Culture of the XVIII century Russia

Introduction

Total assessment of Russian culture of the XVIII century

Education

Literature

Painting

Architecture

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The history of the culture of Russia decays two unequal, sharply limited periods: an ancient, stretching from time immemorial to the era of transformations of Peter Great, and a new one, hugging the last two centuries.

During the first period of the elements borrowed from the Byzantium listed to us from the East and partly the West, slowly, but continuously developed the original type of art, which promised to achieve high perfection, but suddenly stopped in its development by Petrovsky reforms.

The second period is marked by a transplantation to us Western European art. But at this time, the advanced Russian artists, under the influence of the national identity awakened in the Russian society, began to be ricking with an academic routine and rushed from imitating alien samples to direct reproduction of reality and to the study of artistic antiquity in order to put it in the basis of their creativity.

The XVIII century played a huge role in the history of Russian culture. At the beginning of the century there is a transition from the Middle Ages to the culture of the new time, all spheres of society are subjected to Europeanization, the secularization of culture occurs. In the XVIII century, preparation begins to the order of things that marks state life Russia among the European powers. Therefore, the borrowing of the fruits of European civilization with an exceptional purpose of material well-being becomes insufficient, is the need for spiritual, moral education, the need to put the body into the body prepared before. The history of world culture of the XVIII century has entered the era of large ideological and social and historical changes, the most acute struggle against feudal monarchical and religious dogmatism. The spread of the materialistic worldview and the approval of the spirit of freedom-loving was reflected in philosophy, science, literature, in the educational activities of the greatest philosophers, scientists, writers of this time - Didro and Golbach, Voltaire and Rousseau, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, Lomonosov and Radishchev. In the new period enters And Russian culture, survived at the turn of the XVII XVIII century a significant fracture. After a long acult insulation, due to three-time Mongolian-building, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, agreed to protect Russia from all Western. Russian art gradually enters the path of pan-European development and is exempt from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. It was the first century of the development of a secular culture, a century of a decisive victory of a new, rationalistic look at life. Mirskoe art acquires public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civilian education, in the formation and development of new countries in the country's social lines. And at the same time, the Russian culture of the 18th century is not rejected by the past, coming to the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on the Russian national tradition accumulated on the long preceding period of cultural and historical development of the Kiev and Moscow Rus, the experience of Old Russian art. It is thanks to this deep continuity of the symbol, it was overwhelmed during the 18th century not only to take an active part in the process of movement of world culture, but also to create their national schools that are firmly established in literature and poetry, in the architecture of Izhivopysi, in the theater and music.

By the end of the century, Russian art achieves tremendous success.

Total assessment of the Russian culture of the 18th century The meaning of the shifts that occurred in Russian culture, says the fact that for the first time in the XVIII century, non-church music comes out of the region of oral tradition and acquires the importance of high professional art. Russian culture in the XVIII century developed under the influence of the major changes that were made to the socio-political life of the country of the reform of Peter I.S. The beginning of the century Moscow Rus turns into the Russian Empire. Petrovsky transformations in the root changed the entire system of the cultural and public life of Russia. Petrovskaya Epoch has always caused controversy with its complexity and ambiguity. However, Peter's reforms did not mean a radical gap with the past, with national traditions, and the complete assimilation of Western samples. Nevertheless, the openness of Russian culture west accelerated its own development. For the culture of this period, a rapid change of styles (baroque, classicism) is characteristic. There is authorship. Art became secular, more diverse in genre attitude, was supported by the state. But along with the emergence of these trends, the art culture of the first decades of the XVIII century. I retained some more features of the previous century and wearing a transitional character.
Political I. cultural achievements Petrovskaya era strengthened the people's sense of national pride, the consciousness of the greatness and power of the Russian Empire. The beginning of the XVIII century. was an important period in the formation of Russian literary traditions. The literature of this time also carry an imprint of ancient: literary works exist and are not distributed in printed, but in handwritten form, as it was before, the authors remain unknown; Genres are mainly inherited from the XVII century. But in these old forms, new content is gradually poured. The idea of \u200b\u200bworks is changing, being influenced by the humanistic thought and the ideas of enlightenment.
At the beginning of the XVIII century. Popular were the story ("Historia"), especially the "historius about the Russian sailor of Vasily Corotiank", which reflected the appearance of a new hero, a figure, a patriot and a citizen. "Historia" showed that success in life a person can achieve thanks to personal qualities, virtues of a person, not origin. The influence of the Baroque style was manifested primarily in poetry, dramaturgy (presented, mainly translated plays), love lyrics.
The unusual contribution to the development of Russian culture of the XVIII century, the Russian composers, performers, opera artists, mainly released from the folk medium, contributed. There were great difficulties in front of them, for several decades they had to master the centuries of the accumulation of Western European music. In the general way of the historical development of Russian art XVIII. Three main periods are well thought out:. The first quarter of a century, associated with Peter reforms; The era of the 30s and 1960s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time strengthening the estate of the estate. last third Century (since the mid-60s), marked by large public shifts, exacerbation of social contradictions, noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment. Education In the XVIII century, 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand educational institutions were listed in Russia. These figures show literacy in Russia and, at the same time, its lag compared with Western Europe: in England, in the late XVIII, V.A.Nasted in some Sunday schools more than 250 thousand students, and in France the number of elementary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, only two people from a thousand studied on average. The social composition of students in secondary schools was a hundredthly. The people of masters, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. prevailed in folk colleges, and the age of students and toddlers and 22-year-old men were studied in the same classes. Socialized textbooks in the schools were the alphabet, the book of F.Prokopovich "The first teaching of expenses", "Arithmetic" L. F. Magnitsky and "Grammar" M. Forersky, chairs and psalrty. There were no compulsory curricula, the term of study hesitated from three to five years. The course of the exercise was able to read, write, knew the initial information from the igueometry arithmetic. Basically, the training of specialists was carried out through the universities -Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existed until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 by Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, But actually acted as the University since the 80s of the XVIII century. Students of the philosophical, legal and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to sciences in their specialty, were also studied Latin, foreign languages \u200b\u200bIruSkaya literature. Moscow University was a major cultural Center. He published the Moscow Vedomosti newspaper, had his own printing house; With it worked various literary and scientific societies. D. I. Fonvizin, Later, A. S. Griboedov, P. Yaa Chadaev, Future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. Kakhovsky, were released from the university's walls. It is necessary to soberly assess the results of the development of education in Russia in the XVIII century. Noborskaya Russia had the Academy of Sciences, University, Gymnasium and others educational establishments, and the peasant and master people of the country in the mass remained illiterate. School reform of 1786, so widely advertised by the Government of Catherine II, was people only by name, and in fact wearing a purely class character. We must not forget that the ideas of "enlightenment" were the "tsarism's motto in Europe." However, the genius of the people was able to manifest themselves due to the policy of "enlightened absolutism", but in spite of it. This is specially visible on the example of M. V. Lomonosov. The powerful means for mental development, to expand the mental sphere of a Russian person, to destroy the former closets and stagnation there was a message of information about what was being done in Russia and in other lands. To Peter to know what was done in himself and in other people's countries was the privilege of government; Extracts from foreign newspapers (chimes) were compiled for the king and a few approximate and carefully stored as a mystery. Peter wanted all Russian people knew what was being done in the world. On December 17, 1702, the Great Sovereign indicated: on Vedomosti on military and all cases, which should be applied to the announcement of the Moscow and the surrounding states, to print chimes, and for the press of those conducted chimes, in which orders, what are there anywhere and will continue to send In the monastery order, from where those statements send to the printed courtyard. The decree was executed, and from 1703 they began to be published in Moscow Kurats under the title: "Vedomosti about military and other affairs, decent knowledge and memory, which happened in the Moscow State and in other surrounding countries." Although the newspaper was small, there were no articles in it, but only brief reports of wonderful events in Russia and abroad, nevertheless, and she promoted the reforms as military and in the civilian area. Proclaimed conversion activities in journalism. The largest representatives of the monk Feofan Prokopovich the merchant and the entrepreneur of the Poshkov, who came out of the peasants, and the nobleman of Tatishchev.

The aggravation of class contradictions, the growing of the peasant movement contributes to the development of advanced social thought and lead to a clearer stretching of culture into two camps: progressive and recreational. The literature of the advanced nobility and the democratic layers of society is growing and strolling, sharply implancing bribehead officials, nobles, which occupy a high position for servants, and cruel landlords.

Successfully develops science. From the folk masses, brilliant inventors are put forward, which made many of the most important discoveries who were ahead of Western European. So, I. Kulibin, Nizhny Novgorod Tradsman, created a scope-bike, a machine-deviating vessel, a draft arched bridge through the Neva without intermediate obscuration. The son of the Ural Miners I. Polzunov in 1763, almost 20 years earlier, before Watt, invented and built a steam, "fiery" car.

The system of home education in noble families unfolded. In St. Petersburg and in Moscow there were scientific and literary societies. Much attention was paid to the congregation and the publication of the Old Russian and literary works. The newspapers and magazines have become much longer to publish, books are published. Especially fruitful in this respect was the activities of Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818).

It was a man of great culture, prominent public figure, journalist and writer. He began his public educational activities The publication of satirical journals (his first magazine "Drone" began to go out in May 1769). In the 70s, Novikov publishes a number of books on the history of Russia.

Novikov organizes a "friendly scientist community" in Moscow, the purpose of which was the spread of education and publication useful books. A typographical company was created, which not only published books, but also organized book trade in cities and even in the villages.

The activities of Novikov, which blurred around themselves many advanced people seemed to Catherine II dangerous. Since 1784, the persecution of Novikov begins, and in 1792 he was sharpened for 15 years in the Shlisselburg Fortress. After the death of Catherine II in 1796, Novikov was released from prison, but he came out from there completely sick.

Theatre

Up to the middle of the XVIII century (until 1756), theatrical performances continued only in schools, mostly spiritual.

Since the 1930s, the court theater resumes. It is served mainly by foreign troupes (Italian., German, French).

In Russian, the plays in the 30s - 40s were put in school theaters. Since the end of the 40s, interest in the theater is awakened in wide urban democratic circles. Pupils of schools, minor officials, soldiers, shopkeepers on the days of holidays became performances and in specially arranged premises, wooden boals, or in private houses, mainly in merchant. Such temporal theaters arose not only in St. Petersburg and in Moscow, but also in the province.

One of these first amateur, and then semi-professional private troupe was troupe F. G. Volkov in Yaroslavl. Volkov (1729 - 1763) was the talented son of the Russian people, one of the wonderful people of the XVIII century. The Son of the merchant, he studied for three years in the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, then drove into St. Petersburg to explore the trading business. But not trade, but the theater decided to devote myself wolves. He visited school performances in the Moscow Academy, but struck his theater of St. Petersburg.

Here he saw the performances of the Italian opera, the German drama and the performance, delivered in the Slyhamny building by the forces of the students of this educational institution. Upon returning to Yaroslavl, the wolves collects the acting troupe, builds a special room and begins to put on performances. Volkov himself was an architect, and painter, and director, and poet, and the first actor in this theater.

The Volkova Theater was the National Russian Theater, with the democratic, both in the composition of the actors and the composition of the audience visiting its production. Rumors about the theater reached Petersburg, and in 1752, Yaroslavls were caused by the yelizabeth. Here they set the school drama. The game actors liked. For receipt and general education, and specially acting preparation of the most talented actors, including the brothers of the Volkov and Dmitrievsky, were determined in a shirty case. In 1756, they graduated. Then, by the decree of Elizabeth, a permanent "Russian for the presentation of comedies and tragedy theater" was organized

So the Russian theater originated, which had great importance for the development of art and literature.

Literature

The most important period in the development of Russian fiction - the second third of the XVIII century. Outstanding literature figures (theorists and writers) appear; An integer literary direction is emerging and issued, that is, in the work of a number of writers, uniform, common for all their ideological features, are found. This literary direction was classicism.

His name Classicism received because of the representatives of this literary direction Proclaimed the highest sample of artistic creativity The best works of ancient art - the art of ancient Greece Rome. These works were recognized as classic, that is, exemplary, and writers were proposed to imitate them in order to create truly artistic works.

Each direction in art is caused in the lives of certain public needs. Classicism is the art of the era of the formation of national states, the period of education of nations, national culture. Political system in a number of countries at this time acquires the form of absolutism.

Since the era of absolutism in the XVII - XVIII centuries experienced different states of Western Europe, classicism was peculiar to the literature of these countries: France, Germany, England. Based on the study of artistic works and works of the Greeks and the Romans, a guide for writers was developed. It was called "Poetic Art" and served as the desktop book to the Writers-Classicists for one and a half centuries.

Classicism considered literature and art as a school that raises people loyalty to the Absolutist state, explains to them that the fulfillment of responsibilities to the state and his head - the monarch is the first and main task of a citizen.

It was indicated that writers should depict those phenomena of life that are interesting for the aristocracy, nobility and noble citizens, please their tastes and evaluate the depicted phenomena as representatives of these circles are watching. Take the story everyday life It was considered unacceptable. The writer was to depict the events important for the state: the policies of the kings, war, etc. Heroes of works must be kings, commander. Russian classicism had a lot of common features with Western, in particular with French classicism, since he also arose during absolutrovism, but he was not a simple imitation. Russian Classicism originated and developed on original soil, taking into account the experience, which had previously accumulated his current and developed Western European classicism.

These peculiar features of Russian classicism: first, from the very beginning in Russian classicism, a connection with modern reality is strongly affected, which the best works Lights the pod of an advance ideas.

The second feature of Russian classicism is caused by the advanced public ideas of writers an indifference-satirical jet in their work. The presence of satire in the work of Russian classicist writers gives their works vitally truthful. Live modernity, Russian reality, Russian people and Russian nature to a certain extent are reflected in their works.

A third feature of Russian classicism, due to hot patriotism of Russian writers, is their interest in the history of their homeland. All of them are studying Russian history, write works on national, historical topics.

Painting .

The XVIII century brought changes to many areas of Russia's lives, was an exception and art. On the shift of icon painting comes painting.

The founder of the development of Russian painting at the beginning of the XVIII century was A. Losenko. He put the founding of the direction that our painting adopted for a long time. A distinctive feature of this direction was the rigor of the drawing, which was not so much in nature, how many forms of the ancient sculpture and Italian art of the era of eckerics. Poverty of fantasy, following in the composition of a certain, routine rules, the conventionality of the flavor and generally imitativeness was the main disadvantages of the painters of that time.

From the middle of the XVIII century among genres, a special stimulus for development receives a portrait to which a deep interest is beginning to awaken.

At this time, portrait painting took the leading position. Russian artists In addition to the images of the kings, they sought to perpetuate the activities of Russian boyars, patriarchs and merchants, who also sought to keep up with the king and often entrusted to the order of portrait of the time in the visual art of the artists. For a Russian portrait of the 18th century, a passion for the transfer of exquisite gestures and poses in modernists was characterized. Artists tried to enrich the portrait composition by the household interior and attributes of the national costume, surrounding space. Having highlighting the items of an expensive environment, rich furniture, vases, and of course clothes from luxurious fabrics, brilliantly passed the textures of materials, carefully prescribing the texture of silk, brocade with the thinned shades.

Portraits written in the second half of the 18th century by artists Levitsky, Rocky and Borovikovsky, Borrylovov, Tropinin, Cyprosen demonstrate all the originals of the Russian portrait of the time. The art portrait of the 18th century developed in various types of their species: the main, floor, the front, intimate and chamber portrait. These directions reflected various aspects Wealth of the material world and spiritual morals, developing and improving complicating the image language. Art entered into a new level of popularity, many artists earned fame in the manufacture of parade portraits against the background of nature and architecture, which were created in the most complex black-free processing, finely combined the colors of the tones of the colorful layer with the dynamics of the pictorial texture.

In the future, under the influence of the social coup, produced in France, the Great Revolution, the taste of time has changed: the main, luxury-luxurious portraits of the accessories have lost their place of more modest images, with empty, monophonic backgrounds, with colorless and ugly costumes. With these two circumstances, the influx of unimportant foreign artists and simplifying requirements from portrait painting, explains why many of the portraits written in the first years of the reign of Alexander I are inferior to portraits of Catherine times.

The genre paintings in the XVIII century were considered a secondary, sprinkling industry painting. In art, which served for a long time for the addicts of only the highest society and submitted to academic routine, the image of everyday life and folk life was considered a matter of unimportant - fun, which artists are allowed to engage in the form of relaxation from other, more serious works. Genre paintings At that time, they went out for the most part from under the brush of historical painters, who fulfilling them, could not be removed from the convention and imitativeness learned by them on the school bench. The life of ordinary mortals with its types, nuts and customs was reproduced only with small deviations from the rules, legalized for high, noble plots.

The culture of the 18th century.

"Age of Mind and Enlightenment"

Characteristic features of a period
1. rationalism. (Philosophical direction, recognizing the mind of knowledge of knowledge)
In the 18th century there is a restructuring of culture on the basis of rationalism. If there were earlier the phenomena of nature, public life (we are talking about the cultural elite, of course), they were prone to explain to divine intervention, now the basis of these phenomena people seek to see natural scientific or rational principles

2. Formation of scientific knowledge.
It was in the 18th century that this process begins to form science - as the basis of all ideas about the world. Scattered views begin to develop into a single knowledge system

3. Culture secularization.
Secularization of church ownership state (land, culture) in secular
Back in the depths of the XVII century, the process of "priority" of Russian culture took place.
Next, you can already speak basically about secular culture.

4. Orientation to Western European samples.
There is no doubt that this happened at the end of the 17th century, but it was from Peter I, Russian culture entered the pan-European and became part of it.

Education and enlightenment
By the 18th century there were schools at churches and monasteries. There were two academies -Kyevo-Mogilyanskaya and in Moscow Slavic Greco-Latin, they were universities.
In general, the education system required restructuring

State Education Policy
(First Peter ... then the time of palace coups and Ekaterina II)

An important for the enlightenment was the publication in the 1702 g of the heading newspaper "Vedomosti" Vedomosti, the first printed newspaper in Russia could buy everyone. They introduced a civil font, simpler and clear, and the Church Slavonic font was used only in the liturgical books.

Peter's reforms require qualified personnel. Schools opened to train specialists: navigator, artillery, engineering in both capitals; Mountain-in the Urals; Diocesan and cyphira, garrison and admiralty - in the province. Moscow existed a school of foreign languages. In St. Petersburg founded the Marine Academy. Nobles sent to Germany and Netherlands, Italy and England for learning sciences.

Published tutorials, textbooks, dictionaries, buckwar. The foundations of mathematical sciences expressed L. F. Magnitsky in his "arithmetic" (the first edition - 1707)
In the middle-second half of the century, competent people became more and more. By the beginning of the XIX century. There were 550 educational institutions with 62 thousand students. It was a step forward. But Russia has greatly lagged behind many European countries. For example, in France there were up to 8 thousand schools (1794). The term of study was from three to five years. He studied on "arithmetic" L. Magnitsky, "Grammar" M. Forersky, "First Teaching Line" F. Prokopovich, Azboks, Character. Psalm. Among students of secondary schools were children of peasants and artisans, masters and soldiers, sailors. There were special soldiers' schools - for children soldiers who continued the traditions of the Tsifir schools of Peter I.

In 1725, the Academy of Sciences appeared in St. Petersburg

For the training of noble opportunities was more - private pensions, shirts of the hulls (the first is open at Anna Ioannovna
With Elizabeth, military schools were reorganized. In 1744, a decree expanded the network of primary schools.
The first gymnasiums are open: in Moscow (1755) and Kazan (1758).

In 1755, they founded, by the city of I. I. Shuvanov and M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow University. University released big number Specialists in different branches of knowledge, many major scientists came out of them.

In 1754, the Academy of Arts is the Higher Educational Institution in the Russian Empire in the Fine Arts. The initiator became Shuvalov.

In the second half of the century, the authorities took an interesting attempt to reform education and upbringing. Her initiator and active conductor in life became Ivan Ivanovich Betskaya. In the foundation of his pedagogical reform, Beetska laid the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a new breed of people through education. According to his thoughts, borrowed from French enlighteners and supported by the Empress, the goal of education of youth is to give him a good general education and "moral development (" Heart Frost "). For this, students need to be isolated from the oblique environment from which they came out and put in closed Schools (boarding schools). Thus, "brutal and frantic in words and actions" old routiners will not be able to influence them. On his initiative, urban schools were created, educational Meshchansky Schools at the Shankhetsky Corps and the Academy of Arts. He laid the beginning of female education

Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens - the first female educational institution in Russia, which posted the beginning of women's education in the country. The institute is based on the initiative of I. I. Bezzky and in accordance with the decree signed by Catherine second 1764

The name of Betsky is associated with the institution in 1763 the first in Russia of an educational house. In the house, they trained children from 14-15 years old by various crafts. Five years later, they could marry. When leaving the house, the pupils received full uniforms and rights of free people.

Portrait of I. I. Bezzky

Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkov

Girlfriend and Supportment of Empress Ekaterina II, a member of the state coup of 1762 (after the coup of Catherine II, cooled to the girlfriend and Princess Dashkov did not play a prominent role in the affairs of the Board). One of the notable personalities of Russian enlightenment.
Empress, decree of 1783, appointed Dashkov to the post of director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences under the presidency of Count K. G. Romumbovsky.
Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkov became the first woman in the world that ruled the Academy of Sciences. On her proposal was also established by 1783 The Imperial Russian Academy, which had a study of the Russian language, and Dashkov became its director

School reform Catherine II
In 1782, a large-scale school reform was carried out. The provincial cities arise the main, and in the county, small folk schools. These schools were all-known and kept at the expense of the state. The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational transformations can be considered the first experience in the creation of a general system in Russia primary educationnot limited to class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The meaning of this reform is very high

Projects of 1760 about low village schools, the public education system remained unfulfilled due to the lack of funds.

In general, in the XVIII century, 4 stages of education in Russia can be distinguished:
The first quarter of the XVIII V is the creation of secular educational institutions, practical oriented in the conditions of reform.
1730-1765 - The emergence of closed textual educational institutions, the formation of the system of noble education, the struggle of M.V. Lomonosov for nationwide education, the creation of Moscow University.
1766 - 1782. - The development of educational pedagogical ideas, the increase in the role of Moscow University, awareness of the need for the state system of popular education.
1782 - 1796 - Attempt to create a system of folk education.

THE SCIENCE
I. K. Kirilov brought together the geographical discoveries in his "Atlas of the Russian Empire" (1734).
For the propaganda of scientific knowledge, Kunstkamera (1719) with its historical relics, zoological and other collections ("Monsters", all sorts of dickers, rarities) were opened in St. Petersburg.

In the second quarter of the XVIII century. V. N. Tatishchev created a generalized work - "Russian history". It uses a large number of different sources, including Russian chronicles, including those that have not been preserved to our time. In the second half of the century, the scientific foundations of biology, agrochemistry and other branches of knowledge are laid. In the field of history, outstanding scientists are working - M. M. Shcherbatov ("Russian history from ancient times"), I. N. Botin.

S. P. Krasheninnikov made up the famous "Description of the Earth Kamchatka", I. I. Lephechin - Description of the Land of the Volga region, Urals, Siberia ("Day notes").

The first Russian academician became M. V. Lomonosov, about which Pushkin said that he, the founder of Moscow University, "himself was the first to our university." Persistent work, ingenious abilities made it titanium of science - he worked in physics and chemistry, astronomy and mineralogy, geology and mining, history and geography, linguistics and poetics. In these and other industries, the scientist left a deep mark. Lomonosov discovered, for example, the law of preserving the matter and movement, justified the theories of the atomic-molecular structure of the substance, the reasons for raising the mainland and the property, etc. In historical science, he strongly criticized the scientists of Bayer and Miller, their Norman theory. The history of the Russian people, his language begins, as he argued, with "deep antiquity", and by no means with the calling of Varyagov, whom he considered the inhabitants of the southern coast of Baltic.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765)

Bering Vitus Ionassen. Seaflomer, Officer of the Russian Fleet, Captain Commander. Less from Denmark. Invited to Russian service in 1703.
In 1725-1730 and 1733-1741 led the first and second Kamchatka expeditions. She passed according to the strait between Chukotka and Alaska (later Bering Strait), reached North America and opened a number of the islands of the Aleuta ridge.

Inventions
A. NARTS Russian scientist, mechanic and sculptor, Stat adviser, member of the Academy of Sciences (1723-1756), the inventor of the world's first turning and rope machine.

I. Polzunov-Russian inventor, the creator of the first steam machine in Russia and the world's first two-cylinder steam engine.

Much of steaming machine I.I. Polzunova

Ivan Kulibiba is an outstanding Russian-inventor mechanic.

for more than 30 years, Kulibin has headed the mechanical workshop of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Led the production of machine tools, astronomical, physical and navigation instruments and tools.
By 1772, Kulibin developed several projects of a 300-meter unionic bridge through the Neva with wooden lattice farms. He built and experienced a large model of such a bridge, for the first time in the practice of bridge construction, showing the possibility of modeling bridge structures. In subsequent years, Kulibin invented and made many original mechanisms, machines and devices. Among them is a flashlight-spotlight with a parabolic reflector from the smallest mirrors, a river vessel with a watery engine, moving against a flow, a mechanical crew with a pedal drive.
The overwhelming majority of the inventions of the Kulibin, the possibility of using which has confirmed our time, then it was not implemented. Walking machines, funny toys, ingenious fireworks for a hollow crowd - only this impressed with contemporaries.

Social and political thought

I. T. Posochkov. A lot of notes appeared in Petrovskie, "Prozheeks", the authors of which were in support of reforms, proposed certain measures. I. T. Posochkov, the author of the "Books about poverty and wealth", the expressive of the interests of merchants and the peasantry, taking advantage of the development of the domestic industry, trade. To do this, it should be carried out by the policy of protectionism in the interests of Russian entrepreneurs, and the merchants-ingenians should lead to humility. In the interests of the state, it is necessary to regulate the subsidy of peasants in favor of the owners. "Peasants," the author claimed, "the landowners are not age-old owners."
To streamline administrative and judicial institutions, Poshkov offered to plant people in them instead of "grivy" people from any other classes, if there is a "oxygen sharpness", "destroy" "any different explicit and hidden robbers." He is a supporter of equality of all classes in front of the court. Posochkov proposed to prepare a new exhibition with the help of elections from all residents of Russia, including peasants. The draft of this Code of Laws should be published for discussion, amending ("in the" native ").

On the results of reforms and the northern war are in the "reasoning of the reasons of the Savy war" Vice-Chancellor . P. Shafirova (Afterword, Peter I himself wrote to him).

Faofan Prokopovich, Vice-President of the Synod, the famous preacher, in the "spiritual regulation" and the truth of the will of the monarch "acts, in accordance with the intentions of Peter, a supporter of submission to the clergy of secular power. He also suggests that the king is waited for the throne to whom wishes, regardless of the degree of kinship of the heir. Of the three forms of state-democracy (population), aristocracy and monarchy, the most acceptable third, i.e. Unlimited power of the monarch. In theological treatises, the preaching of Prokopovich glorifies the success of Russia on the field of Brahi, in the development of industry, trade, reform.

Criticism of serfdom sounded in the writings A. Ya. Polenova, Soldan Son, I. G. Eisen, Liflyand Pastor, and L. Kenemann, Mitava lawyer, in the speeches of deputies of the commissioned commission 1767-1768.-Korlai G. S. Korobin and I . P. Kozelsky, Peasants I. Chuprov, I. Zherebtsova, Cossack A. Aleinikov and others. Deputies set a question about mitigating serfdom, restriction, gradually released from him.

The figures of Russian enlightenment, who seen in the spread of knowledge, science, the improvement of the mind, the main way of transformation of society, made a lot to publish books and magazines, transfers of the essays of Thinkers of Europe. They were acutely set and peasant question. N. I. Novikov in his magazines, most of all in the "Trutne" and "painter", placed a lot of articles on the amorality of serfdom.
Novikov Nikolai Ivanovich (Contemporary Catherine II) Artist Livitsky

thinker A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) - the author of "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow."
In the book "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790) drew a picture of the sub-million existence of the Russian fortress peasantry. Condemning the serfdom, he writes that it is necessary to carry out the "perfect destruction of slavery", transfer the land to the peasants. The monarchy condemns the monarchy as strongly strongly: "The autocraticness is the most resistant human nature."
Catherine II after reading said: "The rowman is worse than Pugacheva! He, though the king attacked, the monarchist system confessed, and this, revolution, thus decided to teach the republic! "
In 1790 A.N. Radishchev suffered a death sentence, replaced in 1792 by reference to Tobolsk for a period of 10 years. Following the Radish repression, the publisher N.I. was subjected Novikov (1744-1818), which in 1792 was arrested and sharpened for 15 years in the Shlisselburg fortress. These facts marked the open end of the politics of enlightened absolutism in Russia

2. Russian culture of the XVIII century

Culture of Russia in the XVIII century. Developed under the influence of changes that occurred in the socio-economic and political life of the country. The development of the economy and absolutism predetermined the development of Russian culture as a culture of secular. To a considerable extent, this was facilitated by the fall of the spiritual dictatorship of the Church, since Absolutism deprived its economic and political power and, subjugate to his power, turned the church into part of the state apparatus. Changes in the XVIII century. In culture, they touched first of all the culture of the dominant estate - nobility. In the XVIII century In culture, its length appeared sharply. On the one hand, the culture of the nobility and some social groups of the type of merchants, officials, and on the other hand, the culture of the wide segments of the population, primarily the peasantry, which retained traditional forms and elements of culture in the household, spiritual and aesthetic (folklore), legal spheres.

The history of Russian culture XVIII century. Usually divided into two periods: the end of the XVII is the first quarter of the XVIII century. (Formation new culture) And the middle is the second half of the XVIII century. - Development and flourishing of the secular noble culture and folk, which carried its traditional character.

The first stage in the development of the culture wears the imprint of Petrovsky transformations. Russia is becoming the formation of secular, European culture. At this time, an ideology was created, which determined the educational and edging role of art in society. The art system has developed in two directions: improving the funds found earlier artistic expressiveness, as well as the search and creation of new genres. At this time, the development of secular enlightenment is underway, the ideology of the absolutist state is being formed, the architectural ensemble of St. Petersburg is created, portrait painting, music, theater develops. Knowledge turn into science, the Academy of Sciences and University is operating with it. In Moscow, a university is created, where training was combined with development scientific research and the spread of scientific knowledge. Baroque is inferior to classicism.

At the second stage of the development of culture, the flourishing of artistic creativity, classicism in literature, architecture, sculpture, painting. The Petersburg is created composer school. A secular enlightenment is developing, which acquires a class.

The creation and development of the Russian state required an increasing number educated people. At the beginning of the XVIII century. In the provinces are created primary schools: In 46 diocesan schools, priests were preparing, in 42 cyphic - small officials, and soldier children were trained in garrison schools. Obtaining education has become mandatory for the nobility.

In 1701, two schools appear in Moscow: Pushkarskaya (artillery) and naval. In the naval school they were preparing not only sea business specialists, but also engineers, geodesists, teachers for cyphic schools, architects and civilian officials. Since 1715, she became a preparatory class for the marine academy created in St. Petersburg. In Russia in 1707, a medical school was opened. Engineering, shipbuilding, navigator, mountain and craft schools were created and operated. Training in foreign languages \u200b\u200bwas carried out in the gymnasium of the Pastor Glitch. The parcel of young nobles abroad was of great importance for training.

The development of secular education has raised the issue of creating new textbooks. In 1701, the Polycarpova Polycarpova was published. In 1703, Arithmetic textbook L. F. Magitsky appeared. Instead of alphabetic numbers, Arabic numbers were introduced in it. Magnitsky and Farvarson prepared to publish a table of Logarov A. Vlakka. In 1708 a civil font was introduced. Printing textbooks, scientific publications, legislative acts in cities were created typography. In 1722, a guide on the mechanics of Rotorovakov-Pisarev was published. In total, 610 names of books were published during the reign of Peter I. The development of typography contributed to the development of the bookcore and library affairs. In 1714, the first public library was opened in St. Petersburg, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences.

Since 1731, closed noble educational institutions began to be created, in particular, land shutter cadet corps - military school for nobles. The corps prepared officers for the army and officials to work in civilian executions. There were studied both military disciplines and geography, jurisprudence, foreign languages. In 1752, the sea corpus was created. Later, artillery and engineering corps were created. In 1759, the Prazi Corpus was opened. These corps government had a special patronage.

In the second half of the XVIII century. The efforts of the autocracy were aimed at creating a "new breed of people." The conductor of this policy was the talented teacher I. I. Bezzka. He developed a "general institution about educating both sexes." It was approved by the Empress. The "new breed of people" was to be brought up isolated from family and society from 5 or 6 years in closed textual educational institutions of the boarding school. In them, students had to receive a certain amount of knowledge provided by the representative of a particular class, clearly assimilate their rights and obligations according to the estate affiliation, and most importantly, they should have been "disgusted from all kinds of predisses." It was achieved by the effort to "instill in the youth fear of God." Students of these educational institutions have been torn off from family and society until 18-20 years of age, prepared for classes that correspond to their class affiliation. The nobleman was waiting for an officer or public service. The "new person", the last training in an educational house, was to be engaged in crafts and other activities prescribed by his class. By education and upbringing, he was distinguished from the nobles.

In 1764 and 1770. According to the project of Beetsk, in Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational houses were created for windish and "unchalipated" babies. In 1764, a smolny institute of noble maiden in St. Petersburg was opened for young nobles. In 1765, a branch for Meshchansky girls was created there. In 1772, a commercial school was opened for children of merchants and burghers, the so-called Demidov Lyceum. In 1779, the Catherine Institute was opened for girls from the families of the burghers and merchants. Cadet buildings were transformed.

In 1744, the tsifir schools were merged with garrison and became known as schools of diplomas. In the second half of the XVIII century. The spiritual education could be obtained in diocesan schools, spiritual seminaries and academies.

In 1782-1786. In Russia, school reform was carried out, which began the beginning of the creation of a secondary school with unified curricula and a single learning methodology. The country has been created in the provinces, and in the counties of small folk schools. In small schools, which gave elementary knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, cleaning and catechism, students studied two years. The main schools had four class education. The initial disciplines, as well as Russian, arithmetic, history, geography, natural science, architecture, physics and mechanics, were taught. At the end of the XVIII century. 400 folk schools were created.

In addition to public schools, private individuals on their own initiative in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Tver, Tula and other cities, created schools for poor children and orphans. In 1779, at the initiative of N. I. Novikov, at Moscow University, the first pedagogical educational institution was opened - the teacher's seminary. At the end of the XVIII century. Three medical schools acted in Russia. In addition to them, medical education was given in the Medical and Surgery Academy and at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University.

In the XVIII century In Russia, university education begins to develop. In 1724, Peter I was signed a decree on the creation of the Academy of Sciences. In its structure, gymnasium and university were provided. The academic university had to prepare frames of future scientists, and the classes there were members of the Academy. However, academic gymnasium and the university until 1758, when the management of the educational and scientific part of the Academy was entrusted to M. V. Lomonosov, threw a rather miserable existence due to the insufficient material base, organizational confusion, unsuccessful selection of teachers. M. V. Lomonosov managed to raise teaching to a higher level, training began to lead in Russian. The teachers included the best university students. However, the Academic University was far from becoming the Citadel of Enlightenment and Science in Russia.

In 50? Ear years, M. V. Lomonosov focuses its efforts to organize the university in Moscow, who was supposed to become the center of education and science. In 1755, with the assistance of the prominent Elizavetinskoye Velmazby I. I. Shuvalov, Moscow University was opened. He became his first curator. But the main idea of \u200b\u200bcreating and organizing the university owned M. V. Lomonosov. They developed a draft of his organization. Moscow University was a non-symptomed secular educational institution. Unlike Western European universities, there was no faculty of theology, and teaching was conducted in Russian, and not to Latin. In Moscow University there were three faculties: philosophical with branches of verbal and physical and mathematical, legal and medical. For the training of students in the university, a gymnasium with two departments was created - for the nobles and allocates.

Moscow University from the very foundation became the center of education, science and dissemination of scientific knowledge. Public lectures read here and scientific disputes were arranged, scientific and educational literature were widely published. In the second half of the XVIII century. Moscow University has become the largest center of science and education of Russia, where the outstanding professors N. N. Popovsky worked, A. A. Bars, D. S. Anichkov, S. E. Desnaitsky, etc.

The creation of the Academy of Arts, which grew up from the art classes of the university gymnasium in 1757 is connected with Moscow University. The Moscow University Student Theater laid the beginning of a professional theater in Moscow. In 1756, the Moscow Vedomosti newspaper began to be published at Moscow University, and then magazines. In 70? The years appeared the first literary Society. Moscow University also became the center of the development of national culture.

Opening in 1725 St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences has become an important stage in the development russian science In the XVIII century. In the Petrovsk epoch, the development of science and technology was determined by the practical needs of the state. Therefore, great successes were achieved in search of minerals, studies of subsoil, cartography. Expeditions were performed in Siberia and the Far East, Central Asia of V. Atlasov, I. Jerinov, D. G. Messerschmidt, I. Unkovsky and others were made up of cards of Kamchatka. C. Remezov at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. He began to make a "drawing book of Siberia". This work was continued by I. K. Kirillov, who began to draw up the "Atlas of the All-Russian Empire". His first volume was released in 1732. In January 1725, Peter I signed a decree on sending the Kamchatka Maritime Expedition V. I. Bering and A. L. Chirikova, which continued from 1725 to 1730

Big successes were achieved in the field of mechanics, creating machine tools, mechanisms. In this area, such names like MV Sidorov, Ya Batishchev, A. Narov, I. I. Serdyukov are known. In Petrovsky times, it was necessary to start collecting scientific collections. In 1719, Kunstkamera was opened for universal ferris, the meeting of the "rarities" of which served as the basis for the collections of future museums: Hermitage, Naval, Artillery.

In 1720, Peter I issued a decree on collecting ancient manuscripts, chronographs, chroniclers and power books on the monnetives of ancient manuscripts. The historical works of F. Polikarpova, "Marsova Book", "reasoning about the reasons of the Savy war" P. P. Shafirova, the "core of Russian history" A. I. Mankiev, etc.

The Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg was solemnly opened on December 27, 1725. Already two ten years old, she took a prominent place among other academies of the world. At this time, large scientists worked in it: Mathematics L. Euler, D., returned Lee, Astronomer J. Delil, Physics of Richman, F. Epinus. In 1745, M. V. Lomonosov became a member of the St. Petersburg Academy, a truly outstanding figure in Russian science. They were formulated atomic molecular ideas about the structure of the substance, the preservation of matter and movement, the thoughts on the kinetic nature of the heat, were studied atmospheric electricity, the theory of color formation was put forward, the ideas about the change in the time of the earth's surface. In the natural sciences of Lomonosov was an innovator, in many respects safely refuting the opinions of authorities recognized in his time. Working on the corpuscular theory, he opposed the idealistic constructions of Leibniz and Wolf, and discovering the law of preserving the matter and movement, said that "the glorious Robert Boyle is false." The number of such examples can be multiplied.

In the field of natural sciences, Lomonosov's work was distinguished by the novelty, depth of the study, the sequence in conducting materialistic principles. Materialistic ideas and the theories of Lomonosov, significant not only for Russia, but also for Western Europe, allowed him to achieve outstanding success in solving the most important scientific problems.

Scientific works Lomonosov contributed to the development of metallurgy and mining, manufactory production, country defense, navigation, agriculture. Another thing is that in the face of the domination of the serfdom of its discovery, they did not find proper use, and often they were simply silent.

His works in the field of poems and the Russian language Lomonosov provided "Service Fatherland". Creating a new poetry, he did not refuse true of the poetic, which was in the artistic literature of ancient and medieval Rus. Indeed, in spiritual poetry, he chose universal, emotional and psychological motives and used them in their verses. Lomonosov created a new literary language by the synthesis of the living Russian and book church Slavonic languages, understanding them as the stylistic categories of a common literary language.

Lomonosov also used the experience of antique authors (Horace, Vergilia), German verse. Using domestic and foreign experience of the poems, he created a true national shape of a verse corresponding to the "loan of our language". Lomonosov preferred a solemn way. The ideological essence of his poetry was Paphos to the formation of the Russian nation, the struggle for Russian culture, and the main topic is the topic of Russia. For creativity, Lomonosov is characterized by the civil orientation. In his gifts, as a rule, high government problems were put, and they were written by a solemn oratorical style.

Much made M. V. Lomonosov for the development of the Russian language. The scientist created a grammar that brought him universal fame. Lomonosov reasoned about the relationship between the language, the material world and human consciousness, the role and place of the human word in the life of society. These reasoning, of course, gave his grammar with great scientific value. Lomonosov wrote only one part of it, did not have time to create the second - syntax. In Rtorika, he developed the theory of literary prose and resentment. "Russian grammar" and "rhetoric" Lomonosov had a great importance, as they discovered the "commander of a path to knowledge", that is, they contributed to the relief of communication of Russian people among themselves, the development and dissemination of education, science, culture.

Many large scientists came from the walls of the academy. The first places among them are rightfully occupied by many students M. V. Lomonosov: Mathematician and Astronomer S. Ya. Rumovsky, founder of the Russian mineralogical school V. M. Seryghin, Naturalist and Ethnographer I. I. Lephechin, Philosopher N. N. Popovsky and Dr.

The priority direction in the work of the Academy was the study of the geography and nature of the country. It should be noted the work of Botany S. G. Gmlin ("Flora Siberia"), Naturalist JV. Kraschinnikova ("Description of the Earth of Kamchatka"), documentaries in Siberia historian G. F. Miller ("Miller's briefcases").

The second Kamchatka expedition led by Vitus Bering (1733-1743) was rich in discovery. In the course of it, the shores of North-West America were opened, the strait, named after Bering, describes the northern shores of Siberia. On the contour map Curil Islands and Northern Japan were applied.

In the middle and in the second half of the XVIII century. Historical knowledge turn into science, and a number of large historical works are created, which are based on rationalistic philosophy and criticism of historical sources. In many respects, the "Russian history" (4 parts) of V. N. Tatishchev, where he brought the presentation of Russian history to the end of the XVI century. In the second half of the XVIII century. The history was fruitful engaged in M. V. Lomonosov, who was in opposition to the normatist buildings of Miller and 3. Bayer in his "Ancient Russian history ..." wrote about the autochthonic origin of the Slavs, the southern Slavic origin of the ethnonym of Russia. M. M. Shcherbatov created brought to 1613 "Russian history from ancient times" containing many inaccuracies of chronological and geographical nature.

Major General I. N. Botin wrote "Notes on the history of the ancient and current Russia of the lecture". Leclerk, French Medic, lived in Russia for ten years, and returning to his homeland, wrote an essay, in which the autoclastic-fastener reality of Russia criticized from educational positions. In his composition there were a lot of fictions and attacks towards Russia and the Russian people, coming from ignorance of the country's history. Botin has been subjected to a detailed analysis of the work of the lecture, "to see and ullow the arrogant wrister."

The dissemination of historical knowledge contributed to the publication of documents and historical writings. N. I. Novikov played a huge role in this, published "Ancient Russian Wivlofika." The second edition contained 20 volumes, which published different historical sources. In the works of V. V. Krestinin and P. I. Richkov began the development of historical local history.

Successfully developed in Russia medicine (works about Chum D. S. Samoilovich), agronomy. A great contribution to its development was made by the works A. T. Bolotov.

The second half of the XVIII century. It was noted by great success in the development of technology. Mechanic-self-taught I. P. Kulibin improved the grinding of glasses for optical instruments, invented the "mirror lamp" - the prototype of the searchlight, the semaphore telegraph, the elevator, the new hour mechanism and the span of a unicoral bridge through the Neva length of 298 m. I. I. Polzunov created a project A steam engine and in 1765 built the first steaming unit for factory needs. It was used for two months, and then it was abandoned. All of these and other inventions have not been widely used in Russia, where the serfdom dominated, which did the industry on the preservation of technical and economic backwardness due to the cheapness of serfdom.

Knyagin E. R. Dashkova, appointed in 1783, director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, played a huge role in the organization of research work. This post she took twelve years. During this time, the economy of the Academy, its educational institutions, was actively published by publishing. Two periodicals were created - the literary and artistic and historical magazine "Interlocutor of Russian-Word Fans" and "New Monthly Works", popularizing scientific knowledge. In the same 1783, E. R. Dashkov was headed by the Russian Academy, which became the center of studying the Russian language, streamlining its grammar, stylistics and pronunciations. A 6-Tomny "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" was prepared, which contained an explanation of 43 thousand words of the Russian language.

The XVIII century was noted by the rapid development of social and political thought. Representatives of the social thought of the first half of the century V. Tatishchev, D. Kantemir, I. Posochkov, F. Prokopovich - were irreconcilable for obscurantism, cosiness, patriarchal, ratified for widespread science and education, the full development of industry and trade, opposed everything that Having prevented the development of Russia, the design of the absolutist state. They sally believed that the progress of Russia is the result of the activities of the autocratic monarch, and therefore they proved, "how many monarchical rules to the state is more useful".

In the second half of the XVIII century. In the socio-political thought of Russia, two directions are distinguished - conservative and educational.

Ideologists of the conservative direction of Catherine II, M. M. Shcherbatov, N. I. Panin, M. M. Heraskov, A. P. Sumarokov, and others. Recognized the inviolability of autocracy and serfdom, the current division of society, spoke about the need to preserve the dominant position of the nobility , strengthening his rights and privileges. At the same time, understanding that it is necessary to change the forms of the internal policy of the autocracy, representatives of the conservative direction considered the concessions to other estates, if they did not affect the foundations of the existing system. They just sought to render the existing system, clearing it from despotism and "Asian".

Enlightenment - anti-refortal, bourgeois essentially ideology - arose in 60? E years of XVIII in., when autocracy and serfdom They became an obstacle to the progressive development of the country, when social contradictions became increasingly sharpened, when peasant performances reached an unprecedented scope in Russia and, along with economic issues, issues of social, first of all, the question of the relationship between landowners with peasants. The carriers of anti-refortion, bourgeois ideas in Russia were representatives of the advanced nobility and the emerging allocated intelligentsia. Economically weak, politically dysfect, closely associated with autocracy and dependent on it, the born Russian bourgeoisie was not and could not become a carrier of anti-refortion ideas.

The ideologists of the Russian enlightenment, the origins of which stood the great M. V. Lomonosov, were N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, A. Ya. Polenov, Ya. P. Kozelsky, I. A. Tretyakov, D. S. Anichkov, P. S. Baturin, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov, Radishchevtsy - I. P. Pinn, I. M. Born, V. V. Parrot, A. Kh. Vostokova, V. V. Passek, S. A. Tuchkov.

In the development of the development of the second half of the XVIII century. You can select two stages. In the 60-70? Ear years, the country has not yet matured for bourgeois transformations, there was no wide social movement, and it was about restriction, mitigation, eliminating only the most flagrant manifestations of serfdom. The enlighteners sharply criticized the various sides of the feudal-serf system, they had hopes for the issues of enlightenment and the activities of the enlightened monarch. But this criticism prepared the ideological denial of the entire feudal system already in 80-90? E years. These years were marked for Russia to further deepening the decomposition of the feudal-serf system, the exacerbation of social contradictions. The feudal system shocked revolutions in America and in France. And it was during this period that Radishchev develops a solid political ideal of educational based on the analysis of the entire social system of Russia of Russia. In 80-90? E years he puts forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe People's Revolution as a means of destroying autocracy in the "journey from St. Petersburg" in Moscow.

But at the end of the XVIII century. The revolutionary way of struggle with absolutism enlighteners was rejected. A significant role was played in this peasant war under the leadership of E. I. Pugachev and the revolution in France 1789-1794. Russian society was scared and regarded as "Bloody Bunty." Radishvtsy continued to think about the position of the peasants, serfdom, justified the peaceful paths of its liquidation, criticized the social foundations, political institutions, but without revolutionary conclusions.

In the XVIII century Russian literature has grudgely developed. She was flourished on the second half of the century, when the culture began to reflect the traits of the rising nation. In the first quarter century, literature mainly served as a means of propaganda government activities. The main content of the cultural process of the middle and the second half of the XVIII century. was the formation of classicism, ideological basis which was the struggle for the powerful national statehood under the auspices of the autocratic power.

For Russian classicism as a literary direction were characterized by Paphos of citizenship, strong educational trends, a sharp accusatory jet, protection of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe continuity of the interests of the nobility and the monarchy.

In the second half of the XVIII century. A new fiction has been created with a developed genres system: Odoy, Basney, Elegy, tragedy, a comedy, story, novel. The famous writer was A. P. Sumarokov (9 tragedies, including "Horov", "Dmitry Samozhan", and 12 comedies). Left a mark in the theater drama Ya. B. Knyaznin (dramatic work "Vadim Novgorodsky", libretto to the operations "misfortune from the carriage", drama "Arfee") and V. A. Kopnis (Comedy "Yabeda", "Ode on slavery") . G. R. Derzhavin wrote poems and OD ("Welject", "Felitsa", "to take Izmail", "to take Warsaw", "Waterfall", "desire"). Talent A. N. Radishchev revealed to "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow" and Oda "Wolnia".

In Russian literature, the second half of the XVIII century. The artistic and realistic direction is beginning to take. Here, a major trail left D. I. Fonvizin - the author of the Comedy "Brigadier" and "Nepal", although in shape they were similar to the writings of classicism.

Brigadier was written in 1769, when even fresh memories of debate in the laid commission, where the nobles, defending their rights and privileges, referred to their noble origin and merit to the Fatherland. Fonvizin in the comedy showed that he was a "noble" Russian nobility. He subjected to ridiculous a typical Russian reality. True, seeing the main cause of the disasters of Russia in improper upbringing, Fonvizin has not yet connected it at that time with the existing autocratic build.

This playwright did in the comedy "inexpensive", written in 1782 in this work three problems were delivered: the serfdom, the upbringing of the nobleman, the faithful official debt, and the form of power. Fonvizin is in an inseparable connection. Observing an arbitrarian in the images of space-and-cattle and cattle, he showed that the serfdom corrupts and ulods landlords, turns them into ignorant people who only think about the personal benefits forgotten about honor and debt before the Fatherland. The serfdom is destructively acting on the peasants, making slaves from them not only on the situation, but also consciously (Eremeevna). Wednesday of ignorant, Hangehog, Tuneevtsev breeds themselves like.

In the "inexpensive" Fonvizin, the methods of upbringing, existing in most places of provincial nobles. In the home teachers were invited to poorly educated, ignorant people. Injecting in the sciences, blessing parents, in order to keep up with fashion, hired foreigners who have never been engaged in education before. And such teachers were an excellent set. With the words of Prostaya Fononononovin expressed the true attitude of many provincial nobles to education. "Without sciences, people live and lived," she says Starodum. "The late father was a fifteen years old, and with the same, he learned that he did not know how to lose weight, and he knew the adequate to do and save." Here is the main value for the nobleman, and "learning nonsense."

Fonvizin not only laughs at the knowledge of Mitrofan and his reluctance to learn, but also with indignation shows his essence - the essence of the serf, ready "for people to be accepted", ready for any betrayal for their own benefit. "Here are the worst of decent fruits," exclaims the beginners, looking at Mitrofan.

The result of the exacerbation of social contradictions in the country was the crisis of classicism, which began in 70? E years of the XVIII century. At the end of the century, the style of sentimentalism is beginning to develop, marked emotional perception The surrounding world, increased interest in human feeling. The flourishing of sentimentalism is associated with the work of N. M. Karamzin ("Poor Lisa").

In the XVIII century The architecture has powerfully developed. In Petrovsky, the new principles of architecture found their complete incarnation in the construction of St. Petersburg. This is primarily a preliminary building plan of the city, the development of a special style of regular planning, urban ensembles with the system of streets, quarters, squares. In 1703, the so-called office of buildings is created. In 1714, Peter I banned stone construction across the country, in addition to St. Petersburg, so that all the masters, remaining without work, flocked in the capital and faster it.

At first, St. Petersburg was built on only foreign masters, but Russian architects began to be involved in the 20th years. The regular development plan was developed by the French architect Jean Bathist Leblon. The Italian architect D. Trezini was a special contribution to the construction of the city: he built a cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress, Kunstkamera, the building of the Twelve College, the Summer Palace of Peter. Russian Master M. G. Zemtsov created an ensemble of Alexander Nevsky Lavra, M. O. Anichkov - Palace on Fontanka (Anichkov Palace), I. K. Kovobov built an admiralty, P. M. Yeropkin created a project for building an admiralty island between the Neva and washing And building a New Holland district.

Moscow architecture was associated with the names of architects M. I. Choglockova and N. P. Zrudegin. Choglockov built Sretensky gates of the earthly city, Sukharev Tower, the mint and building of the main pharmacy. Zherryny built Menshikov Tower.

In 40-50? E years of the XVIII century. Baroque was the dominant style (translated from the Italian "sophisticated"). For baroque buildings, monumentality is characterized, which was combined with pomp, glitter, splendor, which was reached by the bentness of the facade lines, abundance of columns, decorative stucco decorations, sculptures. His bright representative was Bartolomeo Francesco (Bartholomew Varfolomeevich) Rastrelli. He built a Biron Palace in Mitava, a large palace of Peterhof, Winter Palace, Grand Palace In the royal village and a resolon monastery. In Moscow, the master Baroque was D. V. Ukhtomsky (the bell tower of the Novodevichy Monastery and the Red Gate).

In the 60s years, classicism comes to change Baroque. For him, the clarity and clarity of forms were characterized, there are simplicity, but at the same time, the classic buildings are monumental, they argued the power and strength of the nobility state. Classicism applied to the architectural samples of ancient Greece and Rome, based on symmetry in the layout, the clarity of vertical and horizontal lines, selection in the building of its main parts. In St. Petersburg, such architects were created as A. F. Kokorinov (Academy of Arts), Jean-Baptiste Vaenoshov (Small Hermitage and Palace Chernyshov on the washing), A. Rinaldi (Marble Palace), J. Kaprengy (Academy of Sciences, Alexandrovsky Palace In the royal village, the Palace of Yusupov on Fontanka), Scotland Ch. Cameron (Pavlovsky Palace, Cameronova Gallery in Tsarskoye Selo), N. A. Lvov (Glavpottamt, Prioratsky Palace in Gatchina), I. E. Starov (Trinity Cathedral of Alexander Nevsky Lavra and the Tauride Palace).

In Moscow, the outstanding masters of classicism were V. I. Bazhenov and M.? Cossacks. Bazhenov is the founder of classicism in Russia. He was an innovator in architecture, conceived the construction in connection with his landscape surrounding it and the urban environment. Cossack distinguished the ability to rationally place the building. Main building Located in the depths of the courtyard, and the arches of the gate, Flygeli, openwork fences were outdoor. In the appearance of the buildings of Cossacks sought simplicity and conciseness of forms. Smooth walls were complemented clearly graphically worked out details. MF Kazakov built a Petrovsky Palace in Lefortovo, Senate in the Kremlin, a university, which in 1812, after a fire was rebuilt D. Livydi, Golitsyn hospital, the house of the princes of Dolgoruki, the column hall of the House of Unions. The outstanding works of Bazhenova became the house of Pashkov and the estate of Tsaritsyno.

In painting already in the first half of the XVIII century. Two genres were separated - a portrait and engraving. Masters of the portrait were A. M. Matveyev (self-portrait with his wife) and I. N. Nikitin (Petr I pictures on mortal bed, "Outdoor Hetman", Portrait of Chancellor G. I. Golovkin). The engraving was associated with the work of A. F. Zubov (Panorama of St. Petersburg) and A. N. Rostovtsev (cycle of engravings about the Northern War). In portrait painting, Matveyev and Nikitin laid its main feature characteristic of the Russian portrait of the XVIII B, attention to the inner world of heroes, their individuality, wealth inner world man.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Three genres are distinguished in painting - historical, household, portrait (portrait of the main, pair, chamber).

The historical and mythological genre is represented by the works of A. P. Losenko ("Wonderful Fish Sticks", "Vladimir and Rogned", "Farewell to Hecector with Androma", "Abraham brings sacrifice of St. Isaac") and G. I. Ugryumov ("Testing Forces Yana Usman, "Taking Kazan", "Mikhail Fedorovich's vocation for the kingdom"). All of them are made in the style of classicism. For cloth artists, classicist artists are characterized by a distracted nature of the images, the convention of the color, imitating the possess of the ancient samples.

IN byetov genre The works of M. Shibowov ("Peasant Lunch", "Credit"), watercolor I. A. Ermenhev ("singing blind", "beggars"). M. Shibanov - a fortress artist of Prince G. A. Potemkin. He wrote paintings from peasant life, the conditions of which knew well. In the painting "Peasant Lunch" shows the episode of life peasant family: Tired faces, naked hands, scant food. The festive side of the festival of peasants is displayed in the "collusion". It is elegantly dressed the groom with the bride, all those present. Persons shine joy in anticipation of the upcoming celebration.

A portrait genre was talented by A. P. Anthropov ("Ataman Krasnichy", a portrait of am Izmailovaya), I. P. Argunov - Sheremetyeva's fortress Count (Self-portrait, a female portrait to him, "Portrait of an unknown peasant in Russian costume"), f . S. Rokotov ("Unknown in the Tripolt", "Unknown in a Pink Dress", Portrait of A. P. Strujskaya), D. G. Levitsky (Portrait of A. F. Kokorinova, Portrait of D. Didro, Cycle female portraits "Smolyanka" - graduates of the Smolny Institute), V. A. Borovikovsky ("Portrait of Lisinki and Dashinki", Portrait of Catherine II, Portrait of M. I. Lopukhina). Anthropov worked in an old manner, his portraits were reminded something Parsuna. He was close in the manner of painting Argunov. Rockot was distinguished by a filigree technique. Levitsky in portraits expressed the multi-facetedness of human nature, and Borovikovsky revealed her intimate parties.

The process of pruding art gave impetus to the development of sculpture. They became part of garden-park ensembles, triumphant arches. Interest in human personality determined the creation of sculptural portraits, the first of which appeared in the 40th year. The famous sculptor from the Masters Baroque was Bartolomeo Rastrelli. He belongs to the bronze bust, as well as the equestrian statue of Peter I, the sculpture of Empress Anna John with Arapchonk.

In the development of the portrait in the second half of the XVIII century. Two tendencies manifested themselves: raising the artistic level and deepening a realistic image. It was characteristic of both sculptures. At this time, the sculpture performs in three forms: relief, statue and portrait bust. F. I. Shubin was especially known, M. V. Lomonosov, established portraits A. M. Golitsyn, P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaysky and M. V. Lomonosov, Statue "Catherine-Legisite". M. I. Kozlovsky glorified himself by sculptures "Sleeping Amur", "Polycrat", "Samson, Running the mouth of a lion," a monument to Suvorov on a Marsfield. E. Falcone in the style of classicism created a monument to Peter I, known as the "Copper Horseman".

In the music of the first half of the XVIII century. French and Italian court operas are distributed. In 1738, the first ballet school was opened in St. Petersburg. In the 40-50? The years of the Russian opera begins. E. N. Fomin created the opera "Melnik-sorcerer, a deceiver and swat", "Skimers on the substab", M. Metsky wrote Opera "St. Petersburg Seating Yard".

In 70? E years appears chamber music. A. N. Verstorsky was the author of the opera "Askoldova Mogile", the concert "Do not reject me in the name of joy", I. E. Khandoshkin created a number of violin concerts, D. S. Borttyansky created the Opera "Festival of Senior" and "Falcon" and was The author of concerts for church Chora, Cantat and Otria on the verses of G. R. Derzhavin, M. M. Hranskova, executable so far.

The first Russian professional theater was created by the royal decree in 1756 on the basis of the theater arising in Yaroslavl in 1750 at the initiative of the merchant F. G. Volkov. Amateur theaters at Moscow University, the Academy of Arts, the Shankhetsky Corps and the Moscow Educational House are widespread in the second half of the century. In 1765 there was an attempt to create a free public theater for the people, where amateur actors would play.

In 70? Ear years there are private professional theaters. From 1759 to 1779, the Russian theater acted. In 1783, a stone theater was opened in Moscow, subsequently, at its base, a small theater was created under the leadership of Nikolai Kupper. Wide distribution received fortress theaters in the estates. Only in Moscow they were 18. The most famous - theater of Sheremetev in Ostankina, where the fortific actress P. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova shone, and the Yusupov Theater in Arkhangelsky, where the ballerina T. Shlykov-Granatov was performed.

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For the history of Russia, the 17th century has a turning point. He marked the beginning of a systematic transition to the state was changed both in political and cultural plan. Began to turn their eyes to the West. Next, we consider what the culture of Russia in the 18th century was represented. The summary of its intensive growth features will also be presented in the article.

General

The culture of Russia of the 18th century was kept in the development of the state. This is the century of enlightenment and mind. So the great thinkers of the time responded about him. The culture of Russia 17-18 centuries is considered to be a flourishing of the era of large social and historical and ideological shifts. The latter was also marked by the struggle with religious dogmas and feudal monarchical stuff.

Main manifestations

The culture of Russia in the 18th century is allocated by the statement of the spirit of fretsidia and the spread of materialistic worldview. This most brightly reflected in the literature, science, philosophy. In a word, in the representation of the largest writers, philosophers and scientists of that time. We are talking About Radishchev, Lomonosov, Shiller, Goethe, Lessing, Rousseau, Voltaire, Golbach, Didro and so on.

Main features of development

The culture of Russia is 17-18th centuries - this is a significant fracture from which a new period began for the state. It is impossible not to take into account the three-time mongolian conquest. Because of him, the culture of Russia is 16-18 centuries as it were in isolation. In addition, it should be noted the influence of the Orthodox Church, which he tried to extinguish Russia with all their mights from the "Western" and "heretical". It also applies to the forms of cultural life, the businesses and education. Nevertheless, the culture of Russia in the 18th century stood on the path of pan-European development. She began to gradually be freed from medieval shackles.

Features of admission to Europe

What is the remarkable culture of Russia 18th century? Development, first of all, secular art, as well as the decisive victory of the rationalist worldview over the ascetic and uncompromising dogmas of religious morality. The culture of Russia in the 18th century (pictures will be presented below) gave "worldly" art the right to public recognition. It begins to acquire a more important role. It is about the formation of new managers of society's life, as well as a civilian education system. However, the culture of Russia in the 18th century could not disprove his past. Yes, Russian figures joined the rich spiritual heritage of Europe. At the same time, they did not forget about the indigenous domestic traditions that have accumulated over a period of long-term artistic and historical development. The same applies to the experience of the 18th century culture of Russia so interesting? Briefly considering its development, it can be understood that it is characterized by the deep continuity of generations. Thanks to this, she firmly established himself in music, theater, painting, architecture, poetry and literature. At the end of the century, Russian art has reached unprecedented heights.

General estimates

The culture of Russia in the 18th century was experiencing significant shifts. This is clearly indicated by the fact that for the first time in the country, non-church (secular) music came out of the regions of oral traditions. She became highly professional art. The culture of Russia in the 18th century (the table presented in the article contains information on some of the most vivid events of that time) reached its peak due to major transformations of all spheres of society. We are talking about reforms that were conducted in the era of Peter I. The data of the transformation radically changed the entire public and cultural system of the country. "Domostroevsky" customs of the church-scholastic worldview of the times of the Middle Ages began to collapse. Many areas have touched the developing culture of the 18th century of Russia. The life of the people, traditions, foundations - everything and all has undergone changes. Thanks to political achievements in people, a sense of national pride was strengthened, as well as the consciousness of the power and state of state. What was marked 19, 18th century? The culture of Russia received an invaluable contribution made by Russian musicians. We are talking about opera artists, performers and composers, which for the most part came out of the people. They needed to solve an extremely difficult task. They were forced to quickly master the fact that Western European performers were accumulated by centuries.

Major Development Periods

The culture of Russia in the 18th century is briefly divided into three main stages:

1. First quarter century (Peter reforms).
2. 30-60s. They were marked by the growth of national culture, as well as large breakthroughs in the field of art, literature, science. At the same time, the estate abnet strengthened.
3. The last third century. It is characterized by the growth of the government, the substantial democratization of Russian culture, the exacerbation of social contradictions and major public shifts.

Features of Enlightenment

This period is characterized by a general increase in literacy in Russia. If you carry out parallels with Western Europe, the level of education has noticeably behind us. As for the social composition of students, he was very distrect. The same can be said about age. Soldier schools made a considerable contribution to the progression of enlightenment.

Features of the development of science

Many great events replenished the history of Russia (18th century). Culture contributed to the development of Russian society. Science began to be freed from the medieval scholastic. For her it was a kind of revival. F. Engels gave a time characteristic. He believed that this was an era that needed titans and gave rise to those for scholars, versatility, character, passion and strength of thought. At the same time, and science was needed "Creators." Thus, the opening of world importance was committed in the Russian Academy of Sciences by Mathematics Bernoulli and Euler, as well as a chemist and physician Lomonosov.

Main contributions

Studies conducted by foreign scientists who were invited to the St. Petersburg Academy also influenced the development of world and Russian science. However, the latter was not created by their efforts. The same can be said about the "enlightened" monarchy. Domestic science was created by the Russian people. We are talking about people "different ranks and rank", among which you can select the following:

1. I. I. Solzunov (Soldan Son).
2. M. I. Serdyukov (Kalmyk Builder and Hydrotechnology) - created a "fire-eyed" car, is the first Russian heat engineering.
3. A. K. Narov (Turner).
4. I. I. Lephechin, V. F. Zuev, S. P. Kohennikov (Soldiers' children) - were among the first domestic academics.
5. M. E. Golovin (Soldier Son) - Mathematics.

This is the genuine creators of science in fortress Russia.

Contribution of Lomonosov

Its discoveries and ingenious guesses are strongly distinguished among all the achievements of Russian scientific thought. He relied on experience, lively practiced and materialistically assessed the world around. M. Lomonosov sought a deep creative generalization. He wanted to know the secrets of nature. This scientist is a phonod of physical chemistry and atomistic.

additional information

Basics scientific biology were laid in the second half of the XVIII century. At this time, the first Russian medical journal flows. We are talking about "St. Petersburg Medical Vedomosti".

Historical Science: Main features

The second quarter of a century - the time of the formation of history as science. Certain editions are collected and published. Many noble historians tried to engage in such activities. The history of Russia (18th century) is of great interest to society. The culture of the Empire continued to develop rapidly. V. N. Tatishchev is the largest researcher of the past. He began working on the "Russian history". It was his attempt to conjuno to state the events from the noble point of view. notice, that this work I became the basis for many scientists. In particular, this refers to M. V. Lomonosov and his "Ancient Russian History." Also, do not forget M. M. Shcherbatova and his work "Russian history from ancient times", in which the desire to alleviate the nobility, justify the serfdom and the privileges of the "highest" estate. The author was scared by the peasant war under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev. He understood that folk uprisings and movements are inevitable, but instead of those condemned them. I. I. Botin - another historian from the nobles. Critic, insightful, thoughtful scientist, he also engaged in history not only nobility, but also other sections of society - artisans, clergy and merchants. But his work was exalted by the autocratic power of the king and the serfthine.

Major achievements

Russian science developed as part of the world. At the same time, Russian scientists perceived the achievements of their Western European colleagues from a creative point of view. In addition, they themselves began to significantly influence the global scientific thought. As for the overall level of its development, he was somewhat lower than Western European. In this regard, each new achievement becomes much more important. Scientists from other countries were well aware of the publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is also worth noting that these successes did not turn into the wealth of labor masses. They were torn off from it. The masses were far from science and enlightenment. As for autocracy, the power of the property was afraid of the spread of knowledge. The people expressed their artistic ideas and socio-political views otherwise. We are talking about applied art and oral creativity.

Features of architecture

The innovations began to be brought into the construction of the construction still in both the entire culture of Russia in the 18th century, the architecture is experiencing significant changes. Architectural structures are designed to express the greatness and power of the empire. Thanks to the country, civil construction changes. Arsenal in the Kremlin, a large stone bridge - the most famous constructions of that period.

Architecture development

The first architectural school was organized in Moscow Ukhtomsky. M. F. Kazakov and V. P. Bazhenov studied under his leadership. Petrovskaya Epoch marks the construction of a new capital. For this purpose, foreign architects are invited. We are talking about Rastrelli and Trezini. The new capital was conceived as a regular city. At the same time, she had to have long radial avenues and ensembles of quarters, squares and streets. Trezini became the author of residential buildings for several categories of the population:

1. "Ordinary people.
2. "Wealthy" citizens.
3. "Eminent" citizens.

These social structures featured simplicity. Petropavlovsky Cathedral can be found to significant objects. Among public buildings are allocated as follows:

1. Admiralty.
2. Exchange.
3. Seating courtyard.

Together with St. Petersburg, many other objects were erected. In particular, this refers to country palaces with famous park assemblies. This is, first of all, about Peterhof. As for the style of Russian Baroque, the work of the father and son of Rastrelli made a huge contribution to its development. The first was an Italian sculptor. He participated in the decorative elaboration of Peterhof. His son is already a Russian architect. He is the author of a variety of significant structures, among which the following can be distinguished:

1. Palaces: Ekaterininsky, big, winter.

Development of architecture in the second half of century

In architecture, Russian classicism changed Baroque. At the turn of the 19th and 18th century, the culture of Russia saw the flourishing of this direction. Also were representatives of classicism. These include architects I. E. Starov, M. F. Kazakov and V. P. Bazhenova. The latter worked in St. Petersburg and Moscow. They made weighty deposits in the construction of such structures as:

1. Mikhailovsky castle.
2. Noble assembly.
3. Senate in the Moscow Kremlin.
4. Palace-Park Ensemble (meant Tsaritsyno).

1. Straight rows of columns.
2. Compliance with strict symmetry.
3. Straight lines.

Palace Square (architect K. I. Rossi) is a vivid example of this direction. The preserved buildings of that period are currently not only the decoration of cities - these are masterpieces with world importance.

Fine Arts: Development Features

Russia of the 18th century also underwent changes. This period was marked by flourishing painting. The most famous artists of Petrovsky time can be attributed to the following:

1. Ivan Nikitina.
2. Andrei Matveyeva.

They are considered the founders of Russian secular painting. The fracture was noted at the end of the 20s. It began to prevail the court direction of painting. The best portraits of that period are considered:

1. V. L. Borovikovsky.
2. D. T. Levitsky.
3. F. S. Rokotov.
4. A. P. Anthropov.

The classic direction in the sculpture is represented by the following figures:

1. Mikhail Kozlovsky.
2. Fedor Schubin.

Hermitage (the richest artistic collection of the world) was also formed in the XVIII century. Its basis is the private collection of paintings by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

Features of the lifestyle of metropolitan citizens

It took root changes. It was especially easy to notice in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Also allocated some other large cities of the country. Welmazbi began to build luxury palaces for themselves. Popular places for this steel Nevsky Prospect and Palace Embankment. The structures were built right along the channels flowing into the river. The granite embankments began to be turned on. All this work boiled after the appropriate decree of the empress. It is also worth noting that the notorious lattice of the summer garden is established precisely thanks to it. By the end of the century, fashion in St. Petersburg has changed somewhat. Here, many were fascinated by the content of aristocratic salons. Here it was possible to hear a French speech or take part in disputes about art, literature or politics. In such salons, many personalities began to shine. In particular, this refers to Russian literary celebrities. Schegolian crews drove past the luxurious mansions located on Nevsky Prospect. Here often walked in elegantly dressed orders and guards officers.

Moscow also underwent significant changes. It is worth noting that the St. Petersburg shine and wealth here was not there. Nevertheless, Moscow knew was not going to lag behind new trends. The chaotic buildings of the city stopped, the streets began to align. It is worth noting that these innovations did not capture the whole state. Rather, even on the contrary. They even stronger emphasized the poverty of Russian life, traditional and general stagnation. The huge area of \u200b\u200bpeople's life remained outside the city civilization. This, above all, belongs to the village and Sel. As in the cities, there were obviously significant differences in the features of the defendance and conditions of life. The nobility continued to remain part of the rural population. After the exit of the relevant decrees (complicated diplomas and liberty), representatives of this class were freed from the mandatory military and public service. Thus, a significant part of the nobility began to arrange rural life, settled in his estates and began to engage in household.

As for the main part of this class, it was represented by the "middle hand" landowners and owners of the villagers. In this regard, we can safely conclude: nobles were not separated from the peasant life with something insurmountable. A servant lived in their estates, as well as the yard people with whom they could communicate. Representatives of two different classes for many years were side by side. Thus, there was contact with the same folk culture, beliefs, customs and traditions. The nobles could be treated with the signs, bathe in the bath and drink the same infusions as the peasants. It is also worth noting that a significant part of this class was small or illiterate at all. Here it is very appropriate to remember the Ms. Prostakov Fonvizin. The estates of the nobles were an integral part of Russian rural life. As for the peasants, the latest innovations did not touch them at all. Only a small part of them was able to get out of "people". In the villages, they began to build a good and pure hut. Also, the peasants used new household items (furniture and dishes). They were able to diversify their food and acquire better shoes and clothing.

Finally

In the table below, you can see the most vivid events and phenomena characteristic of the first half of the 18th century.

Education	Theatre	The science	Architecture	Painting	Literature	Life
1. "Arithmetic" Magnitsky. 2. "Gravist" Polycarpova. 3. "Grammar" of Forersky. 4. "The first teaching of the shipments" Prokopovich. The reform of the alphabet, the introduction of a civil font. Decree: Disconnected from the noble service did not have the right to marry. Creating schools: 1. Typical. 2. Navigator. 3. Sea. 4. Engineering. 5. Medical. 6. Arctilery. Added a decree on the formation of the Academy of Arts and Sciences.	Created a public theater, the construction of "Comedan Chlalana" began	1. Creating a nate turning machine. 2. The pharmaceutical garden has become the basis of the Botanical Garden. 3. The first hospital is formed. Surgical instruments appeared. 4. COINTCAMERS - the first natural science museum. 6. In the Sukharev Tower, J. Bruce opened an observatory. 7. Kamchatka expeditions of Chirikov and Bering were held.	Baroque prevails. Style features: Monumentality; Curved facade lines; Pomp; Abundance of columns, statues. Monuments: Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress; Building 12 colleges; Kunstkamera; Admiralty; Smolny Cathedral, Winter Palace.	Nikitin created a canvas "Peter on the mortal bed". Matveyev wrote a "self portrait with his wife."	1.The Prrediakovsky created the first ODU. 2. Began to produce a newspaper "Vedomosti". 3. Created a library.	The emergence of the Assembly - Bala, suitable in homes for nobility. From 1700 a new summer is used.

The eighteenth century in the field of culture and life of Russia is a century of deep social contrasts, lifting education and science. All low and high calm coexisted at the same time, reflecting a different level of culture of exploited and dominant classes.

Education, Science, Technique.

Construction of canals, bridges, manuffs, the development of military equipment, shipbuilding served as a strong impetus for the spread of secular education and scientific knowledge. The need for competent people and trained professionals has increased.

A new civil alphabet is created, which replaces the old, Church Slavonic. All training, scientific, artwork are printed on it.

Petrovsky time schools were secular. For the preparation of rock masters, mountain schools were opened at the Olonets and Urals, cyphic and garrison schools. Military specialists prepared professional schools - Navitakaya, artillery, engineering, marine, medical. Future diplomats were prepared in Glitka gymnasium.

In 1735, among the best students of the Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy M.V. Lomonosov was sent to St. Petersburg to the University at the Academy of Sciences, and then sent to Germany to explore physics, chemistry. Huge hardworking, amazing abilities helped him overcome all the difficulties, master knowledge and become an outstanding Russian scientist XVIII century. He was a physicist and a chemist, a geologist and metallurgist, a historian and a poet. Proceedings M.V. Lomonosov played a huge role in the formation of a Russian literary language enriched with many scientific terms and concepts. "Russian grammar" M.V. Lomonosov was the first scientific grammar of the Russian language. He boldly opposed the views of the "Normanists" about the decisive role of foreigners in the creation of Russian statehood and as if the "wild" state of the ancient Slavs.

The XVIII century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. His genigar structure, content, character, means of artistic expression changed. Both in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in the chart, Russian art went on pan-European development paths. The process of "prigiding" of Russian culture continued. In the formation and development of the secular culture of the pan-European type relied on invited masters and on the student abroad Russian people. It was at this stage that Russian art entered a closer contact with the style trends developed in the Western European art of the new time, but the traditional ideas have long affected the laws of medieval creativity in the form of monumental decorative paintings and icon painting.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe foundation in Russia of their school of various arts appeared in Peter I, in 1757, the opening of the Academy of three noble arts took place in St. Petersburg. Foreign teachers in the Academy were led by foreign teachers: Sculptor N. Zhilla, painters S. Torelli, F. Fontbasso, and others, which Russian culture is obliged to many. In 1764, the Academy of Three Notable Arts was transformed into Russian imperial Academy Art. In its environment, a new generation of artists, glosing Russia subsequently for the whole world, was also architects I. Starov, V. Bauredov, Sculptors F. Shubin, F. Gordeev, Artists A. Losenko, D. Levitsky, and others.

The dynamics of the style development of Russian architecture XVIII. century. The development of Western European styles inevitably proceeds by an accelerated pace, and already at the initial stage of development, in the Petrovsk era, there are primitives of all style lines, through which the Russian architecture has to be passed throughout the century. The essence of transitional time was expressed by a multiple state, when Russian art, combined the traits of baroque, classicism and rococo. The deepening of the division of labor, the formation of the All-Russian market. The growth of industry and trade led to the fact that the elements of the new, capitalist formation are growing and stronger in the feudal estate, the importance of cities in the life of the country as a whole increases.

The epicenter of advanced trends in architecture and urban planning was the Russian capital of St. Petersburg, conceived as a sample of a new culture. The future capital was erected from scratch, which largely facilitated the implementation of regular planning and development techniques. The technical innovation of St. Petersburg was unusually high spiers, crowded by the most important city buildings, which was widespread in north-European countries. The outstanding structure of this type was the spire of the Petropavlovsky Cathedral, the height of which reached 45 m. During this period, the production of both ordinary bricks and special, moisture resistant, in the Dutch recipe was established in St. Petersburg. The city was created in a record time-temporary wooden Petersburg quickly changed by stone. In St. Petersburg, a regular development plan for the city was developed for the first time and became the city-forming basis.

The most invaluable role was played by great Russian and foreign architects. One of the most famous representatives of the Western architectural school, who worked in Russia was Rastrelli Francesco Bartholomeo (1700-1771), the son of the Italian sculptor K.F. Rastrelli, who served at the court of the French king Louis XIV, in highest degree His talent manifested itself in the creation of such masterpieces as a winter palace (1754-1762) in the capital, a large palace in the royal village and Peterhof (Petrodvorez), and many many more. All of them vividly characterize the Baroque style of the middle of the XVIII century. and the evolution of the creativity of a wonderful architecture. Another vivid foreign representative in Russia was Antonio Rinaldi (1710-1794). In his early buildings, he was still influenced by the "aging and leaving" baroque, but it can be fully said that Rinaldi is a representative of early classicism. His creations include: the Chinese Palace (1762-1768) built for the Great Princess Catherine Alekseevna in Oranienbaum, the Marble Palace in St. Petersburg (1768-1785). The famous Russian representative of the Early Classicism epoch in architecture was a student of architect Korobov - Kokorinov A.F. (1726-1722). To famous works, where the style of classicism was made with the greatest disclosure, it was customary to attribute the building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, built on the Nevsky Embankment of the Vasilyevsky Islands (1764-1788).

A prominent style for the development of Russian plastics brought a new aesthetics of classicism of the Epoch of Enlightenment. An important role in the development of a classic sculpture in Russia played a French sculptor N. Zhille, who has led the sculptural class of the Academy for a long time. An artist of one creation can be called the French sculptor E.M Falcone (1716-1791). All one work "Copper Horseman" created in Russia has brought him the glory of the Great Master.

In the second half of the XVIII century, together with other art types in Russia, painting is experiencing serious changes. On the forefront, secular art is put forward. Initially, secular painting is approved in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but since the second half of the XVIII century has been gaining significant distribution in other cities and estates. The traditional branch of painting - the icon is still widely widespread in all layers of society. Russian painting has developed throughout the XVIII century in close contact with art western European schoolsBy communicating towards the universal orphanage - works of the art of the Renaissance and Baroque era, as well as widely using the experience of neighboring states. During this period, the greatest masters of their business were created in Russia - representatives of the national art school and foreign painters. The most interesting phenomenon in the art of the Petrovskaya era was the portrait. The origins of the portrait painting of the new time is I.N.Nikitin (approx. 1680 - 1742). I.N.Nikitin brightly embodies the power of human opportunities opened by the Petrovsk epoch. The largest reformer of Russian painting, he shares triumphs with him, and at the end - tragic adversity. Creativity F.S. Crocotova, D.G. Levitsky is one of the most charming and difficult-scale pages of our culture. V.L. Korovikovsky (1757-1825), as if clic up the Pleiad of the largest Russian portraitists of the XVIII century. The artist portraits entire family "clans" - Lopukhini, Tolstoy, Arseny, Gagarin, Bezborodko, who spread its fame through related channels. By this period of his life include portraits of Catherine II, its numerous grandchildren, Minister of Finance A.I. Vasilyeva and his wife. The prevailing place in the works of Borovikovsky occupy chamber portraits. Also, Borovikovsky is the author of a number of double and family group portraits, which appear after the 1800s. From all of the above, it can be concluded that throughout the XVIII century Russian art of painting passed big way Formation according to the laws of the new time. The needs of the epoch were reflected in the preferential development of secular painting - portrait, landscape, historical and domestic genres.