Traditions of the peoples of Europe. Christmas traditions of European countries

In Western Europe, 58 nations. 96% of the population speak in the language of the Indo-European family. The most significant of this family (by the number of peoples) is the German Group, Romanesque Group, Slavic Group, etc.

Anthropological composition: Caucasian racial type.

Greek: The beginning of this ethnos on the lands of modern Greece. In 8-5 centuries. BC. There was a general ethnic name - Ellina, Motherland - Ellad. Basic classes - grow grapes, olives, almonds, distant sheep and breeding goats, pottery and rope. Houses from the raw stone (1 and 2 floors), where lives lives. People's Men's Costume: Black or Blue Sharovar, White Shirt, Vest, Kushak, Fesca, Cloak; Female - long white tunic shirt with a wide long sleeve, wide long skirt.

Albanians. Take place from the ancient population, the Balkans - Illyrians (Thracians). In 4v. BC. First public entities. Main classes: Discompanying cattle breeding, agriculture (grain - barley, rye; in the mountains - oats, wheat; in the valleys - millet; potatoes, corn, cotton, sugar beet) are also grown. Rural settlements of three types: scattered, crowded and regular. Usually 2-storey houses with a veranda. More than 2/3 - Muslims, about a quarter - Orthodox.

Romanesque group. 15 peoples (Italians, Italy, Corsicans, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Romanians, etc.). The Romans subordinate to themselves and assimilated many nations, the ratomanization went down to 5 V. AD Traditional Italians - Gardening, Grain Agriculture, Livestock. Food - Pasta, many spices and seasonings. More than half of the population lives in cities, rural settlements of 3 types: villages, farm, fortresses. Suit: Male - Pantalon, Kamiech (Tunic-shaped shirt), Jacca (jacket), hat or takes; Female - gene (long skirt), kamiech, corsetto, jackett (outerwear), Fazcoletto (head shawl), wooden shoes with iron spikes. Believers in most Catholics. Traditional French classes: animal husbandry, field growing, viticulture. Major cultures - rice, corn, rye. Food: cheese, rabbits meat, bird (in south of pigeons), vegetables, roots. Rural settlements 2 species: Street Plan (row) and cumulating. This is a 1-storey house under the roof, residential and economic premises. Male suit: pants, shirt, vest, neck scarf, straw hat. Believers mostly Catholics. Wallons (40% of the population of Belgium) - craft people. Large streets of street and cumulus type. Peoples of the Pyrenean Peninsula: Spain stands on 1 place for the production of olive oil. Developed grain farming. Already in the Roman era, large horned cattle was bred, fishing has very ancient origins. Women's suit: Wide assembly skirt with a front, light blouse, a corsage, on a head head. Catholics.

German group - 17 nations. They speak in the languages \u200b\u200bof the German Group (Germans, Austrians, German Manchanis, Luxembourgs, Larring, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, Norwegians, British, Scots, etc.). Traditional occupation - animal husbandry (cattle) - distilmed-stalk, agriculture. Traditional settlements: Large cumulative villages with randomly located houses and curves streets. Clothing: Men's - shirt (consists of two cloth), long pants, shoes served leather sole with leather straps; Women's - Ruba is also of two cloth, a raincoat with a hood. Crafts - knitting, rope, weaving, embroidery.

Celtic group. 4 people - Irish, Welsh, Galy, Bretonians. Traditional classes - agriculture and cattle breeding. Broken barley, oats, wheat. The main role is played by animal husbandry (cattle). Food - cereals, fish, dairy dishes, soups. One of the oldest cities is Dublin. Rural settlements of the farm type. Houses stone and braided. Traditional costume: black clothes in older women; Young man has a long wide skirt and corset, long white apron and white lace cape; Male - narrow short pants, jacket with a deaf gate, hat. In most Catholics.

farms, dwelling, food, life, morals

The article discusses the features of Europe as the mainland, which, due to its geographical, economic conditions, has created multiple types of culture of everyday life, discharged in each particular country.

Article text:

Europe - One of the six parts of the world, formed with Asia, the mainland of Eurasia, with an area of \u200b\u200babout 10.5 million km² and the population of 830.4 million people. Europe is named after the heroine of the Greek mythology of Europe, the Phoenician princess, abducted by Zeus and taken to Crete (at the same time the epithet of Europe could also contact the hero and Demetra).

The origin of this name itself, how the French linguist P. Shartren is concluded, unknown. The most popular etymological hypotheses in modern literature were offered in antiquity (along with many others), but are controversial:

• One etymology interprets him from Greek roots euro.- I. ops- as " broad-eyed».
• According to the lexicographer Gesichy, the name of Europe means " sunset country, or dark"That later linguists have been compared with Zap.-Sem. 'RB. "Sunset" or Akkad. erebu. With the same value. M. West assesses this etymology as very weak.

For a long time, Europe remained unnecessary people. Where did a person come from to Europe, controversy. It is known only that Europe was not a place for the origin of mankind. Nevertheless, a person appeared here for a very long time: still in the lower Paleolithic (the ancient stone age), - apparently, no later than 1 million years ago. Initially, the southern and central parts of Europe were populated. Especially many finds of stone tools of the oldest period made in the caves in the south-west of France. In the period of the Upper Paleolithic (40-13 thousand years BC), people who belonged to the modern human type were already lived in Europe - Homo Sapiens. In this era, people settled almost all of Europe besides her the northernmost part. Finally, during the period of Mesolitis (13-5 thousand years BC) was mastered and northern Europe. At the same time, there were differences in the economic classes of people who inhabited different areas of Europe: the inhabitants of the Baltic and Mediterranean seas, they began to engage in fishing, on the coast of the northern seas - maritime gathering, in the inner areas - hunting and collecting. Pretty early population of individual regions of Europe began to move to the manufacturing farm, then some groups of fishermen managed to domesticated dogs and pigs. On the territory of Northern Greece, agricultural-cattle settlements arose earlier than in other areas - about 9 thousand years ago. In VI or V thousand BC The population of Europe has already skillfully to pay metals, and in the I thousand BC. On the territory of Europe began the so-called iron age.

In which languages \u200b\u200bthey spoke the ancient inhabitants of Europe, it is unknown. From III - IX centuries. Already our era in Europe there was mass migrations of the Germanic, Slavic, Turkic, Iranian and other tribes and tribal associations, later called the great resettlement of the people.

In modern Europe, there are several dozen of different peoples, however, the ethnic composition of its population is less complicated than in other major regions of the world, since almost all European peoples relate to the one-in-European group-language family. The largest branches of this family in Europe -doman, German and Slavic. In Europe, two independent branches of the Indo-European language family are also represented to which the languages \u200b\u200bof the Greeks and Albanians are. Representatives of the Indoran branch -tsgan.

Three ethnos of Europe-consumers (13 million), Finns (5 million) and small peoples of Saama (blades) - aprothes to the Finno-Ural branch of the Ural language family. Saamas are resettled in the Far North of Europe: in the Arctic regions of Norway, Sweden and Finland.

Maltese (the population of the island state of Malta) refer to the Afrazian (seven-Khamita) language family. Maltese is actually one of the dialects of Arabic, although Latin writing has been adopted in it. Currently, most Maltesers along with Maltese know English and Italian.

One indigenous people of Europe-bins -in is an isolated position. Basque language could not be attributed to any language family. Basks live in the north of Spain and in Western Pyrenees - both sides of the Spanish-French border.

In addition, in Europe, quite numerous groups of immigrants (Arabs, Berbers, Turks, Kurds, Indians, Pakistanis, etc.) of Arabs and Berbers are more often detained in large cities of France, the vast majority of Turks and Kurds settle in Germany, immigrants from India and Pakistan is sent to the UK. In large cities there were also immigrants from the former English colonies in West Indies and Black Africa.

In addition to the resettlements from other parts of the world for Europe, intraregional and interstate migrations are characterized, which also make the ethnic composition more than the motley.

In a racial attitude, the modern population of Europe (not counting the gradually increasing group of immigrants from non-European countries) is more or less uniform: with the exception of Sami, which in their physical appearance occupies an intermediate position between European views and Mongoloids, the main population of Europe belongs to the European-like race. Nevertheless, among the European views, three groups of anthropological types can be distinguished: north, southern and transitional.

The prevailing religion of the peoples of Europe is Christianity presented here by all three of its main areas: Catholicism, Protestantism of various currents and Orthodoxy. Catholicism adheres to the majority of the population in many countries of South and Western Europe: Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Ireland and some others.

The largest flows of Protestantism in Europe are Lutheranism, Anglicism and Calvinism. Lutherancy professes most residents

Germany and the overwhelming majority of the population of Scandinavian countries and Finland. The British make up over half of the UK population. Calvinism confesses a significant part of the population of Switzerland, the Netherlands and Scotland. In the states of Central and Northern Europe, the spread of Protestantism is characterized.

Orthodoxy adhere to the Greeks, Romanians and part of Albanians.

In Europe, there is also one country-shallow, where the most large religious group is Muslims. In connection with the non-European immigration, significant groups of Muslims appeared in many European countries.

In major European cities there are also Jewish communities.

Traditional economic entities of the Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe

Foreign Europe is a highly developed region. Therefore, traditional forms of farm have almost preserved there. In the last major activities of Europeans were agriculture and animal husbandry. However, the last everywhere, except for several districts (Iceland, Alps, Faroe Islands). Inferior to agriculture.

In Europe, very early - even in II -I thousand BC. Plugged farming spread. The farmers used arable guns of two types: Rail (not had the dump and wheelchair) and a plow (equipped with a blade and wheeled front). Rail was distributed in the southern and northern regions, the plow - in the central regions. Owls used in the north of horses as working cattle. Cleaned grain crops using serp and braids. The bread was thickened, and in the south, sometimes drove into the compressed ears of the oxen. Grain thickened on water and windmills. Now these old agricultural tools and methods for treating crops mainly went into the past. The latest methods of agriculture are used.

The most important agricultural crops in the northern regions of Europe are barley, rye, oats, in the central regions of the severity, rye, sugar beet. In the south of Europe, in addition to wheat and rye, the corn brought from America, in some areas, rice is also cultivated. Widely spread in Europe and such a culture of American origin. Like potatoes. In Europe, horticulture and horticulture have long been developed. In the Mediterranean, the cultivation of fruit and citrus trees and viticulture are common. Vineyards. The main part of the crops of which goes to the manufacture of wines, meet and north of the valleys of the Rivers Loire and Rhine. From technical crops in the north of Europe, flax and hemp, in the southern -chlockniknik and tobacco are grown. In many European countries, gardening is developed especially in Holland, Denmark, Germany, England.

A rather important role in the farm of most nations of Europe plays animal husbandry. Dilsert predominantly cattle. Stall livestock content. Livestock is focused on both the production of milk and dairy products and the production of meat and meat products. In many areas of Europe, sheep is also breed (mainly to obtain wool) and pigs.

Fisheries in coastal areas are very developed in combination with the extraction of other seafood: shrimp, oysters, mussels. It has especially important to Norwegians and Icelanders.

Since the Middle Ages in Europe, there has been a very developed handicraft production, on the basis of which a variety of industry was later formed. Later, the craft was strongly measured by the industry, but its separate species, primarily having artistic importance, are still preserved. This is a laceweight, embroidery, jewelry, production of ceramic and glass products, some musical instruments.

The farm living in the Arctic areas of Saamov is significantly different from the occupations of other nations of Europe. They have the most developed tundra reindeer herding and fishing.

Settlements and types of rural houses

Currently, the urban population is sharply dominated in most European countries. In many countries, urban residents make up more than three quarters of the entire population, and in the UK and Northern Ireland, more than 90%.

It is characterized by a large concentration of the population in the largest cities, more precisely in urban agglomerations in which settlements adjacent to the city. The population of such cities is especially motley, because It is there that the main ducts of migrants are sent. In large cities, especially intensively communication and mutual influence of representatives of different nationalities, which, along with other factors, leads to the formation of a special urban subculture.

However, despite the previous development of industrialization in it, the rural population prevailed. In some countries (for example, in Portugal, Albania), it is numerous now. Among rural settlements there are both multi-modes and one-bedrooms. One-bedroom settlements -Hutor are common in the mountainous areas of France, in the north of Spain, in the north of Italy, in the north-west of Germany, the West of England and in Norway. Multi-rose settlements -Derevni are completed in the plain part of Central Europe, France, Italy and Spain, as well as in the Balkans. Multi-thorny rural settlements differ significantly in their development. In Central and Southern Europe, the villages of a cumulative plan prevail, when at home and the estates adjacent to them are located in disarray, curves and intricate streets. In the east of Germany there are also circular villages. At home in such a village are built around the square and addressed it with their facades. In some places in the west, street villages are found in the West, although this type of settlements is more characteristic of Eastern European peoples. Street villages were usually built along the passage roads. In Europe, you can meet scattered, or scattered, villages, which are among the average between groups of single-petrifors and multi-rigany villages. They are common in Western Europe.

Rural dwellings found in Europe are also divided into several types. So, for the south of Europe, the so-called Mediterranean house is especially characteristic. This is a two-story, less often - the three-story stone structure, at the bottom of which houses are located, from above - residential premises. The roof of the Mediterranean house is double, tiled. Spaniards, southern French, southern Italians live in such houses.

In the north of Italy, in the mountainous regions of Switzerland and Austria, in the south of Germany the most common is the so-called alpine house. It is also a two-storey, its lower part is stone, and the upper-keeper, cutting, with the gallery. The roof of such a house is also a double, keeps on longitudinal beams. Residential premises are located on both floors, are economic - only on the first. The alpine house is like the dwelling of the Basque, only unlike the Alpine home the second floor of the Basque -Karkal.

For most of the territory of France and the Netherlands, in Belgium, Great Britain, Central Germany, the placed areas of Austria and Switzerland are common at home of Western Middle Eastern Type. One of his options is the Weremmetsky (Franconian) house. This is the construction of one or two floors - a brick or frame of wooden crossed beams, the gaps between which are filled with a variety of material (clay, boob stone, brick, etc.). Residential and economic premises are closed with three and four sides. The roof is based on rafters.

The Northrazuz House is an elongated stone or frame building along the street, to which economic premises are adjacent. The house is not fenced. Unlike him, the South Polivburg dm, common in Belgium (also one-storey, stone or frame), is struck by a high wall. Economic premises are sometimes freely scattered in the yard, sometimes arranged at its perimeter. Entrance to the house is done under the arch.

In the northern regions of Germany and the Netherlands, as well as in Denmark, the North European Type Houses are common. A particularly characteristic variety of this type is the Lowernesec (or Saxon) house. This is an extensive single-storey building -carque or just brick (without frame). In the middle part it is located Khumno (the room where compressed bread is stored and pray) or the indoor courtyard, on both sides of which are accommodated living spaces, stables, hhery (cattle pens). The massive roof of such a house rests not on the walls, but on the thick pillars, standing inside the house along the walls.

The Panneon House, common in Hungary, is a single-storey global structure with a straw roof. Along the house there is a gallery on the poles.

In Scandinavia and Finland, fragments of single-storey dwellings are common. The Noskobandan car house consists of heated residential premises, unheated hay and comorors. In the South KanDannavian house, cold canopies are adjusted from two sides to heated residential premises.

The traditions of building rural houses in the past had a significant impact on urban architecture. Currently, the urban architecture is characterized by increasing unification and smoothing of traditional specifics. A similar tendency is also manifested in rural areas.

Traditional food

Traditional food in different parts of Europe differs quite noticeably. In the south of Europe, wheat bread eaten, in the north, along with wheat, is widespread than rye. In the north, use mostly an animal oil, in the south-arsen. From drinks in the UK, Ireland, as well as the Netherlands prefer tea, in other countries -kinfofa, and in Central Europe, it is usually drunk with milk or cream, and in southern Europe-honey. In the southern countries in the morning they eat very little, in the northern countries - more dense breakfast. In the south, naturally, they use more fruits. In coastal areas, a significant place in the diet, for obvious reasons, is occupied by fish and other seafood.

At the same time, along with regional peculiarity, the characteristic features are inherent in the food of every nation. So, the French compared to other European peoples eat a large number of bakery products. For the preparation of snacks, the first and second dishes, the French use many vegetables, roots and tubers: potatoes, different grades of onions (especially at the same time and shallot), cabbage and salads, podolova, spinach, tomatoes, eggplants. Asparagus and artichokes are very popular. Compared with other peoples of Western Europe, they are less useful milk and dairy products, except for cheese. There are not one hundred a hundred varieties of French cheese, among which are very popular soft cheese with the inner green mold -pfort and soft cheese with an exterior white mold -kaamber. The favorite traditional dishes of the French are Beefsteks with fried in fryer potatoes, stew under the white sauce Beshamel. A variety of sauces are generally very widely used by the French in the preparation of meat second dishes and salads. From the first French dishes are especially common with cheese soup. Delicates of French cuisine are Oysters, snails and roasted rear legs of large frogs. The French occupy the first place in the world of grape wines. The wine is served to the table twice a day, and dinner and dinner.

The favorite Kushan of the Italians are pasta, all the dishes of which are called a paste. The paste is prepared with tomato sauce, oil and cheese or meat. Paste often serves beans, peas, cauliflower. A significant place in the rational of Italians is cheese. Its traditional varieties are parmesan (solid dry cheese), Mozzarella (buffalo milk cheese), Pekorino (salty dry cheese of sheep milk). Italians also eat risotto-clips with ham, grated cheese, onions, shrimps and mushrooms, a tangible cornpap, which is cut into pieces before serving the table. From spices and seasonings Italians prefer maslines, capers (kidney of the plant of the same name), chicory and nutmeg.

The British eat quite a lot of meat (beef, veal, lamb, low-fat pork). The most popular meat dishes are considered Rosthex and Beefsteks. Tomato sauce is usually served to meat, peak (small marinated vegetables), potatoes and vegetables. Traditional Kushan British are also a variety of puddings: meat, cereal, vegetable (they are served as second dishes), as well as sweet fruit (dessert). In the morning the British love eating liquid oatmeal (Porridge) or wheat (corn) flakes with milk. From the first dishes they prefer broths and soups-mashed potatoes. For holidays in England, try to prepare traditional dishes. Favorite among them is the Christmas Plam Pudding from Sala, bread crumbs, flour, raisins, sugar, eggs and various spices. It is poured by rum, ignite and burning are served on the table.

Scottish traditional food is largely similar to English, but has its own features. For the Scots are very characteristic black (blood) pudding and white pudding (cooked from a mixture of oatmeal, sludge and bow). Scots larger than the British use cereals for making various dishes. Traditional Scottish Kushan -Baranda or calf required with oatmeal, richly seasoned onion and pepper.

For the Germans are characterized by widespread use of all sorts of sausages, sausages and sacks. A very common dish is an insistence with steamed sauerkraut. Potato soup with sausages and pea soup with sausage are also popular. The Germans also prepare a variety of pork and poultry dishes. Vegetables are usually eaten in boiled form (color and red cabbage are especially common, tricky beans and carrots). Popular boiled peas. Beans and potatoes. The Germans are preparing a lot of eggs from eggs: stuffed eggs, baked, scrambled eggs, omelet. Love Germans and various sandwiches. Traditional head of the Germans -pivo. The basis of the kitchen of the Scandinavian peoples is fish and other seafood. Fish dishes on the tables of the Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders are almost daily. Danes love herring, mackerel, eel, cambal and salmon in boiled or salty form. Smoked and dried fish is spread less. Popular dish of Norwegians - Herring with potatoes. They also eat fried cod, cambal, halibut. Favorite their kushany - it is clipfix -ighted decapitated cod on the rocks. Very common in the Scandinavian peoples sandwiches. In Denmark, the sandwich is even called the king of the kitchen. Different sandwiches are numbered here until the seven of the species: from a simple slice of bread with oil to the so-called multi-storey sandwich, referred to as the "favorite sandwich of Hans Christian Andersen." Such a sandwich consists of several slices, bread, intermitted by several beacon layers, tomatoes, hepatic patesta, jelly and white radish. Eating him by removing one layer after another. Multi-storey sandwiches are also prepared using various seafood. A prominent place in the Scandinavian cuisine is occupied by milk. Scandinavian peoples love to drink fresh milk, various cereals and soups are prepared from milk, they are driving out of potatoes, various fermented dairy products make it.

Traditional clothes of the peoples of Western, Central, North and Southern Europe

National features in modern clothes of European peoples have preserved quite small. There is everywhere the so-called European city costume, which is home to the United Kingdom. Men have this suit make up pants, shirt with long sleeves and jacket, in women -Yubka, blouse with sleeves and jacket. Such a suit at the end of the XIX century spread from citizens, and later in rural residents, almost everywhere withdrawing national clothing complexes. National costumes are now worn only during folk holidays, concerts of folk art teams, etc.

Nevertheless, individual elements of traditional clothing continue to exist, and not only in rural areas, but also cities. So, in Edinburgh and in other cities of Scotland, men often wear national checkered skirts (kilt). By the way, the skirt as a typical element of men's clothing was also distributed in the Irish, Greeks and Albanians.

The most common element of European men's clothing in the past was a little pants a little lower knees. They were worn with short stockings or heter. Men also put on a shirt with long sleeves, and on top of her -wear or jacket. The French, Spaniards and other Romanesque people were told on the neck of a colored scarf. A typical headdress served fetal or felt hat. The traditional headdress of the Basque -Sonny takes the other nations of Europe later. In particular, he later became a popular headdress of the French.

Female traditional clothes of various nations differed in a great variety. In most Romanesque peoples, women wore long wide skirts with ruffles or border. Germans went in short wide assembly skirts. Sometimes several skirts of different lengths were put on immediately. To wear at once a few skirts decorated with lace (and the upper skirt was darker), it was accepted in some other areas, for example in Holland and in Flanders (North-West Belgium). Greeks also put on a sundress with a belt. Someone especially in mountain areas, women wore long pants. Everywhere in Europe, it was also accepted to wear a bright apron. White shuttle sweatshirts were also characteristic; On top of the sweaters put on a fitting bodice with lacing or on buttons. On the head wearing scarves, caps and hats.

In many areas of Europe, along with leather, wooden shoes were widespread.

The traditional clothing of Saamov is very different from the costumes of all other European peoples. In men, she consisted of a shirt to his knees and a narrow cloth pants, in women - with a long white shirt and died on top of her dresses (in warm weather, in the cold -Conous). In winter and men and women wearing clothes and shoes from deer skins.

Family and family life

Currently, all peoples prevail the so-called small family, consisting of a matrimonial couple with children. In the past, a large, or a multi-solid family, who jointly led the farm and was headed by a senior family member. For many nations, the remnants of a large patriarchal family have been preserved in the XIX century., And in some places (for example, in Albania) did not disappear and now. For European peoples are currently characterized by relatively late marriages and low fertility, which is a certain extent due to the predominance of a small family.

The fact is that in a large patriarchal, the family is not worth a particularly acute question, whether young parents will be able to contain children themselves and who will nurse them. In modern conditions, young people often postpone the conclusion of the marriage and the birth of children until the completion of studies and the acquisition of a solid economic situation. The highest birth rate in Europe is now observed at the Albanians. Significantly higher than that of other European peoples, fertility and in the Irish, despite the fact that they marry much late. Since the majority of European countries are characterized by a low birth rate, and the population growth occurs mainly due to immigrants, many European states conduct a directional socio-demographic policy in order to increase the departure in families. This policy includes such measures as paid maternity leave, childcare leave. Subsidies to families who have children, including housing subsidies, etc.

The conclusion of marriage in all European peoples is usually accompanied by a festive ceremony, and in the wedding ritual, although in a modified form, many traditional features are preserved. Many nations have a ritual imitation of the abduction of the bride, a ritual redemption. In the past, a number of rituals had to symbolize the transition of the bride into the category of married women. On the eve of the wedding, it was accepted that the groom would arrange a farewell evening for his friends, and the bride for his girlfriends. In the countryside in the wedding celebrations, all residents of the village were participated. In some European countries (in Spain, Portugal, Greece), only church marriage is considered valid, in other countries (for example, in the UK and Sweden) is recognized as church and civil marriage; There are also countries (France, Switzerland), where marriage should certainly be committed in civilian bodies (though, and there a civil ceremony is often complemented by the wedding in the church).

The most common holidays and public life

The most celebrated holidays in the inhabitants of Europe is the Christmas and Easter, and the Catholics and Protestants are christmas, in Orthodox -Pasha. In the Orthodox peoples of Grekov, Romanians and parts of Albanians, the Church adopted the Gregorian calendar (and not Julian, as in the Russian Orthodox Church). And they celebrate these holidays simultaneously with Catholics and Protestants. By the way, the Christmas and Easter traditionally celebrate even people who are departed from religion. On Christmas, it is customary to dress up a Christmas tree. This custom appeared in the second half of the XVIII century. In Alsace, and then rooted from other nations of Europe. The peoples of the UK traditional Christmas decoration are holly branches (evergreen shrubs with bright red-orange berries) or mistletoe (plants with white berries, which considered the sacred from the ancient Celts). For Christmas, it is customary to do each other gifts. Children gifts are put in shoes under the cribs. Either in a special stocking, and it is believed that they brought them a Christmas grandfather (the British and the Germans called him Santa Claus, French Pierre-Noelf, the Italians -Bobbo Natal). Christmas is usually celebrated in a family circle. Unlike him, the new year is often celebrated in a cafe, the street walking is also arranged in this holiday.

Spring holiday, accompanied by massive walks, in many countries is Maslenitsa. Italians, French and some other peoples are arranged on the carnival of carnavals. A lot of people always take part in the carnavals: fun processions of people in special costumes are arranged, performs performances on historical themes.

Traditional summer holiday-day St. John (similar to the day of Ivan Kupala). It is especially popular in Nordic countries: Finland, Sweden and others. Large bonfires are breeding in this holiday. Singing songs. Swimming in rivers and lakes, guess. Day of St. John is an example of the imposition of a Christian holiday on more ancient pagan associated with the farm calendar. The elements of the ancient calendar rituals are visible in celebrating the days of some other saints.

On November 1, in many European countries celebrate the day of all saints. On this day, they remember the departed, attend the graves of the deceased relatives, reward the honors to the victims in the warriors. Traditional rituals and rites in some countries accompany the work of state bodies. So, Wangly every year on the day of the opening of the parliament, a special procession in medieval costumes bypasses all the basements of the building, and then reports the speaker that there are no conspirators in the building. Such a kind of custom was formed after in 1605 the conspiracy of Guy Fox was revealed, intending to blow up the parliament during his meeting.

Some of the currently existing forms of public organizations (trade unions, clubs, various societies and mugs, student, sports, hunting, singing and other associations) arose on the basis of handicraft work unions developed in the Middle Ages in Europe.

Basic list of literature

1. Georgiev TS, culture of everyday life. In 3-kN.m., Higher School, 2006
2. Kozakov M.I., History. Culture. Everyday. Western Europe: from antiquity up to 20th century M.: The whole world, 2002
3. Ethnology. Ed. Miska E.V., Mekhedova N.P., Pilinova V.V., M., 2005
4. Yarstsky a. L. Interdisciplinary dialogue and study of the history of everyday life and material culture of Central Europe // Intercultural dialogue in a historical context. M., 2003.

Many of the tourists, deciding to go to rest in a new European country, do not quite know that customs and traditions in Europe are found in the root differ from Russian standards. In each country, for example, there are own rules of etiquette and a violation of them can, at least to force the tourist to blush for their behavior, so it is better to get to know the traditions of the peoples of Europe before going on a trip.

In this article, I would like to stay on the etiquette in Europe, as well as on the wedding and culinary traditions of the old world.

The concept of etiquette is widely used in the 17th century. During the reign of the French king, Louis XIV in front of their receptions, all guests were distributed cards in which some rules of behavior were written in this reception. It is etiquette, as the tradition of Western Europe, has received rapid distribution in other countries of the continent, and then the whole world.

In Western European countries, etiquette developed under the great influence of traditional customs. Various strata of society, prejudice and superstition, religious rites determine the development of etiques in those times.

Currently, many believe that modern etiquette inherited only the best of the customs and traditions of Europe, transmitting from generation to generation. And if some norms of behavior have been preserved unchanged and until today, it is probably no need to argue with folk wisdom.

However, one should not forget that some of the requirements relating to etiquette are quite conditional and directly depend on time, place and circumstances.

For example, you can remember that only a few centuries ago a man could wear a sword, a dagger or a saber on the left side, and if a woman was walking next to him, then she naturally, so as not to hurt the weapon went to the right. Now there are no such interference (unless in families where the man is military), but the tradition has been preserved.

In modern Europe, for a long period of its development, the traditions and customs of countries were mixed with each other. This largely concerns both the preparation and holding of wedding celebrations.

Some of the wedding traditions of Europe are well acquainted to residents of Russia, but others can become a real revelation for us.

For example, in Hungary, the bride should remove the shoes and put them in the middle of the room, and the one who wants to invite her to dance should throw coins in shoes. The same custom is common and weddings in Portugal.

At the weddings in Romania, newlyweds shower with swings, nuts or rose petals.

The bride in Slovakia should give his chosen one ring and a silk shirt, embroidered with gold threads. And the groom in response must give her a ring of silver, a fur hat, black and belt belief.

In Norway, the bride and groom are definitely soldered two Christmas trees, and in Switzerland - Posina.

In German weddings in front of the ceremony, friends and relatives of the bride beat the dishes near her house, and Frenchman newlyweds in happiness and love drink wine from the Cup.

The festive banquet in Holland is usually carried out in front of the marriage ceremony itself.

British brides challenge at their wedding dress of the horseshoe or the mace of happiness.

Brides heads in Finland must be decorated with a crown.

Before the start of the wedding in Sweden, the bride puts two coins in shoes, which her parents gave her - the mother is gold, and the father is silver.

Each such wedding tradition in Europe is unique, and what is the most pleasant - they even in many years they do not lose relevance and live in the memory of modern Europeans.

Culinary traditions of Europe are the most ancient in the world, however, the innate enterprise and curiosity of its inhabitants made the continent's cuisine extremely difficult and varied.

The culinary traditions of the nations of Europe are amazing recipes of national dishes of different countries. It is rather a collective concept, because each country can be proud of its own culinary features and traditions.

In Central Europe, Polish and Hungarian dishes are dominated. Crown recipes are the preparation of a walk, strzdel, vegetable soup with dill and others.

Eastern European dishes are extremely diverse. The customs of cooking were transferred to modern residents from nomads, who many centuries ago settled these lands.

In Western Europe, the French cuisine is distinguished, the chefs of which know the felt in vegetables and good fault. The neighbors of the French are Germans do not represent their lives without potatoes, meat and beer.

The kitchen of Northern Europe is extremely diverse. From beer with fried potatoes or fish to cream brulee and sweets in chocolate.

You can especially select duck recipes in orange sauce and chicken huntsman.

Distinctive feature-European cuisine is the addition of wine to many dishes, which is also mandatory to be resolved on the table before the meal.

In conclusion, articles should be noted that, starting from the second half of the 20th century, the concept of mass culture appeared in Europe - a characteristic phenomenon in the 20th century, which was caused by mass consumption and production.

Mass culture rapidly embraced various spheres of life, and most fully manifested in the youth subculture (for example, rock music, etc.).

It happened to its strengthening due to the media, an increase in the level of literacy of the population and the development of information technologies.

16. Peoples of Western Europe

In Western Europe, there are many different peoples. The largest of them are: Germans, French, Greeks, British, Spaniards, Italians. The common between them is the social device: a small family with 1-2 children, although large families have been preserved. In urban families, between engagement and wedding sometimes took place for several years, while the young people did not have their own housing. Clothes are also very similar: women wear sweatshirts, assembly skirts, apron, dresses, a shoe scarf. Special diversity was different hats - scarves, violent by different ways, hats. Shoes: leather shoes, half boots, sabo. Male costume consisted of a shirt, short (to the knees) or long pants, sleeveless, cervical scarf, shoes or boots.

Germans: the total number of 86 million people. They speak the German language of the German group of the Indo-European family. The basis of the economy traditionally amounted to agriculture. We used a three-headed system for treating the Earth, the main grain crop was wheat. Potatoes grown from garden crops. Livestime plays a big role, poultry, pig breeding, horse breeding, cattle breeding are widely spread. Building construction equipment used in the construction of houses. Houses single or two-story. Mandatory is a fireplace. Food: Potatoes and various dishes from it, rye and wheat bread, flour products; Dairy and meat dishes. The most common drink is beer. Soft drinks prefer coffee with cream, tea. Festive food: pork head (or pork) with sauer stew cabbage, goose, carp. Bake a lot of confectionery flour products. Religion: Protestantia and Catholicism. In oral folk art, short comic stories are dominated, fairy tales, folk dances and songs are very popular. Singing is given a significant role in the education of the younger generation. Applied art continues to develop: wood processing, metal, glasses, weaving, embroidery and pottery.

Italians: the total number of 66.5 million people. They speak the Italian language of the Romanesque Group of Indo-European Family, there are many dialects. Religion: Catholicism. Traditional agricultural industries: arable farming, viticulture, gardening, large and small cattle breeding. The main material for the construction of a rural house is a stone. Residence: two- or three-story stone buildings, in terms of rectangular. The food of the Italians is distinguished by a variety, abundance of vegetables and fruits. They eat bread and cheese, various pasta with sauces, pizza, fish or meat dishes. Fresh wine from drinks.

The French: the total number of 59.4 million people. They speak French Romanesque Group of Indo-European Family. Religion: Catholicism, there is Calvinism. Classes: in agriculture - animal husbandry, breed cattle, pigs, sheep, bird); agriculture. Major Cultures: Wheat, Barley, Corn, Sugar Sweet, Tobacco and others. Traditional viticulture and winemaking are also developed. Traditional crafts (wood carving, manufacture of painted ceramics, lace weaving) lose value. However, some of them, such as perfumery, turned into industrial industries and acquired world fame. The layout of settlements is mostly linear. Residence: One-storey stone or globitated on a wooden frame construction, where residential premises are combined under one roof and the stable, stall, barn and wine cellar are combined under one roof. Cool duple roofs with slate, tiled, etc. For traditional foods are characterized by vegetable and onion soups, beef and pork bifhtex, fried potatoes, ram of stew under various sauces, omelets with ham, mushrooms and other seasonings, fish dishes; Widespread. Many vegetables, fruits, oysters, lunguhsts, crabs, sea hedgehogs, mollusks are consumed.

18. The peoples of the Volga region and Kama. Peoples of the European North of Russia

Many different peoples, such as Russians, Kalyki, Udmurts, Mari, Komi, Karelia, and others, live in this area. Characteristics of some of them:

Udmurts: the total number of 747 thousand people. They speak at the Udmurt language of the Finno-Ural family of the Ural family, there are various dialects. Traditional form of farm: arable farming (rye, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, peas, millet, sheep, hemp, flax) and animal husbandry (working cattle, cows, pigs, sheep, poultry). Classes: Hunting, Fisheries, Beekeeping, Gathering. Crafts and crafts were developed. Traditional dwelling: ground log cabin with a duplex roof. Traditional clothes: Women wore a white canvas tunic-shaped shirt, a bathrobe. Outerwear: semi-wool and woolen cafts and fur coats. Shoes: Patterned stockings, knitted or stitched canvas socks, lapties, shoes, boots. A wide variety of hats: Kokoshnik, Naked bandage, High birch hat. Traditional food: mushrooms, berries, various herbs, bread products, meat dishes, soups, cereals, dairy products. The main social cell of the traditional Udmurt society was a marriage community. It usually consisted of several associations of related families.

Kalmyki: the number of 180 thousand people. They speak the Kalmyk language of the Mongolian group of the Altai family. Kalmyks used to be a nomadic people. Major classes: pasture-distant cattle breeding, fishing, agriculture, gardening. Divorced sheep, horses, cattle, goats, camels, pigs. Kalmyks sowed rye, wheat, millet, buckwheat, oats and technical crops: mustard, tobacco and flax. Developed artistic crafts: embroidery, processing, embossing on the skin, wood carving. The traditional settlement had a circular layout - most convenient in terms of defense with a nomadic lifestyle. Three types of traditional dwellings are known: kibitsa, dugout and semi-ray. Men's clothing: Prtedated caftan, shirt, pants, soft leather boots. Women's clothing: Long to fifth dress with sleeveless, under them Long shirt and pants, boots. There were various hats of men and women depending on the season, the vastity of the family, etc. Different decorations are common (bracelets, earrings ..). Traditional hairstyle of men and women - Spit: in men and girls - one, in women - two. Power base - meat and dairy products. Religion: Buddhism, shamanism, fetishism, a cult of fire and a homely hearth.

Komi: The total number of 345 thousand people. Most of believers - Orthodox, there are old goods. They speak in the language of the Komi Finno-Ural group of the Ural family. Main classes: agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting. The most common grain crop was barley, then rye. Divorced mainly cattle, sheep, horses, deer. Komi hunted bird, wild hoofs, fur animals. Gathering was gathering, all sorts of berries were collected: a lingonberry, raspberry, blueberry, cherry, rowan. Crafts were developed: sewing clothes, shoes, pottery, weaving, etc. Means of movement: Sani, skiing, boats. Traditional housing: ground, rectangular in shape construction. The residential part consisted of two rally (winter and summer), connected by gene, is a single whole with a shopping courtyard. Characteristic feature of the dwelling: single-drying roof, covered with shade. A thread, ornament - geometric ornament spread out of the dwellings. Traditional clothing: The foundation of a female costume was a shirt and sundress, short swing sweatshirts, a sheepskin coat. As a headdress, the girls usually wore multicolored ribbons, kokoshnik. Men's clothing: Sleeping shrink, spiderman, canvas pants, woolen socks. Outerwear: caftan, fur coat. Men's hats: felt cap or sheepskin hat. Men's and women's shoes differed little: shoes or boots. Traditional food: vegetable, meat and fish products. Sour soups, cold, porridge. A significant place in the food diet is baking: bread, juicy, pancakes, pies, etc. Of traditional drinks, berries, berries and herbs rags, birch juice are common. Folk beliefs and rites: cosmogonic myths reflecting the early ideas of the people about the world and the place of man in it; Epic legends and legends; Fairy tales and songs; Proverbs and sayings; ritual poetry. Preserved preserved preserves in the debt, witchcraft, divination, conspiracy, damage, there were cults of trees, fishing animals, fire, etc.

Theoretical and methodological studies. 2. Ethnology Ethnology Ethnology Ethnic Science The behavior of the originality of each science is determined, as is known, its own subject of study and methods of studying this subject. From the moment of the formation of ethnology as science and to the present, the cross-cutting theme of its research is the genesis of ethnic cultures and inter-ethnic relations. ...

And methodological research. The object of ethnology of the originality of each science, as is known, is determined by its own subject of study and methods of studying this subject. From the beginning of the formation of ethnology as science and to the present, the cross-cutting theme of its research is the genesis of ethnic cultures and inter-ethnic relations. Initially, on the basis of extremely limited and scattered ...

3.1. Main rituals, customs and traditions of the peoples of Europe

In the second half of the XIX century. Many peoples of foreign euro-pop existed patriarchal-type families, but by the middle of the XX century. Almost everywhere there was a simple monogamous family. Although the head of the family is usually the husband is still considered, but the patriarchals strongly weakened.

It should be noted that in recent years, women have ever more actively demanded to establish complete equality in all spheres of life and practically achieved serious results in this long struggle: on the oppressed position in which they were previously, little left.

Christian religion in his initial dogmas was characterized by great asceticism; She not only allowed, but also the greeting-shaft of the celibacy as the most worthy way to serve God. That is why almost immediately after the appearance of Christianity, monastic orders appear, celibacy from Catholic clergymen, etc.

The church was rather tough to divorces, not allowing them even in the case of the physical impossibility of someone from the spouses to have children. Ocho, it can be seen that in many respects it was the church for many years determined the development of the European family. At the same time, the appearance of Protestantism facilitated the position of the family: the peoples (or parts of the peoples), which passed into Protestan-Tisma, began to allow civilianization of marriage, allowing the intelligence, more tolerately refer to extramarital relationships, etc.

In the Catholic countries, the influence of the church is still felt; Marriages are usually concluded in the church, the divorces are very difficult and often replaced by the receipt of church permit only on separate accommodation of spouses (with the possibility of entering them into neo-form-like marriage).

The most significant family ritual having a high social significance is a wedding. This is the process of connecting two different surnames, various families, by which the basis of a new cell of natural and socio-cultural reproduction is laid.

Most peoples retain a tradition to enter into marriage plants of the end of spring and autumn field work, before and after large religious posts; Among the Germans, the maximum marriage falls on November, the second maximum - to May; Among the British and some other peoples, Mai is considered an unhappy month to conclude marriages, and the most napa-road is June.

Before concluding a marriage, the engagement is declared, which I-Ranet is a very important role, because it binds the groom and inconsistently and terminate it, without having lost respect for the familiar and neighbors, it is possible only in exceptional cases. The execution period is not only time to check the feelings and marriage intentions, but also a kind of public control over marriage; To this end, it is customary to post a declaration of the upcoming wedding or declare several times about this on the recreation of the church.

In Europe, age for marriage is usually determined by civil majority (usually 21 years), but there may be an exclusive: in Italy it is 14 years old for women and 16 years for men.

In some countries, only church marriage (Spain, Portugal and Greece) is considered valid, in other countries such as church and civil marriage (United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway and Denmark), in third-of them (Italy, France, Germany, etc. ) A civil marriage is required, although here after the marriage of marriage in the municipality or town hall, Molo-Dias are often sent to the church.

In rural settlements, not only relatives and neighbors were usually invited to the wedding, but all fellow villagers who made newly demanded gifts things or money.

The wedding house in most peoples was made to decorate live flowers and greens if the time of year allowed; In the church or town hall, the bride and groom were driving in an decorated carriage.

Among the Italians and some other peoples, until the last time, the custom of which guys, holding hands, blocked the newlywed exit from the church and missed them only for a small redemption. Preserved, however, some customs associated with the baptism of the newly spilled. Thus, the Celtic peoples of Britain entered the system to take the name of their father with the prefix "Son" as a surname (in Scotland - "Mac", in Ireland - "O").

There is a widespread installation when the first child in the family is called the name of one of the parents of the Father, the second - mother's parents, so that the family may have children with the same name.

Baptism, especially in Catholics and Orthodox, is preceded by a careful choice of godfather and mothers who then play a significant role in the life of a gym or skeleton, in their family celebrations, etc.; Often, Catholics were chosen from 3 to 6 godfathers and mothers.

Despite the fact that the religiosity of the inhabitants of the West and Southeastern Europe almost everywhere decreased, the solemn events and holidays of the Christian calendar are so strongly in life, which is still preserved even among people, almost departed from Churches and, let's prefer to celebrate a birthday, and not name day.

One of these major holidays is the Christmas of Christ, celebrated by Catholics and Protestants on December 25, i.e. Before the New Year, and Orthodox - 13 days later.

An important attribute of Christmas is a Christmas tree decorated with bright toys, and in recent decades and garlands of bulbs; Candles on the Christmas tree are taken only to Christmas Eve.

In Italy and some other countries, they begin to get ready since the beginning of December, along the urban streets, they put Christmas trees in the tubs with Pie-com, hang out the garlands of bulbs, in churches are preparing layouts and figures for Christmas ideas (moving figures of Mary, Joseph, Magi, Mackets of nursery, etc.).

At home and apartments, it is customary to clean the greens; In Britain, a mistletoe, which was considered sacred still at the Celts is often used. The church bells beat the church bells in the floor, they burn candles on the Christmas trees.

Christmas is considered a family holiday everywhere, we are spent in a relatively narrow circle. Children are especially rejoiced, expecting gifts that put them in bed shoes or are awarded Santa Claus. The new year is made in a less intimate setting, for example, in a cafe, restaurant, or simply on the street, arranging noisy necks. In Austria, marches are arranged with broken brooms, "sweeping" the remains of the old year. Such New Year's processions are often accompanied by crackers, fireworks, launch missiles and special orchestras. In Italy, for the new year, it is taken as a sign of liberation from all the old to throw out unnecessary dishes, old furniture and other trash.

An important spring holidays are everywhere are the oil and Easter. In the Mediterranean and neighboring countries with them, where winter is going fast, it is Maslenitsa, held after the middle of February, before the great post, is considered the feast of spring offshore.

The indispensable component of the carnival are processions in different masks and costumes for the orchestra and usually headed by the king and queen (prince and princess) of the carnival, food on the decorated auto machine (and earlier - on the wagon).

In southern France, and especially in the Netherlands, where flower growers are strongly developed, figures are taken in the carnival procession. Flower battles are arranged. Such a magnificent, costume carnava lamas is usually started to prepare for 2-3 months.

In the north of Protestant countries, the Maslenitsa Praz-dull is modest. In England, for example, on her tradition, only one day is given when at 11 o'clock on the blow of the bell, the mistress begins the furnace pancakes; In some villages, it was customary to arrange women's running with a frying pan, on which they keep hot pancakes, sometimes throwing them up.

Easter holiday compared to Carnival is usually carried out externally less brightly, mainly in the family and church. In Spain, Porto-Galia and Italy, it is customary to organize church marches in which the scenes of the crucifixion and the resurrection of Christ are swirling.

In more northern countries, children who collect painted eggs hidden for them in different places of Rodi-telly or presented with them neighbors, relatives and acquaintances are most fun in this holiday.

The bright summer holiday of St. John, which coincides with Slavic Ivan Khapova (June 24), unlike Maslenitsa, the most popular in Nordic countries - Scandinavia and Finland.

In honor of this holiday, big bonfires are lit, houses are decorated with greens, high poles with a crossbar are erected, where the garlands of greens and colors hang, yellow-blue ribbons, water around dance, sing songs, jump through the fire, etc.; Young people bathe in lakes and rivers, goes about their fate. In the southern countries, fires are often, especially in Goro-dah, replace fireworks.

In addition to these holidays, there are other associated with the magnificent Christian church calendar days of the saints. Everywhere it is customary to celebrate the day of all saints (November 1), who is considered the day of the commemoration of the departed and those killed in the wars; On this day, the graves of relatives attend, and in large cities they arrange the processions to the grave of an unknown soldier.

In some carnival (spring) marchs of masks and costumes, adult participants have become increasingly to give way to children, preferring dance sites and costume balls. Their main feature is that truly folk holidays and celebrations have acquired the character of stylized ideas suitable not so much for themselves as to attract tourists.

And since tourism is a prominent article of income in all countries of Western Europe, then carnival ideas spread almost everywhere, and the organizers are trying to do not match them in time and differed in nature.

In the nature of leisure and entertainment of European peoples, there are no specific features that distinguish them in one degree or another and from the peoples of other countries of the world. According to the structure of daily time, Spain is highlighted here with Portugal and South France, where the hottest hours of the day are discharged for lunch and afternoon rest (Siesta).

For the Romanesque and especially the dedicated sacred peoples, the large openness of life and leisure, the pastime of residents (especially men) outside the house - on the streets and squares, where the cafes, snack bars and restaurants are taken; Women overlook the streets, but in the evening clocks for walks on the main street of the city or settlement.

In this ethnogeographic zone, the old folk view and submission are preserved, the most striking of which is the fight of bulls in Spain (Corrida); There is a similar spectacle in Portugal, but in less cruel shape - the bull is not killed here.

Many actually sporting games originated in England, which is still one of the most sporty countries of the world. Among these games, football, tennis, cricket, golf, horse run, cycling and yachtsmen competitions have become the greatest popularity.

In addition to the specified sports that spread in many Ev-Ropy countries, you can call skating and skiing, hockey with a washer (mainly in the countries of Northern Europe). Along with various sports in many European countries, still enjoy love People's national games, for example, the pushing of a log, competitions for the cutting velocity of wood (Finland, Norway), a game in metal balls (France) and wooden balls (Italy), a game in cards. In conclusion, it should be noted that the culture of European peoples, their main rites, customs and traditions are based on their Christian ideology. This religion was quite ascetic in its initial setups turned out to be popular not only among the bottoms, which the Heavenly Paradise in the afterlife was promised for their suffering, but also for the ruling groups to which the Caesar-Cesarean Caesarean "was applied. Christianity, as a world religion, includes Orthodox, Catholicism, Monophizite, Protestantism and Nestorianism, which are discussed in detail in the course of the foundations of religious science.

Questions for the seminar lesson 1

The main customs and traditions of Western European peoples: the British, French, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, etc.

Christianity as the basis of the lifestyle, customs and traditions of Western European peoples.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a German.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of the Spaniard.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of a Frenchman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Englishman.

Give a generalized ethnopsychological portrait of an Italian.

Questions for the seminar lesson 2

Mature and unity of cultural customs and traditions of the peoples of Western Europe.

Features of etiquette in England.

French etiquette: history and modernity.

Features of business communication with the Germans.

Features of business communication with the French.

Features of business communication with Italians.

Analyze the relationship between the traditions of the peoples of the United States and Europe.

Features of culture and development trends

Ethnic and religious traditions of peoples

Japan and China

There is no people in the world, which would relate to their own honor more checkety than the Japanese. They do not tolerate not only the slightest insulted, but even rudely said words. They never bother other complaints and enumerations of their own troubles. Since childhood, they learn not to disclose their feelings, considering it stupid. The law for the Japanese is not the norm, but the framework for the discussion. A good Japanese judge is a person who can resolve most affairs to the court on the basis of compromises.

The Japanese always tries to be officially recommended by the person or a firm with which he wants to deal; She strives to give matter a person's personality. He should never break outdoor harmony (it is more important than proving the rightness or benefit), to put the fellow citizens to a position that would forced them to "lose face", (that is, to recognize a mistake or incompetence in your area). It does not appeal to logic - because for him, emotional considerations are more important. The Japanese do not show elevated interest in the cash side of cases, because the concept of "time is money" in their country has no walking. They tend to be expressed indefinitely - while avoiding independent steps, since their ideal is an anonymous general opinion.

The Japanese are benevolently relate to the fact that Christians-Kai Morality calls human weaknesses. Abstinence, build-up taste, the ability to be content with small does not mean that the Japanese is inherent asceticism. They press the grievous burden of moral duties. Japanese morality only emphasizes that physical pleasures, carnal pleasures should be diverted, secondary, place. They do not deserve condemnation and do not make up sin. But in certain cases, a person himself is forced to refuse them for something more important. Life is delimited on the range of responsibilities and a circle of pleasure, the main and the area is secondary.

Japanese children never cry. The education system seeks to avoid it. Children in Japan incredibly indulgent. You can say, they just try not to give a reason to cry. They, especially boys, almost never prohibit anything. Before school years, the child does everything that he pleases. In school years, children's nature will know the first restrictions, carefulness is raised.

The Japanese is the mystery of our century, this is the most incomprehensible, the most paradoxical of the peoples.

Tokyo's face is not the streets and not a building, these are primarily people. Tokyo worries, striking and depressing, as a giant accumulation of human vessels. Eleven million inhabitants live in it. And nine million of them live in the territory of 570 square meters. kilometers. It doesn't care what to buy all Hungary in Budapest. The population density on this block of land from the concept of statistical develops in tangible.

Music.People's music of Japan is rich and diverse. It has developed, it is under significant influence of China's musical culture. In the ATRU Kabuki to maintain singing, dance and pantomimic scenes apply tool music.

Theater and cinema.The origins of the Japanese theater will go up to the oldest on-native games - Tasobi, reproducing the agricultural process. Japan's theater art is saturated with religious ideas of Shito, mythological plots dominate, and the spectacular side of theatrical ideas overlooks the fore.

The puppet theater, which developed the origin of dolls and various types of dolls in Japan, was very popular in Japan, creating dramaturgy based on the folk epic tales - Dzeruri. Dzrapori text was performed by a teacher guide, under the accompaniment of the Oyamysen musical instrument. In the repertoire, Kabuki included the plays of Dzoruri, the act-ry was imitated by the movements of puppets, repeating in the declamination speech-tative Maneru performing guide; Sometimes I was introduced into the performance itself. Ballet panto mimes also received widespread in Kabuki (CE-Sagoto).

Movie.From 1896 in Japan, predominantly Fran Zuzovsky films were demonstrated. In 1906, domestic filmmaking appeared.

Large Japanese film companies produce many art films, imitating Hollywood standards. At the same time, progressive directors, overcoming reactionary influences, reflect in their films of the world's ideas, genuine interests -cakers. The work of the director Akira Kurosava is especially highlighted.

As ever for us, the words of Confucius are relevant to us: "respect the Dobrid-Tel, to protect the people" and "the ruling with the help of virtue is similar to the incense star, which occupies its place, and all other stars surround it." A genuinely cultural people will never allow the rapist to bring the place of the polar star, in the fire of his culture will certainly burn any authoritarian power, in whatever democratic clothes it is nearing.

4.1. Features of mentality, customs and traditions of the Chinese

Chinese ethnos created a special type of culture. Sensible ki-tapet never thought over the sacraments of the Being and the problems of life and death, but he always saw the standard of the highest virtue and considered him his sacred duty to imitate him. The greatest peel-kami here were considered those who teaches to live with dignity, in accordance with the law, live for life, and not for the sake of bliss on the light or spa from suffering.

In the Chinese tradition, religion turned into ethics, the individual in it as if depicted the gods. The people were declared herald of the will of the sky. The universal sense of the people was perceived by the ancient Chinese the most accurate manifestation of the Supreme Justice of Heaven. And at the same time, cosmically sanctified collectivism, according to the Chinese, finds individualism and the personal beginning of the culture of culture, which constitute the cornerstone of the spiritual life of Europeans in the mid-tech-European culture.

The world was initially perfect, harmony internally inherent in him, therefore it does not need to redo it. On the contrary, it is necessary to threaten, it is waiting for nature in order not to interfere with the implementation of harmony. Initially, the nature is inherent in five perfections: humanity (stump), a sense of duty (and); decency (Li), sincerity (blue) and wisdom (Ji).

From the point of view of Confucius, the personality receives its content is not-mediocre from nature. Thus, the basis of the harmony of society and nature was the idea of \u200b\u200ba socio-ethical and political order, a sanctioner-bathroom of the Great Sky. Taoism called for an organic merger with nature. Lao Tzu is considered the Creator of Taoism, who said that Confucius was too much noise regarding his person and perfectly spends strength on social projects and reforms. Lao Tzu believed that it was necessary to follow Dao (literally "path"). Tao is something comprehensive that it fills up all the space, it should be necessary for everyone and reigns in everything. Listening Tao. There is no habit of seeing only one side of the fancy, it does not have a linear perception, and the bulk, fixing changes.

As you can see, the Dao is the basis of all things in the universe, "the source of all things and phenomena, the individual manifestation of Tao -" DE ", i.e. the form of the manifestation of Tao in the individual. It reveals the moral perfection of the individual who has reached the absolute harmony with the surrounding worlds. These thoughts of Lao Tsey outlined in the book "On the Way to Virtue".

Confucius gives a detailed image of a noble husband, opposing his commoner, or a "low person" - "Xiao Zhen".

He formulated the basic principles of the social order that would like to see in the Middle Kingdom: "Let the Father be Father, the Son - Song, Sovereign - the Soviet, an official - an official," everyone will know their rights and do what they are supposed. The criterion for the separation of society to the tops and the bottoms was not to serve not the knowledge of origin and, especially, not wealth, but knowledge and virtue, more precisely - the degree of proximity to the ideal of Jun-Tzu.

In China, ancient times existed several methods of selection of officials, both common to the East and specifically Chinese. The first was the appointment of the post of personal decree of the emperor. It was necessary to earn a recommendation as a wise and fair official and to withstand the competitive exam. Three times the surveillance exams received a high degree and could hope for a prestigious position, the lowest of which was the post of county chief. Chinese Sanovnikov Uve-rolled that the firm knowledge of the letters of Confucianism and the ability to stand up for his canons in an open dispute with an opponent - the best proof of the suitable official to manage the country's affairs in accordance with traditions. That is why the education was for the Chinese a giant incentive to implement their ambition and loyalness.

The ultimate and higher goal of the management of the Confucius proclaimed the interest of the people. Of the three most important elements of the state in the first place there are people, in the second - deities, on the third - the sovereign. However, the same Confucians believed that his own their own interests were uncompressed and unavailable and that, without constant delicate care, he could not do without any permanent decent care. An important basis for social in-line - strict obedience to the eldest.

In China, there is an ancient cult of ancestors - both the dead and alive. Confucius has developed the doctrine of "Xiao" - sonarity. "Xiao", as Confucius considered, this is the basis of humanity. Following the Confucian tradition, the Chinese consider honoring parents with their duty and are ready to sacrifice personal interests in the name of the interests of the family and the family (clan). They have an unusually developed sense of responsibility: the father is responsible for all family members, the fault of parents applies to children, the boss is responsible for the activities of all his subordinates.

Since the Chinese must constantly remember that his acts must maintain the dignity of his family and the kind, he is always trying to "have a good face", that is, to look in the eyes of those who surround a worthy, respected person. It will be deeply offended if any violation of the traditional ceremonial will occur (let's say, when meeting guests, in a festive ritual or in official relations) and he is not a semi-cheat honorable honors. There is no greater misfortune for the Chinese, how to "lose face." According to the ancient custom in China, the highest honors and respect for the boss is the presentation of the umbrella. For this purpose, a special umbrella is made - large of red silk, with the inscriptions and the names of the donors. It is called "umbrella from thousands of persons." Ki Thais carefully care about the strict observance of the ceremonies, which "on the covenants of the ancestors" must be accompanied by various events of life.

The Institute of Sociology of the Beijing People's University conducted a study in which residents of 13 provinces and cities of China were subjected to survey. They were asked to express their attitude to various personality qualities on a 9-digit scale from "+5" ("very approved") to "-5" ("very not approved"). Average estimates turned out.

This study shows that the Confucian virtues are "Guo-mannia", "Sonna respect", "hard work and thrift", etc. - still occupy a dominant position in the consciousness of Ki Thais. 70-80% of respondents consider them the main life values, and only 6-15% do not consider it necessary to adhere to them. The fact that the falsehood, which is spoken by McGanov, is very disapproving, deserves attention.

Thus, despite the deep social changes, the traditions of Confucianism in China did not lose their decisive place in the culture of Chinese society in China in the XX century.

China is one of the most distinctive countries of the world, but the trip there is associated with great psychological loads. You are all the time being the center of attention hundreds, and sometimes thousands of people. The Chinese are very funny, spiritual and intelligent people, but their ideas about the rules of good tone are not much coincided with our.

In China, it is important for the establishment of informal outlook with foreign partners. You can ask you about age, semery position, children - do not be offended: this is sincere interest in you.

During business meetings, Chinese negotiation participants are very attentive to two things: the collection of information on the subject and partners in the negotiations discussed; The formation of the "Friendship Spirit". Moreover, the "spirit of friendship" at the negotiations for them is generally very important, which is largely due to Chinese cultural traditions and values.

Tradition I. customspeoplesmira 2 229.80 459.60 ... 43 162,43 138 Fantasy - 2007 : Fantastic stories and stories \\\\ ...: Book for reading children \\ Tambiyev A. Kh. \\ Drop 1 52, ...