"Shard Leather" Onor de Balzac and "Portrait of Dorian Gray" Oscar Wilde: Literary parallels

1.1 Synthesis of fiction and realism in "Shagreen skin" Onor de Balzac

Creativity Onor de Balzak (1799-1850) - the phenomenon is unique not only in French, but also in world literature.

The world is ruled by passion - to love, money, success and martyrdom, and the creative universe of Balzak is imbued with the music and the meaning of this passion, its dramatic harmony.

Artwork works of Balzak, starting with "Shagreen Skin," indicate that his understanding of the nature and capabilities of the genre of Romana assumed their free attitude to the boundaries between genres. Damn new art XIX. A century - the desire for synthesis, to the merger of various genre elements - was close to the creative individuality of Balzak. He found that Walter Scott, with the artistic experience of which Balzac was very considered, successfully connected in the novel "Drama, dialogue, portrait, landscape, description; He turned on there and incredible and true - these elements of the epic ... ".

With the greatest clarity formulated the principles of the novel as the epic of the new time, in the 40s Belinsky. Considering the novel and the story as the most free forms in which life is embodied, Belinsky believed that in these genres "better, more convenient than in some other kind of poetry, fiction merges with reality, the artistic invention is mixed with a simple, just correctly writing off from nature ... it is the widest, comprehensive genus of poetry; In it, the talent feels unlimited free. It connects all other birth of poetry ... "

Creativity Balzak has developed in line from the beginning of the 1930s artistic principles new art. He understood the novel as a means of knowing the holistic world, as an expression of complex connections between an individual and society, as the disclosure of "mystics human heart", If you take advantage of the expression of Belinsky.

Fantastics and beetas, tragedy and irony, lyrics and rage of pamphlet, versatile erudition and journalism - all contained a novel "Shagreen leather", which was prepixed a kind of epigraph - horizontally sinking, wriggling black line and under it a reference to chapter of the most strange, ironic and the bizarre book of the XVIII century - "Tristrem Shender" Stern. Such a line, but vertical, thoughtfully dodged the end of a sticky sage sterry - Capral Trim, expressing his judgment about human life.

The depressing picture of the spiritual degradation of the brilliant, externally full life of the society covered by the thirst for gold and pleasures, which made the main principle of existence - egoism, indicates that Balzac has approached the most important task - to find a "social engine", " cover hidden meaning Huge scope of types, passions and events. "

The philosophical story "Shagreen Leather" (1831) Balzac called the Formula of Our Egoism. Fantastic, Almighty shagreen leather, giving a hero to get rid of poverty, actually came the cause of even more grief. She destroyed the ability to make creative curses, the desire to enjoy life, the feeling of compassion, uniting a person with her like, destroyed the spirituality of the one who possesses her.

In the novel on Ondore de Balzak, who brought him the first literary glory, the history of the beggar of the young ambition of Raphael Valanten, on the threshold of suicide, he accidentally bought a magical talisman in an antique shop - a piece of chaphery skin, performing all the desires of his owner, but at the same time a life cuts his life every time.

"Sanskrit signs were displayed on the cell tissue of this wonderful skin. It was written there: "With me, you will enjoy everything, but your life will belong to me, so pleased with God. Wanted and wishes yours will be performed, but competent our desires with your life. She's here. With every desire, I will decrease. Want to own me? Take. God will hear you. May it be so". (Balzac O. Shagreen Skin).

Having gained wealth and pleasure, Valenten is very soon in front of the choice: to live in his pleasure and thereby persecute himself in an ambulance - or "illegitimate your imagination", to surrender to self-restraint and, obeying the instinct of self-preservation, turn off itself from life.

Depressing the rebirth of Raphael de Valantane after receiving millions, balzac, using the convention that is permissible in philosophical genre, creates almost fantastic picture The existence of their hero, who became a servant of his wealth, which turned into an automatic.

The combination of philosophical fiction and the image of reality in the forms of life itself is the artistic specificity of the story. Combining the life of his hero with fantastic shaggy skin, Balzac, for example, describes the physical suffering of Raphael as a patient with tuberculosis. (Oblomiyevsky D. Balzac).

In the novel - the history of life, the history of struggle, disappointments, passions and irreparable misconceptions, cumulating the death of the hero, which has come many later than his spiritual death.

Brave, very bold composition allows you to see the whole process of personality development, but it is built so that it focuses on the most important, turning points. In the exposition of the novel, a dramatically tense moment will be put forward when the fate and life of a person will go on another way. The scene opening the romance in a gambling house is a rapid commissioning, it connects the past and the future, the hero here on the border of life and death, he makes the last bet.

He is unknown to anyone, not named by name, he is a stranger. He has no more, a separate history, and there is only common to many - a brutal fate. And, like many unhappiness, he came to put on the card last gold and his life. If he win, banal, in general, the story of a success seeker can receive a continuation: new luck and failures will follow, transitions from joy to despair. He played; Consequently - died. It could be the end of the story told in the second part of the novel. But - became the beginning of the novel about shagreen skin.

Later, the hero will acquire individuality, realistic, with many vital details revealed history. She will be enclosed inside the novel, will be his core, fill in his second part of the book ("Woman without a heart").

Fantastic motifs in the first and third parts of "shagren-skinned skin", with an amazing naturalness that fastened with realistic details, transferred the meaning of complex connections and relations connecting the bourgeois individual with society, expressed "the movement of life", not giving accurate copy. And a system of sharp, bright, emotionally rich and philosophically of significant contrasts that occupy such a large place in the composition "Shagreen Skin", due to the same purpose: "Express the nature" without copying it.

The inner splitting of Rafael, due to the duality of his position between public "tops" and "Nizami", generates a deep tragedy of his image. The defeat of Raphael-poor is perceived as tragic circumstance. Rafael's fate causes not only interest, curiosity, but also the deepest sympathy, pity. It turns out to be innocent in his fall, it seems helpless in the face of the forces that collapsed on him. These forces, embodied in the form of an old Antiquarian, who will keep the moral drop in the Hero of the Roman, do not accidentally be depicted incommensurable with Rafael in its limitless superiority over it. To strengthen this incommensurability, Balzac makes them fundamentally different from real phenomena, among which Rafael lives, and at the same time it makes dominate these forces over real people and things. Balzac relieves these forces from subordination to the laws of nature, by hanging their special, specific energy, attributing to them that goes beyond the usual, the power of unpretentious, supernatural.

And here the fantastic start and his role in the novel is acquired here. At the forefront, existing in the work of the relationship and communication of fantastic phenomena with paintings and images of the real world. The biscuit of the novel, the combination of realism in it with fantastics, turns out to be decisive for its meaning.

Balzakovsky novel "Shagreen leather" among the modern fictionMore precisely, among the modern novels, it actually occupies a rather peculiar position. The situation is largely determined by those literary views that the writer shared at that time. Balzac, judging by his essays "On literary salons" and "Romantic Akathists", took an active part in the struggle, which many writers of France were conducted in those years around the heritage of romanticism. He was adjacent then to opponents of this direction. But for Balzac in romanticism, elements of artistic idealism, irrealistic motives and trends were mostly characteristic of the romantic direction. He objected to essentially against romanticism as a whole, against romantic artistic method. Against a romantic neglect of reality, against subjective emotions that displacing an objective image of the subject, and directs his romance Balzac. No wonder in it, such a significant place occupies the descriptions of the actual situation, in which the action flows, describing things, among which lives, works and indulges to the hero. Balzac comes in opposition to the installations of the plan - to portray a person outside the medium - and in full compliance with the requirements of those critics, which claimed that the character environment is equally important for artistic imagethan character itself; "Shagreen leather" absorbs the image of things left by romantics outside the artistic work. In empty, deprived of material items or among neutral in relation to the nature of things, the heroes of Shatubrian ("Rene"), Konstan (Adolf), Nodje (Jean Sobagar) were acted. Balzac has a detailed account of things that make up the cost of Rafael. The state of Rafael's hats, his shirts, his flannel shirts - all this is interested in the writer. He takes into account the food items of Rafael - bread, milk, sausage, knows how much Rafael burns over the night of oil, knows what the weather is on the street, which is Rafael, - Hollyeda or wet snow. The world of theodore also is also considered as really tangible. Brave hairstyle, carpets, laces, jewels - that complex of things, part of Which is she herself. (Ionkis G.E. Onor Balzac. The biography of the writer).

And the point is not in themselves things that often only clarify the objective position of the person. The fact is that a person is limited in his actions things, or, more precisely, its position in the world. He comes in accordance with his real environment, subordinates his thoughts to the environment. So, for the theodora "make up everything" her own carriage, lodge, hat. Rafael is forced to clean his room himself, to buy provisions, take care of his costume, cut his expenses to a minimum, because for normal existence it lacks material resources. Adolf, Rene, Jean Svoles Dreamed, indulged in reflections, fell in love, and only. Rafael reflects, falls in love, dreams, but, besides, still needs and misunderstands, that is, depending on his material statusAnd this last turns out to be decisive for its spiritual world.

But the originality of "shagren-free skin" is in that matter that there is also a circle of phenomena, not subordinate to the material necessity, near the circle of causal phenomena, as if eliminated from causal relations. Next to completely accurate, realistic descriptions and stories, we discover in the novel of all kinds of personification, the most freed as possible from the whole specific, and schemes. It is worth remembering in this regard, a description of the life of Raphael after his wonderful enrichment, images of scientists who are trying to crush and burn a piece of shagreen leather, aristocrats in the resort, the peasants with which Rafael is found in Switzerland. This duality of the novel and his style affects Rafael from the old man of Antiquar, especially brightly.

If Rafael exists in real world And his behavior is determined by the pattern of this world, then the existence of an old antiquarian is completely different, which appears for the first time before Rafael "from the semitis", in the "Radved Circle Center", "Glowing" on the background "Mraka". When Antiquarian appears in front of Rafael, only his face is visible in gentlemint. "It was possible to think," the author of the impression of Raphael summarizes - that this face hung in the air. " The author directly declares that it was not heard, as he entered: he was "silent and did not move." Rafael seems like an old man "left the neighboring sarcophagus." The author speaks of Antiquary as a "like a ghost". Equally wonderful, fantastic, supernatural and shaggy skin, which Antiquarian gives Raphael. It also affects the fact that in its existence does not obey the laws of physics and chemistry; It is unable to unlock the mechanical press, under the influence of which the steel plate is scattered on the smallest fragments. It is influencing with fluorine acid, nitrogen chloride, strong electric current, volt arc. And she retains its former look. It is depicted as a phenomenon of mystical, irrational order.

Another feature, also the same inherent antikvar and a piece of chaccit skin, is their incredible, fantastic power. Shagreen skin has, according to Antiquary, formidably power, the ability to decline in its sizes to a minimum and retains the mysterious effect on the fate of a person, by her own. She is able to turn over in an instant his life path, make the poor rich. It can at the same time destroy a person, turn the blooming young man in a seriously patient dying. The same omnipotent is distinguished by antiquary. At the sight of it, Rafael is born "inexplicable premonition of some extraordinary power." According to his own words, he "walks through the Universe, as in his own garden," his foot "steps in the highest mountains of Europe and Asia." He studied "all human languages", "resurrecting" in his imagination "whole countries, paintings of different locations, ocean species", "creates" in their soul "Universe". He has the gift "Gay the thoughts of the most secretive people" At his face, you can read the "Clearance of the All-Party God" or the "proud power of a whisen person".

In shagreen skin, so, as in the old man, Antiquar, Balzac embodies a completely real phenomenon - the power, the power that the money becomes in the modern society. Shagreen leather, as already mentioned above, transfers to the possession of Rafael a tremendous state, takes it off from the world of need. An antiquary in the old man should note the close connection of its activities with the accumulation of money. This is not only a collector of objects of art, culture, he is also an uplist. Antiquarian tells Raphael about his endless travel, that he was everywhere - in China, and in the Arab countries, and in all European capitals, and in North America. And now it's curious that everywhere, wherever he been to, he is engaged only by the acquisition of wealth - buying and selling, loans, bills - in Wigwama Indians, he "leaves gold", in the European capitals "Signs contracts", the Chinese "ISSUES MONEY" . Creating images of shagreen leather and an old man of Antiquar, Balzac perfectly clearly indicates a social evil that dominates the surviving life, gives the exact diagnosis of this evil. In the novel, it is not about the special sphere of being and at the same time not about the special state of the consciousness of Raphael, generating fantastic dreams. Fantastic is not a product of imagination derived from a fantasizing subject. It reflects the process coming out of consciousness, regardless of the will and desire of a person, the process is objective. Fantasy from Balzac reflects the real world. The fiction is subordinate to him by realism. Fantasy is only a form and at the same time the form of the same real world, and not the special element of being. This is the specificity of fantastic Balzak, sharply distinguishes it from reactionary romantics, for which the fantastic always wore a religious and mystical imprint, always attended among real phenomena as a kind of hostel of the other world and at the same time he penetrated into a circle of real phenomena only through the subject of the subject, through his Imagination, dreams. (Oblomiyevsky D. Balzac).

At the same time, creating images of antiquary and shagreen skin, Balzac emphasizes the elemental, irrational nature of the power of money. He considers the power of money as a phenomenon is quite real, earthly, but only unrecognizable, inexplicable from the point of view of the human mind. Paying particular attention to the fact that the power of money in modern society is among the phenomena of unusual, violating the usual, centuries, the head of things, Balzac, in accordance with this, is strongly removed in "Shagreen skin" from everyday realism depicting existing as absolutely understandable, fully stacked In the framework of generally accepted representations. The most presence in the novel of the image of Raphael, his very life before the meeting with Antiqua points to the belonging of Balzak to the realistic camp of the literature of the time.

Even more than the image of Raphael, the belonging of the Balzak to the realistic literary camp emphasize the images of antiquary and shagreen leather and in general the element of fantastic in the novel. We must not forget that the death of Rafael is laid in this element. It is she who breaks his fate and in its function in the novel quite equal with the malicious influence that extends to Raphael from Theodora and Rastyanka. Balzac, as it were, declares his novel about the disadvantages, reigning in the world, where there are immune-free, rationally inexplicable facts and phenomena at the same time.

The presence of fantastic in the novel and in this regard, therefore, is determined by the character of reality itself. Creating images of antiquary and shagreen leather, Balzac feels the objective need for capitalist offensive on old world, died and gradually losing the right to exist. He feels the historical inevitability of the money power, which antiquarian and shaggy skin carry. Against the power of money, nothing can do the forces of the old world. For themselves, they do not represent something fundamentally different from the new ruler. It is not at all chance in this regard that Rafael at Balzak is not just a poor man, not a peasant, not an artisan, but a helentist nobleman. It is his origin, his childhood, spent in a circle of materially secured people, facilitate his transition to the circle of rich. The embryos of the wasting in his mind stems exactly from here.

In his book about Balzak, published in 1858, Gauthier examines the "shaggy skin" as a work that made the name of Balzak "Immortal". "So far the novels," says Gautier, "the image of the only passion - love was limited, but they showed love in the ideal sphere outside the vitality." The characters of the former, "exclusively psychological" novels, according to Gauthier, "did not eat, did not drink, did not have a dwelling, no account at the tailor." They "moved in abstract space, as in the tragedy. When they wanted to travel, not worrying about receiving a passport, they took with them a few handful of diamonds and paid for this coin of yambs. "

Balzac, approves Gauthier, guided by the "deep instinct of reality", realized that "in modern life... dominate ... Money. " He "had a courage to imagine in the" shagreen skin "of a lover, concerned not only to how to touch the heart to his beloved, but also the more money to pay his money to pay for the cab." Gauthier welcomes everybody, thus, Balzak has an image of a real modern life that surrounds the hero, more precisely, welcomes the image of life, surface phenomena. He just does not want to recognize any contradiction between the hero and his environment and thereby strikes out of the novel that the atmosphere of dissatisfaction, discontent that Rafael spreads around him. The world and the hero are among themselves, according to the thought of Gauthier, in complete agreement, in full compliance with each other. It remains out of sight of the guide and fiction in the novel. And this is because Gauthier considers the power of money is not tragic, but by the granted circumstance of modern life. It does not see the need to depict it as a fantastic phenomenon. In fantastic, as shown by Novella Gauthi from the "Young France" cycle (1833), he sees only a derived from the abnormal, painful mental state of the hero. Fantastic in the "shagreen skin" he ignores precisely because of its realistic nature. (Oblomiyevsky D. Balzac).

Fantastic sources Balzak is hidden in real everyday relationships. A fantastic form in "Shagreen skin" summarized the essential parties of reality and revealed such depths social phenomenawhich may be lost in value, whether they are translated into the language of goatopysics. "Form ... only the transmitter of ideas, sensations, elusive poetry ...". This "only" does not detract from the active function of the form in the work of art, rather - emphasizes it. As from the "transmitter" of ideas and sensations, it depends on it: it can neutralize, hide what constitutes the true essence of phenomena; Or, on the contrary, to convey, express the intimate meaning of complex processes committed in the life of the personality and society. The monstrous confusion, the absurdity of capitalist reality, in which a person, becoming a toy of the spontaneous forces, is destroyed as a person, created the magnificent and gloomy image of fantastic shaggy skin.

So, fantastic motifs live naturally and freely among the many realistic details of Rafael's life. They do not violate the realistic foundation of the novel. The abundance of realistic details enhances the impression of the reliability of all that is happening and even gives him a shade of everyday life.

Shagreen skin has gained reliability as active power, has become part of life, entered it as an immutable law. Realistic motivations are wonderful not canceled fantastic, make the magic power of shagreen skin even more absolute character. For, despite the fact that the head of Rafael was spinning from hunger, consciousness was blurred and he was ready to perceive everything as a dream, shaggy skin is undoubted, it exists and as a romantic motive and as a materialized expression of the law of life.

Goethe, who was known was the novel "Shagreen Skin", separated the fantastics of Balzak from romantic "miracles" in the writings of his contemporaries. He found that "the author ingeniously enjoys fiction, turning it into a means of purely realistic image of experiences, moods and events.

In the "Shagreen skin" - the novel as striking in the latitude and versatility of life coverage, such circumstances, conflicts, situations in which the common laws of social, philosophical, moral order are clearly and clearly, and the typical characters are implemented with the greatest completeness.

Balzac in his novel introduces a fantastic case as quintessence of the laws of his time and discovers with its help the main social engine of society - cash interest, destroying the personality.

Thus, in the hands of Balzak, a fantastic motive served as one of the most important tasks of realistic art: to express through the identity of the typical features of society.

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"Shagreen leather" is one of the most famous novels Titanian French prose Onor de Balzac. The work was published in two volumes in August 1831 and later included in the Human Comedy Grand Cycle. The author placed the "Shagreen Skin" in the second section called "Philosophical Etudes".

The reader was partially familiar with "Shagreen Skin" before the release of the official dialomet. Separate episodes of the novel first are published in the magazines "Caricature", "Review de de Dond", "Revised de Paris". Realistic fiction Balzac fell like fans. "Shagreen skin" had crazy success and only during the life of the writer reprinted seven times.

This novel carries the dynamic intriguing plot and at the same time makes thinking over the magnitude and versatility of such concepts as life and death, truth and lies, wealth and poverty, true love And its ability to convert the world around the lovers. The place of action for "shagren-free skin" becomes brilliant, insatiable, greedy Paris, the most brightly showing its vicious features in a secular society.

The main character Roman - a young provincial, writer, seeker Rafael de Vientenen. Along with Valentine, Balzac introduces the product of already familiar characters into the figurative structure. One of them is an adventurer Eugene De Rabyak. He has repeatedly appeared on the pages of novels " Human comedy."(Somewhere in the main, somewhere in a secondary role). So, Raveinyak solorates in the "father of Gorio", enters into the shaft structure of the "scenes of political life", "secrets of Princess de Kadinyan", "Banker's house Nusingen", "Kuzina Bretty" and "Captain from Arsi".

Another star of the "Human Comedy" is a banker Tyfer, he "drowning in the golden killer." The image of the timer is colorfully removed on the pages of the novels "Father Gorio" and "Red Hotel".

The composite-semantic structure of the novel is represented by three isometric parts - "Talisman", "Woman without a heart" and "Agony".

Part One: "Talisman"

A young man named Rafael de Vientenen wanders in Paris. Once this city seemed to him a valley of joy and inexhaustible opportunities, and today he is only a reminder of his life defeat. Having experienced happiness and finding it, disappointed and losing everything, Rafael de Vatenten took a firm decision to leave life. This night, he will drop in the Seine from the royal bridge, and tomorrow the unidentified corpse of the person will catch the citizens. He does not hope to participate and does not relieve pity. People are deaf to everything that does not concern them themselves. This truth Rafael was excellent.

IN last time Walking in the Paris Streets, our hero wandered into the bench of antiquities. Her owner is a dry shrouded old man with an ominous curve with a grin - showed the most valuable product in his shop. It was a piece of shaggy skin (approx. - Soft rough leather (ram, goat, horse, etc.). The flap was small - the size of the average fox.

According to the old man, this is not just a shame, but the most powerful magic artifact capable of changing the fate of its owner. On the reverse side There was an inscription on Sanskrit, the ancient message reported: "Having me, you will have everything, but your life will belong to me ... Wanted and your desires will be performed. However, commemorate your desires with your life. She's here. With each desire, I will decrease, like your days. Want to own me? Take. May it be so".

Until now, no one has decided to become the owner of this picraine flap and checked the contract suspiciously resembling a deal with the Devil. However, what to lose the disadvantaged poor man, who just wanted to part with life?!

Rafael acquires shaggy skin and immediately utters two desires. The first thing that the old shopkeeper fell in in love with the dancer, the second to him, Rafael, took this night participation in the Vakhanlia.
In the eyes, the skin is noticeably compressed to such sizes that it can be put in his pocket. So far, it only amuses our hero. He says goodbye to the old man and goes on the night.

I didn't have time to go through the bridge of the arts, as Emil's friend met, who offered him a job in his newspaper. Mark the joyful event was decided at a party in the House of Banker Torifer. Here Raphael meets with various representatives of the Paris Society: selling artists, bored scientists, tight wallets, elite prostitutes and many others.

Together with Rafael de Vienseny, we carry out many years ago, when he was still a very young boy and knew how to dream. Viennegen recalls his father - a tough and harsh person. He never showed his love in which his sensual son needed so much. De Vienienten-Sr. was a buyer of foreign land, which were available as a result of successful military campaigns. However, the golden age of Napoleonic conquest passes. Cassenteners begin to go bad. The head of the family is dying, and the son no longer remains anything, except how to quickly split the earth for paying with creditors.

At the disposal of Raphael remains a modest amount that he decides to stretch for several years. This should be enough for the time until it becomes famous. Viennegen wants to be a great writer, he feels a talent, and therefore removes the attic in a cheap Parisian hotel and is accepted and takes to work on his literary brainchild.

The mistress of the Mrs. Hotel was a very kind and cute woman, but her daughter Polina is especially good. Vienseniena likes the young year, he gladly spends time in her society, but his sickness woman is different - this is a secular lady with excellent manners, brilliant outfits and solid capital, which gives its owner a certain charm.

Soon Viennene was lucky to get acquainted with such a woman. Her was called Countess Feodoroy. This twenty-one-year-old beauty was the owner of the eighty-thousand income. It was unsuccessfully woven all Paris and Viennegen did not exception. At first, Theodore shows a favor to a new Uhager, but soon it turns out that it drives it at all is not an amourous feeling, and the calculation - the countess is needed to protect the distant relative of Valentine Duke de Navarrene. An insulted young man opens his feelings to the tormentors, but she declares that he never drops below its level. Her husband will be only the duke.

Love fiasco forces Viennene again to get close to his adventurous friend Eugene de Rastyanka (it was he who introduced Rafael with the Countess). Friends begin to kut, play cards, winning large amount Money, they are unrestrained her. And when nothing, Viennene remained from a solid win, is at the social day, his life is over. Then he went outside and decided to drop off from the bridge.

But, as you know, this did not happen, because on his way there was an antiquity shop ... The narrator suspends the story. He completely forgot about the magic gerane, performing desire. You need to check it in fact! Viennene takes out a piece of skin and makes a desire to receive 120 thousand annual income. The next day, Rafael is notified that his far relative died. He left Rafael a huge fortune that he had exactly 120 thousand per year. Having delivered a piece of phenomena, the newly minted rich was understood - the magic acts, shagreen decreased, which means that his term of its earthly existence has decreased.

Now Rafael de Viensenten should no longer suggest in the dark crude attic, he lives in a spacious ornate furnished house. True, his real life is constant control of his own desires. It is standing Rafaellus to pronounce the phrase "I want" or "I wish," how the picrase flap immediately decreases.

Once Rafael goes to the theater. There he meets a sudden old man with a beautiful dancer at hand. This is the same shop! But as the old man changed, his face is still covering wrinkles, but the eyes are burning like a young guy. What is the reason? - Surprised Rafael. The whole thing in love! - An old man explains, - one hour of truth love is more expensive than a long life.

Rafael watches the discharged public, the Limenitsa of the ladies' shoulders, gloves, male trees and collar. He meets Countess Feodoro, the same brilliant as before. Only she no longer causes the former admiration. She is the same artificial and faceless, like all the great society.

Caution Valentine attracts one lady. How was the surprise of Rafael, when Polina was this secular beauty. That is the most Polina, with whom he traveled for a long evening in his wretched attic. It turns out that the girl became the heiress of the huge state. Returning home, Viennene wished Polina to fall in love with him. Shagren again treacherously cringed. In a rustling of anger, Rafael throws it into the well - if it will be!

Last desire Raphael de Viensenyna

Young people begin to live a soul in the soul, make plans for the future and literally bathe in love each other. One day, the gardener brings the skin of the skin - he accidentally caught it from the well. Viennane rushes to the best Parisian scientist with plenty to destroy shagreen. But neither a zoologist, nor a mechanic nor a chemist find a way to destroy the womb artifact. The life with which Viennene once wanted to voluntarily part, now it seems to him the biggest treasure, because he loves and love.

The health of Rafael begins to fail, doctors detect signs of consumers and bred by their hands - his days are considered. Everything, except for Polina, is indifferent to the doomed to death. In order not to distort yourself, Rafael runs away from the bride, and when after time their meeting will still take place, he is unable to resist the beauty of the beloved. Cocking out, "I wish you, Polina!", Viennegen falls to death ...

... and Polina remains to live. True, nothing is known about her further fate.

Roman Honor de Balzac "Shagreen Leather": summary

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In 1831 B. publishes "Shagreen Skin" which, according to him, was to formulate the current century, our life, our egoism. Philosophical formulas are revealed in the novel on the example of the fate of the main character of Raphael de Valanten, set before the dilemma "desire" and "be able." An infected time ill, Rafael, at first, he at first, choosing the thorny path of a working-worker, refuses him in the name of brilliance and luxury. The victims full of fiasco in his ambitious aspirations, rejected by a woman who was passionate about, devoid of elementary livelihoods, the hero was ready to finish with suicide. It was at that moment that life drives him with a mysterious elder, Antiquarian, handing the Rafael, an all-powerful talisman - shaggy skin, for owner of which is able to be designed. However, the payment for all instantaneously executing desires is life, descending with an inexpensive declining piece of shagreen leather. You can get out of this magic circle in one way - suppressing all the desires.

So two systems are detected, two types of being: 1) life, complete aspirations and passions that kill their every measurement of man.

2) And the life is ascetic, the only satisfaction of which in passive allocate and potential omnipotence.

If the argument of the old Antiquarian is contained a philosophical substantiation and adoption of the second type of being, the apology of the first is a passionate monologue of the Kurtisani Akilina (in the scene of Orgius at Tifer). By giving themselves to the parties, B. during the novel reveals both weakness and strength of both paths. The hero embodied in the real life., First, I almost did not grow up in the stream of passions, and then slowly dying in the existence of any emotion.

Rafael could do everything, but did nothing. The reason for this egoism of the hero. Wanted to have millions and having received them, Rafael, once obsessed with great intentions and noble aspirations, instantly transformed. It absorbs deeply selfish thought.

With the history of Rafael in the work of Balzak, one of the central topics is the topic of a talented, but poor young man, losing the illusion of youth in a collision with the soulless society of the nobles. Also, there are such topics as: "arrogue wealth passing into a crime" (Daefer), "shine and poverty of the Kurtyzanok" (the fate of Akalina) and others.

The novel is outlined by many types, which will later be developed by a writer: notaries, looking for new customers; soulless aristocrats; Scientists, doctors, rustic workers ...

Already in the SC, the features of Balzak fiction. All events in the novel are strictly motivated by the coincidence (just wished orgy, Rafael receives it from the Tifer, the hero is accidentally found with a notary, which two weeks wanted him to give her inheritance).

The French word Le Chagrin itself can be translated as "shagreen", but it has a homonym, hardly known to Balzak: Le Chagrin - "sadness, grief". And this is important: fantastic, omnipotent shaggy skin, giving a hero to get rid of poverty, actually appeared the cause of even greater grief. She destroyed the desire to enjoy life, man's feelings, leaving only egoism, generated as long as possible to extend their drowning thumbs, and finally the most owner himself.

Thus, for the allegories of the philosophical novel, Balzak hid a deep realistic generalization.

Compositional The novel "Shagreen Leather" is divided into three equal parts. Each of them is a component of the element of a large work and, at the same time, acts as an independent, completed story. In Talisman, it is planned to the tie of the whole novel and at the same time gives a story about the wonderful salvation from the death of Raphael de Valanten. In the "woman without a heart", the conflict of works is revealed and it is narrated by unrequited love and an attempt to take its place in society the same hero. The name of the third part of the novel, "Agony", speaks for itself: it is a climax, and an omission, and a touching story about the unfortunate lovers, separated by an evil case and death.

Genre peculiarity The novel "Shagreen leather" is consisted of the features of building three parts. Talisman combines the features of realism and fiction, being, in fact, a gloomy romantic fairy tale in the Goofman style. In the first part of the novel, the themes of life and death, games (for money), art, love, freedom are raised. "Woman without a heart" is an exceptionally realistic narrative, imbued with special, Balzak psychologism. Here we are talking about true and false - feelings, literary creativity, life. "Agony" is a classic tragedy, in which there is a place and strong feelings, and all-consuming happiness, and an endless grief ending with death in the arms of an excellent beloved.

The epilogue of the novel brings the line under the two main women's images of the work: clean, tender, elevated, sincerely loving polyna, symbolically dissolved in the beauty of the world around us, and a cruel, cold, selfish feodore, which is a generalized symbol of a soulless and exhaust society.

Onor Balzac - the son of the notary, rejected during Napoleonic Wars. His novels became the benchmark for the first half of the 19th century. Writer of the bourgeoisie, the owner of a new life. He was because he turned away from the approval of V. Gyu, that "the reality in art is not reality in life," and saw the task of his great work in the show not "imaginary facts", but in the show of what "happens everywhere." "Everywhere" is now a triumph of capitalism, self-affirmation of the bourgeois society. The show of the established bourgeois society is such a major task set by history in front of Lit-Roy - and B. It allows it in his novels.

The brightest example of philosophical stakes is "Shagreen leather", which the author called "the formula of our present century, our life, our egoism," he wrote that everything in her myth and symbol. The French word Le Chagrin itself can be translated as "shagreen", but it has a homonym, hardly known to Balzak: Le Chagrin - "sadness, grief". And this is important: fantastic, omnipotent shaggy skin, giving a hero to get rid of poverty, actually appeared the cause of even greater grief. She destroyed the desire to enjoy life, man's feelings, leaving only egoism, generated as long as possible to extend their drowning thumbs, and finally the most owner himself. That is why Balzac made a rich banker Tortifer, having committed a murder, one of the first to welcome Raphael de Valentine with the words: "You are ours. "The French are equal to the law" - now for him a lie from which the Charter begins. It will not be subordinate to the laws, but the laws - to him. In these words, the formula of the 19th century life is indeed enclosed. Depressing the rebirth of Raphael de Valantane after receiving millions, Balzac, using the convention that is permissible in the philosophical genre creates an almost fantastic picture of the existence of a person who has become a servant among wealth, which has turned into an automatic. The combination of philosophical fiction and the image of reality in the forms of life itself is the artistic specificity of the story. Combining the life of his hero with fantastic shaggy skin Balzac, for example, with medical accuracy describes the physical suffering of Raphael, patient with tuberculosis. In the "shagrenoy skin" Balzac submits a fantastic case as a quintessence of the laws of his time and discovers with its help the main social engine of society - cash interest, destroying the personality. This goal also serves the antithesis of two female images - Polina, which was the embodiment of a feeling of kindness, disinterested love, and aeodora, in which the inherent in the society are underlined by society, self-adequacy, fishery and a dead boredom.

One of the most important figures of the story is the image of an antiquary, in the judgments of which the thoughts of Balzak are reflected that human life may well be determined by the verbs of "desire", "be able" and "know". "I wish - burns us," he says, "and be able to destroy, but it gives our weak organism to know the opportunity forever in calm state." In a state of "desire" are all the ambitions, scientists and poets - Rastinyak, Seshar and Valenten. The state of "be able" is achieved only those who can adapt to society, where everything is sold and bought. Only one Rabyak himself becomes Minister and marries the heir to millions. Raphael also receives shagreen, which acts no worse convicts. In the state of "know" there are those who despise other people's suffering, managed to acquire millions, is Antiquarian and Gobsek himself. However, in fact, they turned into servants of their treasures, in people like machine guns (antiquard 102 years old!). If they, like Nusingen, suddenly turn out to be obsessed with the desires that are not related to the accumulation of money (passion for the Esther's curtain), then they themselves become figures, at the same time sinister and comic, for they come out of their own social role.

Ticket 19. The place of Roman "Father Gorio" in the "Human Comedy" Balzac.

Ticket 20. The system of images and composition of the novel "Father Gorio".
Onor Balzac - the son of the notary, rejected during Napoleonic Wars. His novels became the benchmark for the first half of the 19th century. Writer of the bourgeoisie, the owner of a new life. He was because he turned away from the approval of V. Gyu, that "the reality in art is not reality in life," and saw the task of his great work in the show not "imaginary facts", but in the show of what "happens everywhere." "Everywhere" is now a triumph of capitalism, self-affirmation of the bourgeois society. The show of the established bourgeois society is such a major task set by history in front of Lit-Roy - and B. It allows it in his novels.

The thought of a single system of works arose to Balzak in 1833, when he realized that his desire to give a wide panorama of the life of France, which brought to the emergence of side plot lines, could not be implemented in one novel. So the "Human Comedy" began to make shape with its romance to the novel with characters, who, according to the author himself, should be at least 2-3 thousand. The novels of "Human Comedy" The author posted on the following sections: 1) etudes of the morals, where the scenes of the private, provincial, Paris, political, rural life were included; 2) philosophical etudes; 3) Analytical etudes.

Roman "Father Gorio" marks a new stage in the creative development of Balzak, as the entire 1835 year. In it, the greatest tragedies of human life are hidden for the external facade of the ordinance. "Father Gorio" is not reserved by the history of the life of one character - this is a slice of the life of society at a certain period of its development. Interestingly, the movement of the novel on the sections of the "human comedy": in 1843, it was included in the "scenes of Parisian life", on the notes of the author they say that he decided to put this novel in the "Scenes of Privacy". The path is the same as "Gobsek": the scenes of privacy absorb more facts and phenomena, they characterize society as a whole.

BUT private life - This is the life of families, "Human comedy", as Balzac wrote, depicts the world through the family's prism. Rabyak reveals in the letters of the Systroes and aunt, the quiz deric fate is built on the relationship with his father and brother, the fate of Gorio is, in fact, the fate of his two disturbed daughters. True feeling absent. Families only associate cash relations. Even distinguished from the Parisian public provincial Rasinyak gives up money to get into the highest light.

The novel was created when the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "human comedy" was already in the consciousness of the author. Balzac has no other work, in which such a large number of characters would be connected and almost all layers of the modern society would be presented. The exception can only be "Gobsek". Events unfold predominantly in the Madame Baue boarding house, this is the Paris bureaucratism, where Rasinyak appears near Mishono, Poire appears - a provincialist nobleman, as well as the future doctor of Byanshon, creative person. With the help of Rastyanka, the reader enters the aristocratic salons - de Bossean and de Reto, through the dolphin - we see the Nunsingen Wednesday - one of the richest bankers in the "human comedy". This includes a group of characters in the novel, who actually determined the policies of France in the 1820-30s. However, Balzak is not so important to show all levels. social hierarchyhow to demonstrate their resemblance to perception life values and beliefs. The heterogeneous medium here turns into a monolith, where there is nothing higher than the desire.

In the center of the narration there is a public board. He is a kind of concentration, maybe even a symbol of social and moral laws inherent in modern Balzak France. It is not by chance that Radyak brings the judgment about the laws of the Society of Vikontesses Bossean and second. The convict, speaking of people, understands the world as spiders in the bank, but Vikontesse compares people with horses that can be driven and change on each mailer. Essentially dirty the norm of the life of all circles of society, but the woke house is more openly demonstrated. Make generalizations, combine social groups at the level of moral laws Balzak again help things. With their help, portraits are created, so, the name of the Woku Pension testifies to the level of the culture of the hostess and boarders, or rather, about their indifference to the fact that they are surrounded. "Family guesthouse for both sexes and so on." A detailed description of the guesthouse, where heroes live by the generalization of the medium itself, demonstrate all the wretchedness of the existence of the heroes, which are brought up depending on this environment. The appearance of the character, his manner to behave and even dress (the skirt of Mrs. Woku) is inextricably linked that they are surrounded.

The narration is conducted from a third party, but the task of Balzak does not prevent readers of the finished morality, but to show how life itself, how people perceive their place in life, their capabilities, and this is that the new thing will enter into the concept Novo century novel. The abundance of the characters' reasoning, as well as the mass of the author's descriptions, eliminates the author from the need for Didactism, allowing the reader to draw conclusions about the nrules reigning in the modern Balzak of the 19th century society.
Ticket 21. Roman Balzak "Lost Illusions": Art and artist.
This work, completed at the time of the greatest artistic maturity (1837), Balzac created new Type romana, - Roman disappointment, inevitable destruction life ideals, when colliding them with the gross reality of the capitalist society. The theme of the collapse of illusions appeared in the novel long before Balzac: "Red and Black" standal, "Confession of the Son of the Century" Moussa. The topic was worn in the air, it was generated not literary fashion, but public development France, - countries where with great clarity it was visible, where the political evolution of the bourgeoisie is going. Heroic time The French resolution and Napoleon woke up and mobilized the "third class" the "third class" energy. The heroic period made it possible for his best people to implement their ideals, heroically live and dying in harmony with these ideals. After the fall of Napoleon, after the restoration and the July revolution, the whole epoch has come an end. Ideals turned only to the decoration, a high civil lift, the necessary product of the previous era, became socially unnecessary.

Balzac with courageous clarity saw true nature His time. He says: "There was no other phenomenon that would be brightering about what the restoration of young people turned in. Young people who did not know what to attach their strength to spend them not only for journalism, on conspiracies, on literature and art , but also on the most extraordinary excesses; being hardworking, this beautiful young people craved the authorities and pleasures; imbued with an artistic spirit, snatched on the treasure; in idleness tried to revive his passions; in every way it was sought to find a place for themselves, and the policy did not give her a place to find a place nowhere ".

"Lost illusions" rise like a cliff, over the whole french literature that time. Balzac is not limited to the observation and image of the tragic or tragicomic public situation. He sees deeper. He sees that the end of the heroic period of bourgeois development in France is indicating at the same time the beginning of a wide rise of French capitalism. "Lost Illusions" show one of the sides of this process. The topic of the novel is the transformation into goods of literature, and with it and other areas of ideology. Balzac presents us this process of turning literature into goods in its entire deployed and complete completeness: everything - starting with the production of paper and ending with the convictions, thoughts and feelings of the writer, is part of the commodity world. And Balzac does not stop at stating, in general, the ideological consequences of the domination of capitalism, but reveals this particular process at all its stages, in all its regions (newspaper, theater, publishing house, etc.). "What is Glory?" - Asks Doria publisher: "12000 francs for articles and a thousand ecu per lunches." Writers are not lagging behind the publishers: "- So you, then, value the fact that you write? - Mockingly told him to return to him." But we sell phrases and live with this fishery. When you want to write a big and wonderful work, the word, the book, then. You will be able to put your thoughts into her, your soul, to attach to her, to defend it; but the articles, today read, tomorrow forgotten, stand in my opinion exactly as much as they pay for them. "

Journalists and writers are exploited: their abilities, transformed into goods, are a speculation object for trading on the Literature of Capitalists. But these are exploited, people are corrupted by capitalism: they strive to become exploiters themselves. When Lucien de Rubampra begins his career of a journalist, his colleague and mentor Lusto gives him such instructions: "In a word, my dear, the key to literary success is not to work, but to enjoy someone else's work."

Friendship of David Seshar with Lucien de Rubampra, broken illusions of their dreamy youth, interaction conflicting characters Their both make up the main contours of the action. Balzac creates images in which the essence of the topic is manifested in a collision human passions, individual aspirations: the inventor David Seshar finds a new cheap way of working out paper, but he is deceived by the capitalists; Poet Lucien is forced to sell his sophisticated lyrics in the Paris market. On the other hand, the opposite of characters with amazing plasticity represents a variety of spiritual reactions: David Seshar is a Stoic Puritanin, while Lucien is an embodiment of an exaggerated thirst for sensual pleasures, the unrestrained and sophisticated epicoreism of a whole generation. In the contrast between the two central figures, two main types of spiritual reaction of people on the transformation of culture and human genius products in the goods are perfectly expressed. The seshara line is a rubbing, reconciliation with his fate. On the contrary, Lucien rushes to Parisian life and wants to achieve power and recognition. This puts it in a number of numerous youth images of the restoration time - the young men who dressed or make a career, adapted to the dirty, alien heroism epoch (Julien Sorel, Rastinyak, de Mars, Blonde, etc.). Lucien takes a kind of place in this row. Balzac, with amazing sensitivity and a bold foresight, depicted a new, specifically bourgeois type of artist: the character is weak and devoid of any definiteness, a tangle of nerves. The internal contradiction between poetic risening and life lathe makes Lucien toy. It is this compound of non-accuracy, ambitions, striving for honest and clean life, immense, but uncertain thirst for glory, exquisite pleasures - Makes a dazzling success possible, rapid self-relief and disgraceful failure of Lucien.

Balzac never moralizes about his heroes. It objectively depicts the dialectic of their lifting and sunset, motivates the same interaction between the characters and the set of objective conditions. Thus, the main thing that binds this novel to one whole is the social process itself. Deepest meaning The personal death of Lucien is that this death is a typical fate of the poet in the era of a developed bourgeois system.

D "Artez - Balzac speaks in" Lost Illusions ":" What is art? It is nothing more than a condensed nature. "But this thickening of nature never has a formal" admission "; it represents the construction of public, human content of a particular situation on the highest level.

Lucien at the beginning, his career should write an article about admiring his novel Nathan. A few days later, he must speak against him in the second article. This task first leads Lucien, a newly minted journalist, confused. But first, Lustly, then the blonde explains to him what his task consists, there is a reasoning, with such a dexterity reinforced by references on the history of literature and aesthetics that they should seem convincing not only for readers of the article, but also for Lucien readers. After Balzak, many writers portrayed the adolescence of journalists and told about how articles are written, contrary to the beliefs of their authors. But only Balzac reveals the depth of journalistic sofics. Depicting the gifts of writers corrupted by capitalism, he also shows how they bring to the virtuosity of sophisticated craft, decrease to deny and approve any position with such persuasiveness to make believing that they expressed their true views.

The height of the artistic expression turns the exchange depicted by Balzak, on which the spiritual life is speculated, into the deep tragicomedy of the bourgeois class.

"Lost Illusions" were the first "novel of disappointment" in the XIX century. Balzac depicts an era, so to speak, initial capitalist accumulation in the field of spiritual life; The followers of Balzak, even the greatest among them (for example, Flaubert), dealt with the fact that the capitalism had already accomplished without the withdrawal of human values. In Balzak, we find, therefore, a tense tragedy, showing the formation of new relations, and his successors - a dead fact and lyrical or ironic sadness about what has already happened.

Ticket 22 Creativity Merim
Merim Prosper - french writer. The leaving of the petty-bourgeois medium, from the family of the artist, whose classic style has influenced the young man. No less impact on it and romantic style "Osseian's poems," he survived and the short passion for rulviation. He graduated from the Faculty of Faculty of Sorbonne. In 1822, Merim is getting acquainted with a standal, which had a great influence on him, including Article "Rasin and Shezzir", at about this time Merim visits the Circle of Decolation, where the Shakespeare cult also reigns. Periodization of creativity Merim is determined by two historical events: the July revolution of 1830 and revolutionary events of 1848, while changing the circumstances of the life, political, social views of the writer are coordinated with the restructuring of the genre system, the development of the artistic method, the evolution of issues and style.

Success comes to a cap in 1825, when Merim prints his book "Theater Clara Gazul", a double hoax (the story comes from the face of the Spanish Actress Hasul) in the form of the plays created by it, which in turn comments on some translator l Estrovage. The plays were very bold in their content and wore, in some way, anticleric and antimonarchic orientation. Considering that in 1825, a law on sacrence was adopted in France, threatened by the opponents of the Church death penalty, the act Merim was very bold.

In 1827, Merim then publishes the book "Guzlya" (by the name of the musical instrument) - the collection of pseudo - the South Slavic songs of the Nauakinfa Moglanovich. Successfully satisfied with a romantic passion for the hobles, Pushkin ("Songs" western Slavs."), Mitskevich and the German scientist Hergard, with delight translated" Guzlya "to his languages \u200b\u200bas an independent original), Merim was given to serious creativity. In 1828, his historical drama" Jacceria "comes out, telling about the revolt of the French peasants of the 14th century, received Jacceriya name. Tracking for her Merime writes "Chronicle of the Karl 9" - one of the best French historical novels. Merima avoids Lyrianism, he is alien to the excitement of romantics, throughout the "Chronicles" there is a hidden controversy both with the historic novel of Walter Scott, as well as With the "ethical" branch of the historical novel presented by Hugo and Vinyi. Merime does not seize historical progress in itself, as his and abstract ideas of moralism do not worry. He is interested in the "image of a person", however, a look Merime on a person historical: "... to actions People who lived in the 16th century cannot be approached with the measure of the 19th century. "Laconism, even some dryness in the presentation, the complete absence Declamation, romantic "eloquence" is typical for Merim. This sharply separates Merim from romantics, with which it only brings his interest in exotic and fantastic plots. Working out them, Merim addresses the nurse of the novel, which reaches the greatest depth and expressiveness. Special attention to Merim pays typical of psychology. The aggravation of psychologism has affected artistic applications, in particular, on changing the role of the story. If in the early works at the expense of the hoax and objective "free story" the writer sought to reveal the world of someone else's consciousness, someone else's psychology, now the figure of the French story, who wants to penetrate him from the outside, trying to understand her nature and not rejecting What is contrary to the traditions of the French. So built novel " Mateo Falcone"(Corsica)," Taking a Reduta "(about the capture of Shevardinsky Raruta Borodino blues).

After the July revolution, when political friends Merim, close to the circles of financial and industrial bourgeoisie, became in power, Merim receives the post of inspector historical monuments France. Personalized by the service, traveling through France, England, Germany and Italy, Merima gives his leisure predominantly art historical writings: "Note on the south of France" (1835), "Etude about religious architecture" (1837) and MN. Dr.

Artworks Merima of the beginning of the 30s. Extremely few and testify to the departure of Merim from social topics to intimate-psychological sketches, to the image of the salon-secular circles of French society. This is usually realistic novels - "Etruscan Vase" (1830), "Double Error" (1833). The horizon Merim is limited here on the advantage of the image of the salon-secular circles of society. Without the finished representative of this environment, Merim absorbs, however, some of its influences, the main one affected the rule of Merim to psychological analysis, not to the Standale analysis, in which the socio-class psychology of characters is revealed, but to indifferent, slightly ironic observation of "universal" The processes of mental life.

However, the period of convergence of a group of Merim with the July winners was short-term. The revolution has not changed anything. Accordingly, this intricacies in subsequent novels Merim there is a departure from the salon-free sketches and the prevalence of the previous - historical, fantastic and exotic - plot. These are the novels "Soul Purgatory" (1834), one of the excellent interpretations of the plot about Don-Juine, and "Illy Venus" (1837), saturated with archaeological and art historical impressions of Merim. In 1840, one of the best works of Merim is a story "Colomba", where the writer returns to the chanting of Corsica again. In the novel "Arsen Gilo" (1844), Merime is the last time affecting the subject of class inequality. In 1845, the most famous from the works of Merima is the story "Carmen", in which the writer managed to recreate one of the "world images", like Hamlet, Don - Kihot, - Frame Carmen, for which freedom is more expensive than life.

Merime was already a completely bourgeois writer. In the result casual acquaintance With the family of Evgeny Montiho, which was in 1853 by the French Empress, Merim becomes court and senator. Over the next years, he continues his art historical classes, is given to numerous historical works, publishing letters of standal and memories of him, criticism, etc. Almost completely broke with artistic creativity, he only prints the story "Lokis" in 1869; The last two novels "Juman" and "Blue Room" appeared after his death.

Merime did a lot to popularize Russian literatriors and stories in France. Back in the late 20s. He acquires the first Russian dating and further gets closer to A. I. Turgenev and S. A. Sobolevsky, having through the last connection with Pushkin, - meets E. A. Baratynsky, I. S. Turgenev, Lv's Pushkin and others. Having studied The Russian language, Merim translates Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, reads Russian historians, compiling for their works a number of articles in Russian history, and writes several articles about Pushkin, Gogol, I. S. Turgenev. About lovers of Russian literature elected Merim in 1862 with his honorary member.