The historical features of Russian culture. Features of Russian culture

18.04.2019

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Russian culture speaks towards the historical life of the people as "the second nature", which he creates, is creating and in which he lives as a socialized population of people, in other words, culture is the greatest value, environment and a way of spiritual continuity and thereby - meaningful activities in infinite The progressive development of the Russian people.

Passing a long and thorny path from primitive community To modern industrial society, having mastered the socio-economic entries, the peoples of Russia have accumulated tremendous experience in the field of material culture, which is largely instructive and valuable for the current and subsequent generations of people.

Another fundamental factor historically determined the features of the formation and Russian people, and his culture was an endless struggle for their survival with various invaders. Russia, sacrificing millions and millions of the lives of his sons and daughters, losing his cultural heritage, closed the way to all conquerors: Europe was saved from the Golden Town Hordes; The whole world is Europe and Asia, including from fascist hordes. Only Russia has not defended Russia and did not sacrificed in the name of the well-being of the Russian people - he himself should have thought about his own destiny. It is not by chance that the emperor Alexander III said: "Russia has only two ally: army and fleet."

The most important feature of the Russian national culture, as well as the civilization itself, is that it was not inside the continent, but at the junction of continents: the West-East; South North.

As a result of the long historical interaction between Russian and other peoples, Russia has formed as a complex polyethnic system of civilization with a unique polyethnics according to its depth content of culture.

In ethnic culture leading place Always occupied folk crafts and crafts.

Significant role in the formation and development russian civilization In general, including the Russian national culture belongs to the Orthodox religion.

A lot of authors still insist that there is no single Russian culture, it is obviously split. This is written by such well-known and widely published authors, like A.S. Achsher, B.S. Heres, B.G. Kapustin, I.V. Kontakov, Yu.M.lotman, and others. And according to a number of researchers, Russia did not form a holistic, organic national culture. [ As a proof, supporters of this concept lead a lot of serious arguments, namely:

The border position of Russia between two continents and civilizational types - Europe and Asia, West and East;
The initial antinomy, expressed in the "polarity of the Russian Soul", in the cultural split between the ruling class and the folk masses;
constant changes in domestic politics from the attempts of reforms to conservatism, in the external - transitions from a close union with the countries of the West to the opposition to them in everything;
Transitions of society through radical, in many ways to catastrophic changes in sociocultural type, through the cool break and radical measures to negate and destroy the rejected past;
The weakness of the integrating spiritual principle in society, which led to its constant internal value-semantic division;
sustainable traits principled gap: between the natural language of the beginning and high religiosity; between the cult of materialism and commitment to sublime spiritual ideals; between comprehensive statehood and anarchic voltage; between the spirit of freedom and humility, etc.;
In a word, in the opinion of these authors, Russia turned out to be deprived of a sustainable, established and wide median culture and was constantly torn by extreme orientations - Slavophiles and Westerns, "two cultures", "fathers and children", "conservatives" and "revolutionaries", "white" And "red", "democrats" and "patriots".

39. Basic features of modern culture

The twentieth century demonstrated to humanity that culture as an integrating the beginning of social development covers not only the sphere of spiritual, but is increasingly material production. All the qualities of man-made civilization, whose birth was noted a little more than three years ago, could manifest themselves in our century. At this time, civilizational processes were maximally dynamically and had a decisive value for culture.

The sharper of all this conflict has affected the cultural self-determination of a separate person. Technogenic civilization could only realize their capabilities through the complete submission of the nature forces to human mind. This form of interaction is inevitably associated with the wide use of scientific and technical achievements, which helped the contemporary of our century to feel their domination over nature and deprived of his opportunity to feel the joy of harmonious coexistence with her.

Therefore, the problem of the crisis of modern culture cannot be considered without taking into account the contradictions of human connection and the car. It is with the same name in the 20s of N. Berdyaev writes an article in which it emphasizes that the issue of technology today has become a question about the fate of man and the fate of culture. Rock role in technology in human life It is related to the fact that in the process of the scientific and technical revolution, the tool created by the hands of Homo Faber (creatures manufacturing to the gun) is rebelled against the Creator. Prometheus man's spirit can not cope with the unprecedented energy of technology.

Machine production has a cosmological value. Kingdom of Technology - special form Being, which emerged quite recently, and forced to reconsider the place and prospects of human existence in the world. This new form of organization mass Life It destroys the beauty of the old culture, old life and, having deprived the cultural process of originality and individuality, forms a faceless pseudoculture.

To such a state, the European culture came quite naturally, as the cultural maturity is cyclical, and man-made civilization is the last link of this development. The author of the "sunset of Europe" perceived culture as living organisms who know the birth, flourishing, withering and death. For O. Spengler, it is obvious that the civilization process is favorable for the development of technology, but destroyed for great creations: art, science, religion, i.e., the culture itself.

Civilization is the last, inevitable phase of all culture. It is expressed in a sudden rebirth of culture, a sharp dome of all creative forces, transition to the processing of already exhausted forms.

There are a number of reasons that have brewed in the cultural studies of the 20th century a sustainable sense of crisis of culture. The main thing is the awareness of new reality: the universal nature of vital processes, the interaction and interdependence of cultural regions, the community of human fate in the modern world, i.e., those reality that are a source of civilization and at the same time its consequence. The community of fate of the various cultural regions is represented by "catastrophes", which captures not only individual peoples, and the entire European community in the 20th century: world wars, totalitarian regimes, fascist expansion, international terrorism, economic depression, environmental shocks, etc. All these processes could not proceed locally without affecting the inner life of other nations without breaking their style cultural Development. All this, from the point of view of O. Spengler, only proves the fallacy of the evolutionary path of all Western civilization.

The situation of violations of the cultural integrity and rupture of the organic communication of a person with natural bases of life in the XX century is interpreted by cultural scientists as a situation of alienation. Alienation is the process of transformation of various forms of human activity and its results in independent strength that dominates him and hostile to him. Alienation mechanism is associated with a number of manifestations: the powerlessness of the person in front of the external forces of life; an idea of \u200b\u200bthe absurdity of existence; loss of people mutual obligations to comply with social order, as well as the denial of the dominant value system; The feeling of loneliness, the exclusions of a person from public relations; loss of his "I" individual.

From the point of view of A. Shopengauer, in the process of a long social evolution, a person failed to develop his body to more perfect than any other animal. In the struggle for their existence, he developed the ability to replace the activities of its own bodies with their tools. By the XIX century, the development of machine production was updated by this problem. As a result, A. Shopenhauer believed, it turned out to be useless training and improving senses. The mind, therefore, is not a special spiritual force, but a negative outcome of the disconnection from the basic acts named by the philosopher denial "Will to life."

A huge world of culture created by man: the state, languages, science, art, technology, etc. - threatens to worsen human essence itself.Cosmos of culture ceases to obey the person and lives according to its own laws, leaving the limits of spirit and will.

In the presentation of the follower A. Shopenhauer F. Nietzsche, the alienation of man from the cultural process has even more acute forms, since Nietzshean cultural philosophy is built on the denial of Christian values. Already in one of the first books "The origin of the tragedy from the Spirit of Music" is proclaimed primates of the ideals of aesthetic majesty over moral beliefs.Art appears as an addition and completion of being. At the same time, the philosopher opposes the "tired culture" of his time, against the disunity of individuals and sees salvation only in returning to the modern Europe to the traditions of antiquity.

Under the influence of the rationalization of social development, a person with his tireless thirst for knowledge turns into a miserable "librarian" and "corrector." Now, F. Nietzsche believes, the gray mass of culture producers will constantly strive to suppress the creative pulses of the geniuses. The meaning of the world's process is only in individual personalities, "copies" of human kind, capable of creating new forms of life through the destruction of the previous ones. Nihilistic in the spirit of Nisceancy justifies the cruelty and antigumanism of the superhuman, endowed with and "will to life", and "will to power", the great task to make the meaning of public history and the ability to create a higher culture.

40. The main trends of culture in the Epoch of Globalism.

The main trends of culture in the Epoch of Globalism.
For cultural globalization It is characteristic of the rapprochement of business and consumer culture between different countries of the world and the growth of international communication. On the one hand, this leads to the promotion of certain types of national culture around the world. On the other hand, popular international cultural phenomena Can displace national or turn them into international. Many this is regarded as a loss of national cultural values \u200b\u200band are fighting for the revival of national culture.
Modern movies come to the screens at the same time in many countries of the world, books are transferred and become popular with readers from different countries. A huge role in cultural globalization plays the widespread distribution of the Internet. In addition, every year international tourism gets more and more

Globalization is a long-term process of association of people and converting society on a planetary scale. At the same time, the word "globalization" implies the transition to the "globalism", globality, that is, to the interconnectedness of the global system. This awareness of the world community of the unity of mankind, the existence of global problems and uniform basic norms for the whole world. From a cultural point of view, the globalization of society means a new humanitarian revolution, the result of which many traditional national and ethnically cultural cultures will undergo significant changes, and some may not be only deformed, but also completely destroyed. At the same time, such values \u200b\u200bas social responsibility, patriotism, high morality and respect for the elders, are actively displaced by new values, delivered to the service of individualism, the desire for material well-being and self-affirmation in society based on the priority of consumption.

The Russian culture was influenced: nature, national character, the historical fate of the state, the influence of religion, etc. The increase in the continentality and desert climate affects the decoration of cultures. The cradle of the Russian culture is the Eastern European (Russian) plain (from the Polar region to the Black Sea) - a huge array. The relief of the plains determined the instability of the climate. Historically, Russia is a transitional country between Europe and Asia. Culture tied it with Europe, nature - with Asia. There was a historic concept of Eurasianism (Vernadsky).

A strong influence was the Tatar-Mongolian IHO. Because Rus was fragmented, it saved her from conquering by other countries, Golden Horde Brought the idea of \u200b\u200ba great-maintain, the religious idea of \u200b\u200bthe king. Eurasian peoples built statehood, based on the principle of the primaryness of the rights of each people on a certain lifestyle, hence the concept of coat.

Against the background of cold weather, droughts, hunger, the conquests were deployed demographic and ethnic processes, their result was the formation of the Russian nation. Stages of formation:

1. The decomposition of Indo-European language unity and ethnos, the allocation of a new ethnos, who spoke on Praslani language

2. Russet of the Slavs after the Gun Inspection (5-6 century), the loss of unity, the emergence of Western, South and eastern Slavs.sky tribes

3. Formation of the first states. Forms of Eastern Slavs (Polyana, Drevlyan, Northerners, etc.), uniting them into the Old Russian Kiev State (7-10 century)

4. There is a single nationality in the conditions of Kiev Rus, then fragmentation (11-12)

5. Disintegration of the ancient Russian nationality, the formation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples (13-16 centuries).

Continuous colonization and resettlement began in the 7th century, accounted for tremendous efforts to disintegrate from the nature of the land under arable land. The waterway "from the Varyag in the Greeks" was conducted from the Gulf of Finland to the Black Sea through Volkhov and Dnipro, along the Russian state formed. Patriarchal-generic gestures quickly destroyed.

The National Type of Velikorososs, known for its unpretentiousness in everyday life, is rare endurance and long-suffering was formed in constant struggle against the harsh nature on the scarce ground, which he dismantled at the forest.

National character - the support of any national culture. The Russian people have always been aware of their historical calling, hence the formation of certain high goals, ideals, canons. The Russian idea is the idea of \u200b\u200ba contemplating heart, freely and objectively transmitting its vision will for action and thought for awareness and words. In Russia, there was no such respect for the commercial case, as in the West.

In the Russian people, there was always a reparation that did not affect the family, the state, he turned to the sky, in this spirit he brought himself up with Orthodoxy, it inspired the idea of \u200b\u200bobligations, and not the idea of \u200b\u200blaw. We did not perceive the bourgeois building, from here a special interest in culture for social issues, the desire for the righteous, urged world order. Negative attitude to the values \u200b\u200bof Western civilization. An important feature of Russian character is patriotism.

Great importance for culture was the gifting of the Russian people (how many names we gave the world!), Love for the beauty and gift of creative imagination.

No wonder the National Culture of Russia has always been considered the soul of the people. Its main feature and attractiveness consists in amazing variety, identity and uniqueness. Each nation, developing its own culture and tradition, is trying to avoid imitating and humiliated copying. That is why their own forms of cultural life are created. In all known typologies, Russia is customary separately. The culture of this country is truly unique, it cannot be compared with either Western or eastern destinations. Of course, all the peoples are different, but it is the understanding of the importance of internal development and unites people throughout the planet.

The importance of culture of different nationalities in the world

Each country and every people are important in their own for modern Mira. This is especially true of the history and its conservation. Today it is quite difficult to talk about how important the culture is for modernity, because the scale of values \u200b\u200bhas changed significantly in recent years. National culture increasingly began to be perceived somewhat ambiguously. This is due to the development of two global trends in the culture of different countries and peoples that have increasingly began to develop conflicts on this background.

The first trend is directly related to some borrowing of cultural values. All this happens spontaneously and almost uncontrollably. But incredible consequences bearing. For example, the loss of coloring and uniqueness of each individual state, and therefore its people. On the other hand, countries have increasingly began to appear that call upon their citizens to revive their own culture and spiritual values. But one of the most important issues is the Russian National Culture, which in recent decades has become embraced against the background of a multinational country.

Formation of the Russian National Character

Perhaps, many have heard about the latitude of the Russian soul and the strength of Russian. National culture of Russia depends largely on these two factors. In due time V.O. Klyuchevsky expressed the theory that the formation of a Russian nature largely depended on the country's geographical location.

He argued that the landscape of the Russian soul corresponds to the landscape of the Russian Earth. It is not surprising that for the majority of citizens living in the modern state, the concept of "Russia" carries a deep meaning.

Household life also reflects the remnants of the past. After all, if we talk about the culture, traditions and character of the Russian people, then it can be noted that it has formed for a long time. The simplicity of life was always a distinctive feature of the Russian man. And this is due primarily to the fact that the Slavs suffered a lot of fires, which destroyed Russian villages and cities. The result was not only the urgency of the Russian person, but also a simplified attitude towards everyday life. Although it is precisely those tests that fell to the share of Slavs and allowed to form this nation a specific national character, which cannot be estimated unequivocally.

The main features of the national nature of the nation

Russian national culture (namely, its formation) has always dependent on the nature of the people, who lived in the state.

One of the most weighty features is kindness. It is this quality that was manifested by the most diverse gestures, which today we can safely observe the majority of Russian residents. For example, hospitality and guilty. After all, no people do not meet the guests as they do in our country. Yes, and such a combination of qualities, like mercy, compassion, empathy, cordiality, generosity, simplicity and tolerance, is rarely found from other nationalities.

Another important feature in the nature of Russians is the love of work. And although many historians and analysts note that how much the Russian man was hardworking and able to be so lazy and misinterpretative, nevertheless should not be noted the performance and endurance of this nation. In general, the nature of the Russian person is multifaceted and has not yet been studied. What, in fact, is the very raisin.

Values \u200b\u200bof Russian culture

In order to understand the soul of a person, it is necessary to know his story. National culture of our people was formed under the conditions of the peasant community. Therefore, it is not surprising that in Russian culture the interests of the team have always been higher than personal interests. After all, Russia has lived a significant part of its history in the conditions of military operations. That is why among the values \u200b\u200bof Russian culture always celebrate extraordinary devotion and love for their homeland.

The concept of justice in all centuries was considered to be the first thing. This came from the same time, as each peasant was distinguished by an equal plot of land. And if most nations have such a value considered instrumental, then in Russia it has gained targeted.

Many Russian sayings suggest that the attitude to work at our ancestors was very simplified, for example: "Work is not a wolf, it will not run into the forest." This does not mean that the work was not appreciated. But the concept of "wealth" and the desire itself was never attended by the Russian person to the extent that he is attributed to him today. And if we talk about the values \u200b\u200bof Russian culture, then it has been reflected in the character and soul of a Russian man first of all.

Language and literature as the values \u200b\u200bof the people

What do not say, and the greatest value of each people is his language. The language on which he says writes and thinks who allows you to express your own thoughts and opinion. Not in vain among Russians there is a saying: "Language - people."

Old Russian literature originated during the adoption of Christianity. At that moment there were two directions of literary art - this world history And the meaning of human life. The books were written very slowly, and the main readers were representatives of the highest classes. But it did not prevent peace with time russian literature to world peaks.

And at one time Russia was one of the most reading countries in the world! Language and national culture are very closely connected. After all, it was through the Scriptures in antiquity experience and accumulated knowledge. In historical terms, Russian culture dominates, but the national culture of peoples living in the expanses of our country has been dominated by the role in its development. That is why most works are closely intertwined with historical events of other countries.

Painting as part of the culture of Russia

Just like literature, painting occupies a very meaningful place In the formation of the cultural life of Russia.

The first thing that developed as the art of painting in Russia is an iconist. Which once again proves a high level of spirituality of this people. And at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, the iconography reaches its apogee.

Over time, the desire to draw arises from simple people. As mentioned earlier, the beauty of beauty had a great influence on the development of cultural values, in the territory of which Russians lived. Perhaps that is why great amount Paintings russian artists Procurement was devoted to native region. Through his canvas, the Master was transferred not only to the beauty of the surrounding world, but also the personal state of the soul, and sometimes the state of the soul of the whole people. Often, the paintings were laid double secret meaningwhich opened exclusively to those who were intended to work. The Russian Art School is recognized by the world and takes an honorable place on the world pedestal.

Religion of the multinational people of Russia

National culture depends largely on how the gods are worshiped. As you know, Russia - multiethnic countryin which about 130 nations and nations live, each of which has its own religion, culture, language and life. That is why religion in Russia does not have a single name.

To date, there are 5 leading directions on the territory of the Russian Federation: orthodox Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, as well as Catholicism and Protestantism. Each of these religions has a place in a huge country. Although, if we talk about the formation of the national culture of Russia, then the Russians were also treated exclusively to the Orthodox Church.

At one time, the Great Russian principality for the sake of strengthening relations with Byzantia decided to take Orthodoxy in the territory of all Russia. Church figures in those days were necessarily included in the nearest setting of the king. Hence the concept that the church is always associated with state power. In the ancient times, even before the baptism of Russia, the ancestors of the people of Russian worshiped the Vedic Gods. The religion of the ancient Slavs was a deification of the forces of nature. Of course, there were not only good charactersBut mostly the gods of the ancient representatives of the nation were mysterious, beautiful and kind.

Kitchen and traditions in Russia

National culture and traditions are practically inseparable concepts. After all, all this - first of all the memory of the people, what keeps a person from depersonalization.

As mentioned earlier, the Russians were always famous for their hospitality. That is why Russian cuisine is so diverse and tasty. Although a few centuries ago, Slavs fed enough simple and monotonous food. In addition, the post was taken for the population of this country. Therefore, the table mostly always shared on a modest and lean.

Most often, on the table, meat, dairy, flour and vegetable products could be found. Although many dishes in Russian culture have an exceptionally ritual meaning. Traditions firmly intertwined with kitchenware in Russia. Some dishes are considered ritual and prepared only at certain holidays. For example, kursany are always prepared for the wedding, they are boiled to Christmas, pancakes bake to Maslenitsa, and Kulichi and Easter - to Easter. Of course, the residence of other peoples in Russia affected her kitchen. Therefore, in many dishes, unusual recipes can be observed, as well as the availability of not Slavic products. But not in vain in vain: "We are what we eat." Russian cuisine is very simple and useful!

Modernity

Many are trying to judge how the national culture of our state has been preserved today.

Russia, indeed, a unique country. She has a rich history and non-easy fate. That is why the culture of this country is sometimes tender and touching, and sometimes tough and militant. If we consider the ancient Slavs, then the real national culture was born here. Preserving it, more than ever, it is important today! Over the past few centuries, Russia has learned not only to live with other peoples in the world and friendship, but also to take the religion of other nations. Before today, most of the ancient traditions have preserved, which Russians are happy to honor. Many features of the ancient Slavs are present today from worthy descendants of their people. Russia is a great country that refers to its culture is extremely prevailing!

The phenomenon of Russian national culture occupies a completely defined place in the system of historical typology of world culture. Its historical subject (creator and carrier) speaks by the Russian people - one of the largest, developed and rich in the creative relationship of ethnic groups of the world, which, according to N.Ya. Danilevsky, "reached political independence and retained it - a condition, without which the story testifies, civilization has never started and did not exist, and therefore probably cannot begin and exist." People as a whole - the main nutritious, life-giving social environment and fertile soil for the formation of all achievements of Russian national culture: intellectual thought; artistic creativity; morality; ethics; folk Medicine and pedagogy, and, therefore, the soil for the birth and the heyday of any talents. And than this soil saturated with the spiritual wealth of domestic traditions, proven and selected time, the more beautiful and unique fruits of our great culture.

Russian national culture as "the second nature" is:

material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bof the people created by him during their long history;

a way of vital activity and world order of Russian people;

the originality of Russian life in specific natural-geographical, historical and ethnosocial conditions;

religion, mythology, science, art, politics in their specific historical manifestation;

a combination of Russian social norms, laws, customs, traditions;

abilities, needs, knowledge, skills, social feelings, worldview of the Russians.

Russian culture, as well as any other, exists in time and space, and thus in development, during which its content and appearance unfolds, is enriched and modified. Understanding the culture as a living, moving historical matter, it is important to emphasize its leading role in the "removal" of contradictions of life and history in knowledge, in spirit, the word finally in the most social Life. Conducting this, you can understand the amazing postulate: "While our culture is alive, the Russian people are alive." Alive, despite the complexity, and sometimes the tragity of our history ...

The roots of the Russian national culture go into the crowd of the Slavic ethnos. The beginning of the first millennium BC should be considered, according to scientists, time when slavic tribes Middle Volga region begins their "historical being":

defend their independence;

build their first fortresses;

formation of industries and based on them create a system of life;

create primary forms of Slavic heroic eposawho lived before the beginning of the 20th century (the latest detailed records were made by scientists in 1927-1929.g.). It is in those historical distant times that the foundations of the domestic material and spiritual culture were laid. Gradually, standing out from the general Slavonic ethnos, the Russians, interacting with other nations, created not only the Great State, but also great culturewhich in the XIX-XX centuries. They reached the most advanced positions in the world and largely had a decisive impact on the development of all human civilization.

In what historical conditions, this process of sociocultural creativity, determined the features of the formation of Russian national culture?

First of all, the peculiarities of our culture, both material and spiritual, are greatly determined by the natural and climatic living conditions of the people. Unfortunately, the meaning of this, essentially determining the factor, is clearly underestimated not only in the past, but also at the present time. (This can be seen at least about how discussions are underway today about the development of the northern territories of the country and the use of them in the economic turnover.) Meanwhile, the impact of the natural climatic factor is so great that it is clearly traced not only in the peculiarities of production, ways and receptions of labor, Techniques, but also in organizing all social life, spiritual appearance, the national nature of the people. A man-worker cannot be tearned from that physico-geographical environment where it operates (Marx).

Topic 19. Culture of Russia

1. Features of the historical path of Russian culture (VI-XVIII century)

2. Russian national culture of the heyday (XIX - the beginning of the twentieth century)

3. Phenomenon soviet culture

4. Modern sociocultural situation in Russia

I do not understand Russia with mind

Arshin must not measure:

It has a special one -

You can only believe in Russia.

F. Tyutchev

In cultural science, today the question of the specifics of Russian culture is actively discussed, on the peculiarities of Russian mentality among features, its "binarity", "dissonance", determining the properties of consciousness, the method of knowledge of the world and the nature of the self-expression of the National Spirit. So, the Russian philosopher N.A. Bardyaev believed that Russia connects the East and West as two flux of world history, which turns Russia by no means into a certain integral option, but in the challenge and confrontation of the eastern and western elements. Berdyaev believes that the intermediate position of Russia between East and the West, the interaction with both origins led to the deep contradictory of Russian culture, its generation and inner split. Such a situation was constantly manifested throughout the history of Russia in a cultural split between the ruling class and the folk masses, in change internal politicians From the attempts of reforms to conservatism, and in foreign policy - from the close union with the countries of the West to the opposition to them.

According to Berdyaev, in Russian culture you can find a lot of opposite characteristics peculiar to any culture and creating a variety of spiritual life:

· Individualism – collectivism;

· Humility – riot;

· Natural spontaneity – Monastic asceticism;

· Softness – cruelty;

· Definiteness – egoism;

· Elitism – Nativity.

Along with these characteristics, sustainable contradictions were constantly manifested in the culture of Russia:

1. Between the natural language began and high religiosity (coexistence of paganism and Orthodoxy).

2. Between the cult of materialism and commitment to sublime spiritual ideals.

3. Between comprehensive statehood and anarchic free hatch.

The specificity of the Russian mentality is due to geographical features, originality of a geopolitical situation and a religious guide. For a Russian person, a "dissonant" worldview is characterized on the acute sense of disharmony and imperfection of the earthly world. This explains the existence of such anthropological constants of Russian culture as "existential sadness", a tendency to suffering and compassion. .

In the study of Russian mentality in the context of cultural studies, at least five historical periods that coincide in the periods of Russian history can be distinguished: pagan, pre-Christian; Christian Dopardrovsky; Russian-imperial; Soviet; New Russian. Each of them is a unique period of Russian culture.

Russian culture folded in the process of formation and development national self-consciousnesshas been enriched by world cultural experience. It gave the world of the top of art achievements, entered an integral part of the world culture.

Features of the formation of Russian culture are seen in the following main factors:

· geographical factor - need to master huge space;

· multi-ethnicity- Numerous ethnic groups and nationalities have been combined in Russian culture;

· Adoption of the eastern type of Christianity - orthodoxy, focusing on spirituality, traditionalism;

· Long temporary isolation development from Western European civilizational processes and intense struggle for overcoming such closures;

· Idea priority statehood Over personality interests, subordination of the personal interests of the state.

To see the above-mentioned, consider the main stages of the formation of Russian culture.

The pagan culture of the ancient Slavs.In the early stages of development, the country's nature imposed a huge imprint on the entire course of its history (estimated by V.O. Klezhevsky is flatness, the abundance of river paths on the Eastern European Plain, which facilitated the grandiose processes of colonization tribes, predetermined features and diversity economic activity People). But Nature did not protect society from alien invasions.

Old Russian culture is not purely Slavic. The Old Russian nationality was in the mixture of several subecadetic components: it was born as a community formed from the compound of three economic and technological regions - agricultural, cattle, commercial, and three types of lifestyle - seddled, nomadic, stray. For ancient Russian culture, a mixture of several ethnic flows is characterized - slavic, Baltic, Finno-Ugorsky With noticeable influence german, Turkic, North Caucasian, intersection of several religious threads. Thus, on the main territory of the ancient Russian state there was no numerical prevalence of Slavs in ethnogenesis. Slavic domination most brightly embodied in language .

Central place in the culture of this period occupied pagan religion. Paganism is a religious form of development by the man of the world. The religious views of the ancient Slavs did not differ significantly from similar development of religions of other peoples. Man lived in mythological picture The world, in her center there was nature, to which the team adapts.

In paganism, the forces of nature were deified. Slavs worshiped mother-land. Water cults were developed (water was considered the elements of which the world was formed). The water was inhabited by various deities - mermaids, water, the sailors who were dedicated to the holidays. Restored forests and groves, considered by the dwellings of the gods. The God of the Sun is worshiped - Dazhbog, the God of the Wind - Striboga. Slavs thought that their pedigree comes from the gods. The author of "Words about the regiment of Igor" calls the Russian people by the "giving grandchildren."

In the Russian-Slavic pavement it takes an important place the cult of the ancestors. (God of kind is the Creator of the Universe, Genzhalnica - Goddess of fertility). Slavs believed in the other world. Death perceived not as disappearance, but as a transition to the underworld. They burned the corpses or betrayed them. In the first case, it was assumed that after the death of living the soul remains, in the other, it was allowed that they continue to live, but in another world. The soul after burning retained ties with the material world, taking a different image, putting on a new body. Slavs believed that the ancestors continued and after death to live with them, constantly being near.

At the last stage of the development of the pagan religion, the "God of Gods" appears, removed from the world - Studerzz Puran. In the X century contracts with the Greeks, the Russian princes swore two gods: Druzhinny - Perun (later - by the Princely God), and the merchants - Veles - the god of cattle (later - the God of wealth and trade). Slavs existed quite developed forms of pagan rituals, that is, organized, ordered magical action system, the practical purpose of which is to influence the environment, to force it to serve a person.

In connection with the need of the internal association of the Prince of God, Perun becomes a god nationwide. In 980, Vladimir took the first religious reform, the essence of which is the merging of the heterogeneous gods in a single pantheon. But she failed. Very early to the Slavs penetrated the pagan religions of neighboring peoples. They were familiar with other religions: Judaism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy. Rus got acquainted with them, constantly communicating with the Khazars, the peoples of Central Asia, Byzantia, Europe.

Thus, the geopolitical space of ancient Russia was at the junction of various worlds. The population of Russia was under the powerful influence of multidirectional civilizational factors, primarily Christian and Muslim. Ancient Russia has developed similarly to Western Europe and approached simultaneously with it to the Rubel Education of the early refortional state. Varyagov's vocation stimulated this process. The Kiev state was based on the Western Institute of Vassalitet, which included the concept of freedom. The main and wide basis for entering the European Community created adopting christianity. The baptism of Russia became a turning point in history and culture.

Old Russian culture (X-XVII centuries) The baptism of Russia defined its cultural and historical fate. Ancient Rus was looking for and found his way in Christianity. The choice of Christianity was dictated not only by politics, but also the potential predisposition of the ancient East Slavic culture to him. Dominant, who determined this choice, there were features of spiritual settling, stability of Christianity. Eastern Christianity - orthodoxy - With his frank deification (sacrarization) of secular power, simultaneously strengthening the unity of the country and the ethnos under the sign of the establishment of a strong united statehood and the preservation of the ideals of primitive tribal democratism in the sphere of spiritual and moral, religious, actually cultural. However, such a connection of the opposite began to become the basis and future contradictions of Russian culture.

Despite the official rejection of the pre-Christian culture, it is the mutual influence of the pagan and christian traditions In the Domongolian period contributed to the "division" of the Byzantine and Greek artistic norms and created the originality of culture Medieval Rus. An important feature of the formation of ancient Russian culture was a unique combination of the upper layer of aristocratic Christian culture and ancient pagan traditional traditions. Christian values \u200b\u200band images gradually entered into folk culture, displacing paganism, but more often stirring with him.

The advent of Christianity began to develop books. The main guides of book wisdom, customers and connoisseurs - princes, relying on monasteries and monks. The literature of Kievan Rus was a multilayan. At the same time, the variety of genres, learned from Byzantium, adopted its own unique forms: chronicles, gortgage literature, teachings, parables, walking, praying, words (speeches).

Byzantines brought the skill of stone construction on Russia, the art of mosaic, icon painting, frescoes, book miniatures, jewelry, which were creatively reworked by Rusichi. Ancient Russia existed highly developed handicraft production.

In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, the collapse of the ancient Russian state into separate principalities, the actual unity of Russian land remained due to the integrity of the Old Russian culture, the unity of the language, Slavic writing, religious views and the churches, the general trends of almost all industries of the Old Russian culture: architecture (mainly temple), icon painting, Music (in particular, choral), chronicle, literature, natural science representations. It is thanks to the unity of the intensively developed ancient Russian culture on the site of the Space State of the Kiev Rus did not arise many countries and peoples, as in Western Europe. Moreover, fragmentation itself, relaxing Russia as a supanical unity, as a great European power, at the same time strengthened Russian medieval culture, giving birth to numerous cultural centers: Vladimir, Tver, Novgorod, Pskov and others with their architectural, picturesque, chronicle, literary stylesnot beyond the limits of general cultural unity and national originality.

It is this diverse cultural unity of ancient Russia that helped Russian culture to resist the expansion of nomadic culture during the Mongolian conquest and the Ordan Iga.

In the second half of the XIV century. The crisis was overcome, and the revival of Russian culture began, the ideological rod of which was the national climb, the idea of \u200b\u200bunity. The center of the unification of the Russian lands was Moscow. Unlike Novgorod, who took only his own independence, Moscow nominated a completely new "program" of its political and cultural development - the association of Russian lands, restoring powerful statehood.

Civilian I. moral feat Rev. Sergius Radonezh marked the victory of Orthodox spirituality over political utilitarianism of statesmen, the celebration of cultural and religious unity of the people around the Russian Church and its leaders. Sergia managed to lead the moral resistance to the Tatar-Mongolian IGU and thereby strengthen the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russian history and culture.

The main thing is to seek culture - open the values \u200b\u200bof human existence. In the tough tests of the age-old confrontation with the Horde, the need for the internal advantages of man was born. In Russian artistic culture, the emotional sphere is obtained, expressive-emotional imagery prevails, and in ideological life, "silence", a secluded prayer made outside the church, care to the desert, is becoming increasingly important. This privacy corresponded to the spirit of the "developing personality developing".

This takeoff of Russian culture at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. It is considered Treatment. For Western Europe, this stage naturally switched to the revival, which became a symbol of a new meaningful antiquity. In ancient Russia, due to various reasons, there were no conditions for the revival. The period of the secularization of culture has not yet come. Moreover, the rise of national self-consciousness in Russia passed within, above all, Christian spirituality.

Russia dropped the Goldenordinian Igo expensive price, including the cost of cultural losses. The previous city liberties were eliminated. Moscow rulers adopted political culture, management methods of hordes. Gradually intensified non-free of all segments of the population.

The emerging communional culture at the end of the XV-XVI centuries. It was subordinated to the tasks of serving the "Sovereign Case". Finally, after two and a half centuries of almost complete isolation, the culture of the young Russian state entered into contact with the Renaissance Culture of the West. Suffice to say about invited Western masters that built all the main buildings of the Moscow Kremlin. But at the same time, with the accession of Ivan the Terrible Kazan and Astrakhan, an ancient Russia became even more Asian.

The proclamation of Moscow "Third Rome", the legitimate heiress of both the Christian and all ancient culture, and the Russian king, the successor of the Byzantine emperors consolidated the lawless authority of the Russian autocracy. The authority and moral influence of the church began to fall.

XVII century, Began to the vague time, it went down in history under the name of the "rebellious century." The strongest impact on the monolithic of the Middle Ages became religious split. The basis of the split is a dispute about the historical right, about the historical path of Russia. One side insisted on the insignificance, the other - on the greatness of the old. Third parties did not turn out. The religious split led to the "split" of a single Russian culture on opposing, mutually exclusive parts.

Long-term dominance in the medieval Rus ideas about the unified "culture-faith" was changed in the XVII century. The collision of two opposing crops - "faith", to a large extent marked from secular knowledge, and culture, by the advantage of secularized, modernized. At the same time, there was a different opposition of two cultures: "Muzhikya" (but its own) culture "Light Rus" and a scientist (but someone else's) culture "Baroque". This opposition largely anticipated the opposition, which was established in Russian culture with the beginning of Petrovsky reforms, "Isonovny Russian - West, European."

Russian culture XVIII. in. Petrovsky reforms radically changed not only the political, but also the cultural situation in Russia. The change of fundamental cultural landmarks (East-West), the subordination of the church in the interests of the state, nomination on the first place of the service for the estate instead of a generic nobility - all these factors necessitated the need for cardinal reforms in the field of education: the country in the new conditions of its historical existence were needed by professionals. Organization in this regard special professional schools - Navitakovka, mining and others, and later the opening of the Academy of Sciences, the foundation of the St. Petersburg and Moscow Universities, the Academy of Arts, the Shuttle Corps, the Smolny Institute - all these are the most important milestones on the way of overcoming Russia with their historically conditioned relative cultural retardation.

XVIII century put forward a new capital on the foressen of Russian and European life - Petersburg. The city, built in the "blink of an eye" by the priest of his creator, "called the arrogant neighbor" was a miracle of the creative possibilities of not only famous architects, but also of unknown Russian fortress builders, most of whom did not happen to see what they were built under the conditions of the road regime work.

Russian science, culture, art committed a giant jerk during this period. Continuous contacts with the countries of Western Europe, primarily with Germany, France, Italy was determined successful interaction and the interpenetration of old-Russian and European cultural traditions. The Russians were not content with the role of diligent and timid student, B, but always creatively, in their own way, refracted Western influences and trends. For example, D.I.Fonvizin Only Formally followed the canons of the French classical comedy, however, created a completely Russian, primarily in the tongue, the characters, the guise of the story of the gentlemen of cattle, who spoiled Mitrofanushka. Russian samordin sculptor, yesterday's fastener, ingenious Fedot Schubin the excellent knowledge of the best samples of world portrait sculpture and externally strict adherence canons of French classicism did not prevent anywhere, but only helped to express in perfect artistic form Absolutely Russians, unrestrained in all manifestations of their unbridled passions, the characters of the venel Ekaterininsky "first call".

Of course, the borrowing sometimes happened and slave, which seems to be quite natural, given the nature and pace of Petrovsky transformations and that in general is characterized by the period formation of secular national culturewhich worried Russia.

"The dominance of foreigners in Russia" at that time meant for Russian culture, first of all, boiled activity for the benefit of formally someone else's countries of numerous talents of non-Russian origin (Germans G.V. Richmana and A.L.Shlezzser (physics, history), french P.S. Pallsa (Geology), Italians F. Arai and J. Sarti (opera music), P.Gorzago (Theatrical and decorative art).

The main merit belonged at this time to Russian leaders. The XVIII century was the time of creating the system in Russia secular education. The exceptional role in the development of Russian imir science was played M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). As an encyclopedist, he became the founder of many directions in physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, geography. In 1755 he founded first russian University in Moscowwho became the largest center for training specialists in all branches of knowledge. In 1783 it is created Russian Academy – science Center According to the Russian language and literature, the first president of which the princess becomes E.R. Dashkov . The Academy also played a huge role in the development of science. The first major achievement was the six-fat "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", which contains the interpretation of the main scientific terms and concepts. In general, we can say that in one century, Russian science made a powerful jerk forward.

The main stimulant of the development of culture has become official Products of Catherine II, who found his legislative expression in a series of acts who provided special rights and privileges to nobles, first of all, in the famous "complained literacy of the nobility." Liberated from the mandatory military and civil service, from corporal punishment, submission court and burdensive taxes, a super-free-free estate created as a result of its more than a century special Development Unique culture in nature and world significance. This culture can be called "Barskaya", because it was an increasingly tightened fastener right, and the superstructure is formally an absolutely idle, dominant. But the facade side of this Barity was very attractive and quite European for the most advanced then standards, and fruitful in the face of dominant rationalism and spiritual communication without national and confessional partitions in the whole of Europe.

2. Russian national culture of the heyday (XIX - the beginning of the twentieth century)

French revolution, Patriotic War 1812, which demonstrated the mighty possibilities of a fixed, but not crushed people. The rapid growth of industry, the emergence of the first capitalist enterprises, and, accordingly, the increasing need for free workers - all these factors demanded the immediate cancellation of serfdom. However, since the ruling circles of the country were in no hurry with reforms in the hope that the storm in Europe raised by the French revolution someday subsides, it remained to be considered only on public opinion, which was the progressive noble intelligentsia. Requests and requirements of this intelligentsia, which has been educated and education in universities, in the Tsarskostsky Lyceum, in foreign trips and military campaigns, finally, in hostilities against Napoleon - were expressed in rebellion of Decembrists On the Senate Square December 14, 1825

The central figure of the Nikolaev era became A.S. Pushkin. However, the "Poets of Pushkin Circle" played a big role for the development of Russian literature: K.N. Batyushkov, V.A. Zhukovsky, B.A. Bratynsky, F.N. Tyutchev. This literature taught moral independence, overcame the classroom and thesis limitations, not hesitated to learn the best European samples and did not stern, at the same time, neither his scholarship, or her "Europeanity".

All Russian culture of the whole XIX century, thanks to Pushkin and his associates, - literaryCentrichnaThe whole she carries a trace of deep seriousness, problemability, sincerity, interest in life in all its manifestations.

The special function of the literature and literary oriented intelligentsia as a social barometer and at the same time compass and the thermometer led to a completely exceptional popularity of the so-called "Tolstoy magazines", Be sure to include, in addition to fiction, and critical, information, entertainment departments. Yes, and the "fiction" itself did not fit in its inner meaning the literal meaning of the word (from Fran. "Belles-lettres"- elegant literature), but was distinguished by a huge public.

Fine arts went as if for the literature, picking up and commenting on the plots of popular novels, trying to reproduce, starting from the 40s and 50s of the XIX century. The life of various layers of Russian society, creating a kind of encyclopedia of types and conflicts of Russian reality. The leading direction in art was realism.

In 1863 whole group artists led by I.N. Kramskywithout receiving official diplomas, out of the Academy as a sign of protest against official Academism and Caseschins in the academic learning system and formed the so-called "Association of Russian mobile exhibitions." Mobile arranged their exhibitions for almost four decades in all cities of Russia and made a very significant contribution to the work of art education and moral education countries. However, there was a well-known limitation in the mobile realism, excessive passion for genre, plot scenes ("The arrival of the goover in merchant house», « Bird enemies"," Last Kabak by the Road "," merchant comment "," New Frak "," Babushkin Garden "," The arrival of a sorcerer on the peasant wedding "," Krahi Bank "," Wires of the Chief ", etc.)

On the other hand, there existed in Russian visual arts and another trend that could be characterized as religious and moral. Direct appeal to biblical plots, to the image of Christ in such wonderful masters, like A.A.Ivanov, N.N.G., V.M.vasnetsov, M.V.nesterov, I.N. Kramskaya it was an attempt by philosophical explanation of the epoch, a kind of artistic projection of moral and religious searches of the late Gogol, a mature thick, classical Dostoevsky, Ostrovsky "Slavophile Pore".

In general, the problem of spirituality, developed in Russian culture, is very intense throughout the entire century, too, was also a form of a kind of "culture of resistance", opposed by the official doctrine, inspired by Nicholas I and formulated by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov In the form of a famous triad - orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. Russian culture developed in its laws, not regulated and not controlled from above. This applied literally to all the areas of artistic activities.

XIX century - Epoch in Russian music. It was then that formed russian school of Music - Composer, performing, music-friendly. ( P.I. Tchaikovsky, M.I. Glinka, M.P.Morusorgsky A.P. Corodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.S.Dargomyzhsky ).

Important role in the development of musical culture had artistic and musical critics V.V. Stasova (1824-1906), which, who, worked for more than half a century, a modest employee of the Metropolitan Public Library, all his time gave propaganda of Russian art. In general, ideological disputes, even conflicts among cultural figures have become an integral part of the cultural landscape of the era.

The largest and most significant confrontation of this kind is considered the dispute "Westerners" and "Slavophiles".

The beginning of this dispute put P. Ya. Chadaev In his "philosophical letters", he wrote about the void of Russian history, about the detachment of Russia from other peoples. The reason for the separation of Russia from the history of Western peoples Chaadayev considered Orthodoxy. The Byzantine Orthodox Church, confesses asceticism, humility, humility, deregistration. While in the West countries, the struggle for ideas led to important social consequences

Discussion of the prospects for the development of Russia gave rise to the end of the 30s. Two ideological directions in the medium of the capital's intelligentsia - westernersand Slavophiles.

WesternersFollowing Chaaadaev, saw in the countries of Western Europe, the implementation of the ideas of the law, order, debt, justice. Severe Wessengers were: Professor T. N. Granovsky, historian and lawyer K. D. Kavelin, A.I. Herzen, V.G. Belinsky and others. In the Western environment, not so many projects of the Constitution of Future Russia, how many general prospects for the development of the country in connection with the history of others were discussed. european countries. Primary was the problem of personal rights.

Slavophiles ( Yu.F. Samarin, A.S. Hamsters brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov brothers I. VI P.V. Kireevsky ) the main feature Russia, which distinguishes it from the West, called the "Community Start", "Cattle", unanimity and consent. In the Slavic world, the personality is organically incorporated into community. Slavic world The above total appreciates community and freedom inner (its spiritual unity and unity with God). Therefore, Russia has its own, a special path other than the West.

Slavophiles were opposed to the West of the Doperer Moscow Rus, arguing that the Moscow Rus was a single great community, the unity of power and land. Peter I destroyed this unity by introducing a bureaucracy into the state and leaning the "ability of slavery". The creation of Peter Western began, alien to the Slavic spirit, violated the inner, spiritual freedom of the people, disconnected the tops of society and the people, disassembled people and power.

Slavophils were inherent in ideas. pancalavism and the Messianic role of Russia. Rice of the order of the bourgeois west, they argued that the Orthodox Russian people. "The gadlock with his old forms of society will save the" soda capitalism "at first Slavs, and then other nations.

Modern scientists believe that the severity of the conflict itself is significantly exaggerated if we consider it in the cultural plan. According to its moral essence and cultural mentality "Western" A.I. Herzen was significantly closer to Slavophil K.S. Aksakov than his close ideologically liberal k.d. Cavelin. Similarly, Slavophiles Brothers P.V. and I.V. Kireevskie and A.S. Hamsakov and Western T.N. Granovsky and V.G. Belinsky were equally far from official propagandists of the unity of Slavic forces from the government camp such as Graph A.S. Uvarova.

The second half of the XIX century. - the heyday of Russian literature ( L.N. . Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, A. and Kubrin, A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and etc.)

An important role in the culture of the second half of the XIX century. Played works F.M. Dostoevsky, who in his novels revealed the "underground" man, put a fundamentally in a new main philosophical issue of good and evil, finding the root of evil in human imperfect nature, and not in the social structure of society or the disadvantages of the education and education system. For Dostoevsky, the most advanced ideas were immoral if they were on the basis of "at least one tears of at least one child." To some extent, the idea of \u200b\u200bDostoevsky anticipated the future rapid takeoff of the Russian religious and philosophical thought of the Epoch of the Silver Century, which was expressed in active activities whole pleiads of brilliant philosophers from V.S.Soloviev before S.L. Franca.

However, the crisis revolutionary movement, caused by unsuccessful attempts to "walk into the people", failure of terrorist plans of conspirators and, finally, the process in the case of Tsarubyts March 1, 1881 - all this led to a completely different cultural situation. The society felt a rapid focus of interest in social problems, the lack of understanding of any common idea was promoted, the theory of "small affairs" was promoted, essentially justifying the categories and complete excitescence. The most popular author becomes A.P.chekhov . The position of Chekhov-the artist was not identical to the position of its constantly aging, sighing, of the heroes. Ravenly worker and in the literature, and in medicine, a man of an exacerbid sense of conscience and public debt, a genuine Russian intellectual Chekhov, despite the strong unhealthy, takes a risky trip through the whole country to Sakhalin Island in order to write the truth about the position of the Katorzhan in this grand royal prison . Public resonance caused by the book "Sakhalin Island" was so great that the soldiers on Sakhalin had to eliminate. Chekhov, this trip cost practically life. In the very fact, the sinister paradox of Russian culture.

Russian culture "Silver Century". End XIX. - The beginning of the XX centuries. In Russia, called the "silver age" of Russian culture. This period is characterized by the development of Russian religious philosophy, new directions in art (symbolism, acmeism, futurism, etc.), an unprecedented poetic takeoff ( I.F.annensky, V.Ya. Bruzov, A. Boya, A.A. Block, V.F. Sakevich, I.Severyanin, A.A.ahmatova, N.S.Gumilev, O.E.Madelshtam, B.L.Pasternak, S.A. Jenin, M.I.TSvetaeva and etc.). A similar poetic "explosion" was possible due to the coincidence of a number of political, social and general cultural reasons. The main thing is the desire and poets and poetic audience fatigue from unnecessary ideologized art, interest in personal, private life, noticeably growing against the background of the colossal decline of public life and the lack of hopes for any imminent democratic reforms in the agonizing of an autocrete-serf.

« silver Age"- this is the time of intense artistic searches and experiments. The contemporary of the creation of a new, truly artistic theater and take-off of the new poetry was the activities of the art journal "The World of Arts", which proclaimed the ministry of artistically bright, full, colorful art. The magazine and the group of talented artists, graphs, art historians - A.N. Benua, M.A. Vrubel, MV Dobuzhinsky, L.S. Bakst, E.E. Lesser and others contributed to the formation of new, synthetic species. Fine art of theatrical and decorative, artistic modeling, book-designer who have reached unprecedented high level At the turn of the centuries in Russia. To a great extent, the activities of the "World of Art", as well as many other artistic beginnings of the era - brilliant "Russian seasons" in Paris, promising theatrical experiments A.Ya. Tairova and B.B. Vakhtangov , successes in the international arena of music of Russian avant-garders - A.N. Scriabin, I.F. Stravinsky, N.N. Cherepnin - was carried out due to the concerns of wonderful Russian patrons from S.P. Dyagilev before N.P. Ryabushinsky and from S.I. Mamontov (the creator of the theater promoting the new Russian opera) to I.V. Tsvetaeva , giving life to the museum of fine arts on the Volkhonka.

But the epoch, which giving Russia and the world Anna Pavlov and Vaclav Nizhinsky, Sergey Rakhmaninov and Sergey Prokofiev, Nikolai Roerich and Boris Kustodiev, Fyodor Shalyapin and Leonid Sobyanov, Nikolai Berdyaev and Ivan Ilin, was the epoch of the Russian Empire.