the artist, denied the rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own, romantic canons.

Genres have developed: a fantastic story, a historical novel, a lyric-epic poem, the lyrics reach an extraordinary heyday.

Classic countries of romanticism - Germany, England, France.

Beginning in the 1840s, romanticism in the main European countries yields leading position critical realism and fades into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The rise of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - the nationwide upsurge after the war of 1812. All this determined not only the formation, but also the special character of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K.F. Ryleev, V.K.Kyukhelbeker, A.I. fight.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

a) The accelerated development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the "runaway" and combination of various stages, which in other countries were experienced in stages. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies were intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholism were combined with the classicistic ordering of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the struggle with excessive metaphor for the sake of "harmonic precision" A.S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, genres such as elegy and idyll are especially developed. The development of the ballad (for example, in the works of V.A.Zhukovsky) was very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism. Most sharply, the contours of Russian romanticism were defined with the emergence of the genre of lyric-epic poem (southern poems by A.S. Pushkin, works by I.I.Kozlov, K.F.Ryleev, M.Yu. Lermontov, and others). The historical novel is developing as a large epic form (MN Zagoskin, II Lazhechnikov). A special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the unification of externally independent (and partially printed separately) works ("The Double or My Evenings in Little Russia" by A. Pogorelsky, "Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka" by N. V. Gogol, "Our Hero time "M. Yu. Lermontov," Russian Nights "VF Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - "nature") - a literary trend that developed in last third XIX century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristic features of naturalism:

1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, due to the physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as a direct everyday and material environment, but does not exclude socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a natural scientist studies nature; artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge.
2. A work of art was viewed as a "human document", and the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it was considered the main aesthetic criterion.
3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that the reality portrayed with scientific impartiality is itself quite expressive. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in the choice of material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism was especially developed in France - for example, the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism) belongs to naturalism.

In Russia, naturalism was not widespread, it played only a certain role in initial stage development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among the writers of the so-called "natural school" (see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from the late Latin realis - material, real) - literary and artistic direction XIX-XX centuries It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called "Renaissance realism") or in the Enlightenment (" educational realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore, antique literature.

The main features of realism:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
2. Literature in realism is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.
3. Cognition of reality is carried out with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality ("typical characters in a typical setting"). The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.
4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is gnosticism, belief in cognizability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, as opposed to, for example, romanticism.
5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary trend took shape in the 1830s. Romanticism was the immediate predecessor of realism in European literature. Making the subject of the image unusual, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spirit, emotion, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other directions of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against idealization. public relations, for national and historical originality artistic images(color of place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism of the first half of the 19th century; in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features have merged together - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, and partly C. Dickens. In Russian literature, this is especially clearly reflected in the works of A. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (southern poems by Pushkin and "A Hero of Our Time" by Lermontov).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were back in the 1820s and 30s. laid down by the work of A.S. Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov", "The Captain's Daughter", late lyrics), as well as some other writers ("Woe from Wit" by A.S. Griboyedov, fables by I.A.Krylov ), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, etc. socially critical. Heightened socially critical pathos is one of the main distinctive features Russian realism - for example, "The Inspector General", "Dead Souls" by N. V. Gogol, the activities of the writers of the "natural school". Realism of the second half of the 19th century reached its heights precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M.Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature new principles of building a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral problems, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.