Lecture material specificity of Old Russian literature.

In this article, we will look at the features Old Russian literature... Literature Ancient Rus was primarily ecclesiastical... After all, book culture in Russia appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Monasteries are becoming centers of writing, and the first literary monuments are mainly works of a religious nature. Thus, one of the first original (that is, not translated, but written by a Russian author) works was "The Word of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion. The author proves the advantage of Grace (the image of Jesus Christ is associated with it) over the Law, which, according to the preacher, is conservative and nationally limited.

Literature was not created for entertainment, but for teaching... Considering the features of Old Russian literature, one should note its instructiveness. She teaches to love God and her Russian land; she creates images of ideal people: saints, princes, faithful wives.

Let us note one seemingly insignificant feature of Old Russian literature: it was handwritten... Books were created in a single copy and only then were rewritten by hand when it was necessary to make a copy or the original text fell into disrepair from time to time. This gave the book a special value, engendered respect for it. In addition, for the ancient Russian reader, all books were derived from the main one - Holy Scripture.

Since the literature of Ancient Rus was basically religious, they saw in the book a storehouse of wisdom, a textbook of a righteous life. Old Russian literature is not fiction, in modern meaning this word. She in every way avoids fiction and strictly follows the facts. The author does not show his individuality, hides behind a narrative form. He does not strive for originality, for an ancient Russian writer it is more important to stay within the framework of tradition, not to violate it. Therefore, all the lives are similar to one another, all the biographies of princes or military stories are drawn up according to a general plan, observing the "rules". When "The Tale of Bygone Years" tells us about Oleg's death from his horse, this beautiful poetic legend sounds like a historical document, the author really believes that everything was so.

The hero of Old Russian literature does not possess neither personality nor character in our view today. The destiny of man is in the hands of God. And at the same time, his soul is the arena of the struggle between good and evil. The first will triumph only when a person lives by moral rules given once and for all.

Of course, in Russian medieval works we will not find either individual characters or psychologism - not because the ancient Russian writers did not know how to do this. In the same way, icon painters created flat, not three-dimensional images, not because they could not write "better", but because they faced other artistic tasks: the face of Christ cannot be like an ordinary one. human face... The icon is a sign of holiness, not an image of a saint.

The literature of Ancient Rus adheres to the same aesthetic principles: it creates faces, not faces, gives the reader pattern of good behavior rather than depicting a person's character. Vladimir Monomakh behaves like a prince, Sergius of Radonezh - like a saint. Idealization is one of the key principles of ancient Russian art.

Old Russian literature in every possible way avoids groundedness: she does not describe, but narrates. Moreover, the author does not narrate on his own behalf, he only conveys what is written in the sacred books, what he read, heard or saw. There can be nothing personal in this story: neither a manifestation of feelings, nor an individual manner. ("The Lay of Igor's Campaign" in this sense is one of the few exceptions.) Therefore, many works of the Russian Middle Ages anonymous, the authors do not expect such immodesty - to put their name. And the ancient reader cannot even imagine that the word is not from God. And if God speaks through the mouth of the author, then why does he need a name, a biography? Therefore, the information available to us about the ancient authors is so scarce.

At the same time, in ancient Russian literature, a special, national ideal of beauty captured by the ancient scribes. First of all, it is spiritual beauty, the beauty of the Christian soul. In Russian medieval literature, in contrast to Western European of the same era, the chivalrous ideal of beauty - the beauty of weapons, armor, victorious battle - is much less represented. The Russian knight (prince) wages war for the sake of peace, and not for the sake of glory. The war for the sake of glory and profit is condemned, and this is clearly seen in "The Lay of Igor's Host." The world is assessed as an unconditional good. The Old Russian ideal of beauty presupposes a wide space, an immense, "decorated" land, and temples adorn it, for they were created specifically for the exaltation of the spirit, and not for practical purposes.

The attitude of Old Russian literature is also connected with the theme of beauty. To oral poetry, folklore. On the one hand, folklore had a pagan origin, therefore it did not fit into the framework of a new, Christian worldview. On the other hand, he could not help but penetrate into literature. After all, the written language in Russia from the very beginning was Russian, and not Latin, as in Western Europe, and there was no impassable border between the bookish and the spoken word. Popular ideas about beauty and goodness also generally coincided with Christian ones, Christianity almost unhindered penetrated into folklore. Therefore, the heroic epic (epics), which began to form in the pagan era, presents its heroes both as warriors-patriots, and as defenders of the Christian faith, surrounded by "filthy" pagans. Just as easily, sometimes almost unconsciously, are used by ancient Russian writers folklore images and plots.

The religious literature of Russia quickly outgrew the narrow church framework and became a truly spiritual literature that created a whole system of genres. Thus, "The Word of Law and Grace" refers to the genre of solemn sermons delivered in the church, however, Hilarion not only proves the Grace of Christianity, but also glorifies the Russian land, combining religious pathos with patriotic ones.

Genre of life

The most important for Old Russian literature was the genre of the life, the biography of the saint. At the same time, the task was pursued, by telling about the earthly life of the saint canonized by the church, to create the image of an ideal person for the edification of all people.

IN " Lives of the holy martyrs Boris and Gleb"Prince Gleb appeals to his murderers with a request to spare him:" Do not cut an ear that has not yet ripened, filled with milk of good-naturedness! Do not cut a vine that is not fully grown, but bearing fruit! " Abandoned by his retinue, Boris in his tent “weeps with a broken heart, but is joyful in soul”: death is terrible for him and at the same time he realizes that he is repeating the fate of many saints who have been martyred for their faith.

IN " Lives of Sergius of Radonezh"it is said that the future saint in adolescence had difficulty comprehending literacy, lagging behind his peers in teaching, which caused him a lot of suffering; when Sergius retired into the desert, a bear began to visit him, with whom the hermit shared his meager food, it happened that the saint gave the last piece of bread to the beast.

In the traditions of living in the 16th century, “ The tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom", But it was already sharply at odds with the canons (norms, requirements) of the genre and therefore was not included in the collection of the lives of" Great Cheti-Menaion "along with other biographies. Peter and Fevronia are real historical figures who reigned in Murom in the 13th century, Russian saints. The author of the 16th century did not have a life, but an entertaining story, built on fairy-tale motives, glorifying the love and loyalty of the heroes, and not only their Christian exploits.

BUT " Life of Archpriest Avvakum", Written by him in the 17th century, turned into a vivid autobiographical work, filled with reliable events and real people, living details, feelings and experiences of the hero-narrator, behind which stands the vivid character of one of the spiritual leaders of the Old Believers.

Genre of teaching

Since religious literature was intended to educate true christian, one of the genres was teaching. Although this is a church genre, close to preaching, it was also used in secular (secular) literature, since the ideas of the then people about a correct, righteous life did not differ from the church ones. You know " The teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", written by him around 1117" sitting on a sleigh "(shortly before his death) and addressed to children.

The ideal appears before us old Russian prince... He cares about the welfare of the state and each of his subjects, guided by Christian morality. Another concern of the prince is about the church. All earthly life should be considered as a work to save the soul. This is a work of mercy and kindness, and military work, and mental. Diligence is the main virtue in the life of Monomakh. He made eighty-three large campaigns, signed twenty peace treaties, studied five languages, and did what his servants and vigilantes did.

Chronicle

A significant, if not the largest, part of Old Russian literature is works of historical genres that were included in the chronicles. The first Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years"created in early XII century. Its significance is extremely great: it was proof of the right of Russia to state independence, independence. But if the chroniclers could record recent events "according to the epics of this time", reliably, then the events of pre-Christian history had to be reconstructed according to oral sources: legends, legends, sayings, geographical names. Therefore, the compilers of the chronicle turn to folklore. These are the legends about the death of Oleg, about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, about the Belgorod jelly, etc.

Already in "The Tale of Bygone Years" two essential features Old Russian literature: patriotism and connection with folklore. Book-Christian and folklore-lingual traditions are closely intertwined in "The Lay of Igor's Campaign."

Elements of fiction and satire

Of course, Old Russian literature has not been unchanged throughout all seven centuries. We saw that over time it became more secular, elements of fiction intensified, more and more often satirical motives penetrated into literature, especially in the 16th-17th centuries. Such are, for example, " The Tale of Woe-Evil"showing to what troubles disobedience can bring a person, the desire to" live as he pleases, "and not as taught by the elders, and" The Story of Ruff Ershovich", making fun of the so-called" provincial court "in the tradition of folk tales.

But on the whole, one can speak of the literature of Ancient Russia as a single phenomenon, with its end-to-end ideas and motives that have passed through 700 years, with its own general aesthetic principles, with a stable system of genres.

The originality of Old Russian literature:

The works of Old Russian literature were used and distributed in manuscripts. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was included in various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as "thin". But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author's texts have not reached us, but later lists have survived. Often the scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the rewritten work, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of the monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of Old Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing different editions, versions of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textual criticism and paleography can help (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of the writing material).

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism... Her heroes are predominantly historical figures, she almost does not admit fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even the numerous stories about "miracles" - phenomena that seem supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much a fiction of an ancient Russian writer as accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the very persons with whom the "miracle" happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state, the Russian nationality, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, who is capable of sacrificing the most precious thing - life for the common good. It expresses a deep faith in the strength and ultimate triumph of good, in the ability of a person to raise his spirit and overcome evil. The ancient Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, "heeding good and evil with indifference." Any genre ancient literature, whether it be a historical story or a legend, a life or a church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Concerning mainly questions of state-political or moral, the writer believes in the power of the word, in the power of conviction. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to take care that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that the descendants do not repeat the sorrowful mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Rus expressed and defended the interests of the upper classes of feudal society. However, it could not fail to show an acute class struggle, which took the form of open spontaneous uprisings, or in the form of typically medieval religious heresies. The literature clearly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groups within the ruling class, each of which sought support from the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected the interests of the state, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the nationality of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th - first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Beresta played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, words in a line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with a red letter. Frequently used widely famous words, were written in abbreviated form, under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. A handwriting with a regular, almost square outline of letters was called a charter.

The written sheets were stitched together in notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

Artistic Method Problem:

The artistic method of ancient Russian literature is inextricably linked with the nature of the worldview, the worldview of medieval man, which absorbed religious speculative ideas about the world and a specific vision of reality associated with labor practice. In the minds of a medieval man, the world existed in two dimensions: real, earthly and heavenly, spiritual. The Christian religion asserted that human life on earth is temporary. The goal of earthly life is to prepare for eternal, imperishable life. These preparations should consist in the moral improvement of the soul, curbing sinful passions, etc.

Two sides of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature are associated with the dual nature of the worldview of medieval man:

1) reproduction of individual facts in all their concreteness, purely empirical statements;

2) the consistent transformation of life, that is, the idealization of facts real life, the image is not of existence, but of what should be.

The first side of the artistic method is associated with the historicism of Old Russian literature in its medieval understanding, and with the second - its symbolism.

The ancient Russian writer was convinced that symbols are hidden in nature, in man himself. He believed that historical events were also full of symbolic meaning, since he believed that history was moved and directed by the will of the deity. The writer considered symbols as the main means of revealing truth, revealing the inner meaning of a phenomenon. As the phenomena of the surrounding world are polysemous, the word is also polysemous. Hence the symbolic nature of metaphors, comparisons in ancient Russian literature.

An ancient Russian writer, trying to convey the image of truth, strictly follows a fact that he himself witnessed or about which he learned from the words of an eyewitness, a participant in the event. He does not doubt the truth of miracles, supernatural phenomena, he believes in their reality.

As a rule, the heroes of the works of Old Russian literature are historical figures... Only in some cases are the heroes of the people.

Medieval literature is still alien to any individualization of the human character. Old Russian writers create generalized typological images of an ideal ruler, a warrior, on the one hand, and an ideal ascetic, on the other. These images are sharply contrasted with the generalized typological image of the evil ruler and the collective image of the devil-devil, personifying evil.

In the view of the ancient Russian writer, life is a constant arena of the struggle between good and evil.

The source of goodness, good thoughts and deeds is God. On the other hand, people are pushed by the devil and demons. However, the Old Russian literature does not remove responsibility from the person himself. Everyone is free to choose their own path.

In the consciousness of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic merged. Good is always beautiful. Evil is associated with darkness.

The writer builds his works on the contrast between good and evil. He brings the reader to the idea that high moral qualities of a person are the result of persistent moral work.

The behavior and actions of the heroes are determined by their social status, their belonging to the princely, boyar, druzhina, church estates.

Strict adherence to the rhythm established by the ancestors of the order is the lifeblood of etiquette and ceremoniality in Old Russian literature. So the chronicler, first of all, tried to put the numbers in a row, that is, to arrange the material selected by him in chronological sequence.

The works of Old Russian literature were of a didactic, moral character. They were designed to help get rid of vices.

So, medieval historicism, symbolism, ritualism and didactism are the leading principles of artistic depiction in the works of ancient Russian literature. In various works, depending on the genre and the time of their creation, these features manifested themselves in different ways.

The historical development of Old Russian literature proceeded through the gradual destruction of the integrity of its method, liberation from Christian symbolism, ritualism and didactism.

3 - 6. "The Tale of Bygone Years".

The main ideas of the initial chronicle. Already in the name itself - "Behold the tales of time years, where did the Russian land go, who in Kiev began the first princes, and where did the Russian land begin to eat" - contains an indication of the ideological and thematic content of the chronicle. The Russian land, its historical destinies, from the moment of its inception and ending with the first decade of the 12th century, are at the center of the chronicle's attention. The lofty patriotic idea of ​​the power of the Russian land, its political independence, religious independence from Byzantium constantly guides the chronicler, when he introduces into his work "deep traditions" and truly historical events of the recent past.

Chronicle legends are unusually topical, publicistic, full of sharp condemnation of the princely strife and strife that weaken the power of the Russian land, the call to guard the Russian land, not to shame the Russian land in the fight against external enemies, primarily with the steppe nomads - the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsians.

The theme of the homeland is defining, leading in the chronicle. The interests of the motherland dictate to the chronicler one or another assessment of the prince's actions, they are the measure of his glory and greatness. A lively feeling for the Russian land, homeland and people communicates to the Russian chronicler that unprecedented breadth of the political horizon, which is unusual for Western European historical chronicles.

The chroniclers borrow the historical Christian-scholastic concept from written sources, linking the history of the Russian land with the general course of development of "world" history. The Tale of Bygone Years opens with a biblical legend about the division of the earth after the flood between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japheth. The Slavs are the descendants of Yafet, that is, they, like the Greeks, belong to a single family of European peoples.

Finally, it is possible to "establish" the first date - 6360 - (852) - mentions in "Annals of buckwheat" "Russian land". This date makes it possible to put "Numbers in a row", i.e., proceed to a consistent chronological presentation, more precisely, the arrangement of the material "Over the years" - on years. And when they cannot attach any event to a particular date, they are limited to simply fixing the date itself (for example: "In the summer of 6368", "in the summer of 6369"). The chronological principle gave ample opportunities for free handling of the material, made it possible to introduce new legends and stories into the chronicle, to exclude old ones if they did not correspond to the political interests of the time and the author, to supplement the chronicle with records of the events of recent years, of which its compiler was a contemporary.

As a result of the application of the weather chronological principle of presenting the material, the idea of ​​history as a continuous sequential chain of events was gradually formed. The chronological connection was reinforced by a genealogical, tribal connection, the succession of the rulers of the Russian land, from Rurik and ending (in the "Tale of Bygone Years") Vladimir Monomakh.

At the same time, this principle made the chronicle fragmentary, which was pointed out by I.P. Eremin.

Genres included in the chronicle. The chronological principle of presentation allowed the chroniclers to include material of heterogeneous nature and genre characteristics in the chronicle. The simplest narrative unit of the chronicle is a laconic weather record, limited only to a statement of fact. However, the very introduction of this or that information into the chronicle testifies to its significance from the point of view of a medieval writer.

The chronicle also presents a type of detailed record, recording not only the "deeds" of the prince, but also their results. For example: "IN summer 6391. Pocha Oleg fought the derevlyans, and having tortured them a tribute, according to the black kuna " etc.

And a short weather record, and a more detailed documentary. There are no tropes that decorate speech in them. The recording is simple, clear and concise, which gives it special significance, expressiveness and even majesty.

The chronicler's focus is on the event - "INTO sya here in the years of strength." They are followed by news of the death of the princes. The birth of children, their marriage is less often recorded. Then information about the construction activities of the princes. Finally, there are reports of church affairs, which occupy a very modest place. True, the chronicler describes the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, places legends about the beginning Pechersky monastery, the death of Theodosius of the Pechersky and stories about the memorable monarchs of the Pechersk. This is quite understandable by the political significance of the cult of the first Russian saints Boris and Gleb and the role of the Kiev Caves Monastery in the formation of the initial chronicle.

An important group of chronicle news is made up of information about heavenly signs - eclipses of the sun, moon, earthquakes, epidemics, etc. The chronicler sees a connection between unusual natural phenomena and the life of people, historical events. The historical experience associated with the testimony of the chronicle of George Amartol leads the chronicler to the conclusion: “Signs are in the sky, or the stars, whether the sun, whether birds, or something else, are not for the good; but there are signs of anger at evil, whether the manifestation of ratification, whether it is glad, whether they manifest death. "

News, diverse in their subject matter, can be combined within one chronicle article. The material that is part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" makes it possible to single out a historical legend, a toponymic tradition, a historical legend (associated with a heroic druzhina epic), a hagiographic legend, as well as a historical legend and a historical tale.

The connection of the chronicle with folklore . The chronicler draws material about the events of the distant past from the treasury of national memory.

The appeal to the toponymic legend was dictated by the chronicler's desire to find out the origin of the names of the Slavic tribes, individual cities and the word "Rus" itself. Thus, the origin of the Slavic tribes of the Radimichi and Vyatichi is associated with the legendary descendants of the Poles - the brothers Radim and Vyatko. This legend arose among the Slavs, obviously, during the period of the disintegration of the clan system, when the isolated clan foreman, in order to substantiate his right to political dominance over the rest of the clan, creates a legend about his allegedly foreign origin. Close to this chronicle legend is the legend about the vocation of princes, placed in the annals under 6370 (862), at the invitation of the Novgorodians from across the sea "To reign and Volodit " Three Varangian brothers come to the Russian land with their families: Rurik, Sineus, Truvor.

The folklore of the legend confirms the presence of the epic number three or three brothers.

The legend about the vocation of princes served as an important argument for proving the sovereignty of the Kiev state, and did not at all testify to the inability of the Slavs to independently organize their state, without the help of the Europeans, as some scientists tried to prove.

A typical toponymic legend is also the legend about the founding of Kiev by three brothers - Kiy, Schek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid. The chronicler himself points to the oral source of the material entered into the chronicle: "Ini, not knowledgeable, rekosha, like Kiy was a ferryman." The chronicler indignantly rejects the version of the folk legend about the Kiev carrier. He categorically declares that Kiy was a prince, made successful campaigns against Constantinople, where he received a great honor from the Greek king and founded the settlement of Kievets on the Danube.

Chronicle news about the Slavic tribes, their customs, wedding and funeral rites are filled with echoes of ritual poetry from the times of the tribal system.

The chronicle news about Vladimir's marriage to the Polotsk princess Rogneda, about his abundant and generous feasts held in Kiev - the Korsun legend - goes back to folk legends. On the one hand, a pagan prince with his unbridled passions appears before us, on the other, an ideal Christian ruler endowed with all the virtues: meekness, humility, love for the poor, for monastic and monastic rank, etc. with the Christian prince, the chronicler strove to prove the superiority of the new Christian morality over the pagan.

The reign of Vladimir was fanned by the heroism of folk legends already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century.

The legend of the victory of the Russian youth Kozhemyaka over the Pechenezh giant is imbued with the spirit of the folk heroic epic. As in the folk epic, the legend emphasizes the superiority of a man of peaceful labor, a simple artisan over a professional warrior - the Pechenezh bogatyr. The images of the legend are built on the principle of contrasting comparison and broad generalization. At first glance, the Russian youth is an ordinary, unremarkable person, but he embodies that enormous, gigantic strength that the Russian people possess, decorating the earth with their labor and protecting it on the battlefield from external enemies. The Pechenezhsky warrior with his gigantic size terrifies those around him. A modest Russian youth, the youngest son of a tanner, is opposed to a boastful and arrogant enemy. He accomplishes the feat without arrogance and bragging. At the same time, the legend is timed to the toponymic legend about the origin of the city of Pereyaslavl - "The zone has passed the glory of the youth", but this is a clear anachronism, since Pereyaslavl had already been mentioned more than once in the chronicle before this event.

The legend of the Belgorod jelly is connected with the folk fairy-tale epic. This legend glorifies the mind, resourcefulness and ingenuity of the Russian person.

The folklore basis is clearly felt in the church legend about the visit of the Russian land by the Apostle Andrew. Placing this legend, the chronicler strove to "historically" substantiate the religious independence of Russia from Byzantium. Legend claimed that the Russian land received Christianity not from the Greeks, but allegedly by the disciple of Christ himself - the Apostle Andrew, who once traveled the path "From the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper and Volkhov, - Christianity was predicted on the Russian land. The church legend about how Andrei blessed the Kiev mountains is combined with the folk legend about Andrei's visit to the Novgorod land. This legend has an everyday character and is associated with the custom of the inhabitants of the Slavic north to steam in hotly heated wooden baths.

Most of the chronicle legends dedicated to the events of the 9th - the end of the 10th centuries are associated with oral folk art, its epic genres.

Historical stories and legends as part of the chronicle . As the chronicler moves from narrating the events of the past years to the recent past, the material of the chronicle becomes more and more historically accurate, strictly factual and official.

The attention of the chronicler is attracted only by historical figures at the top of the feudal hierarchical ladder. In portraying their deeds, he follows the principles of medieval historicism. According to these principles, only purely official events that have historical significance for the state should be recorded in the chronicle, and the chronicler is not interested in the private life of a person, the everyday environment surrounding him.

The chronicle elaborates the ideal of the prince-ruler. This ideal is inseparable from the general patriotic ideas of the chronicle. The ideal ruler is the living embodiment of love for the native land, its honor and glory, the personification of its power and dignity. All his actions, all his activities are determined by the welfare of the homeland and the people. Therefore, the prince in the opinion of the chronicler cannot belong to himself. He is primarily a historical figure who always appears in an official setting, endowed with all the attributes of princely power. DS Likhachev notes that the prince is always official in the chronicle, he is, as it were, addressed to the viewer and is represented in his most significant actions. The virtues of the prince are a kind of ceremonial dress; at the same time, some virtues are purely mechanically joined to others, thanks to which it became possible to combine the ideals of the secular and the ecclesiastical. Fearlessness, courage, military valor are combined with humility, meekness and other Christian virtues.

If the prince's activities are aimed at the good of the homeland, the chronicler glorifies him in every possible way, endowing him with all the qualities of a predetermined ideal. If the prince's activities run counter to the interests of the state, the chronicler does not regret the black paint and ascribes to the negative character all mortal sins: pride, envy, ambition, greed, etc.

The principles of medieval historicism are vividly embodied in stories "About killing Borisov"(1015) and about the blindness of Vasilko Terebovlsky, which can be attributed to the genre of historical stories about princely crimes. However, in their style, these are completely different works. The story "About killing Borisov" expounds the historical facts of the murder of brothers Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk with extensive use of elements of the hagiographic style. It is built on the contrast between the ideal martyr princes and the ideal villain "Accursed" Svyatopolk. The tale of praise comes to an end, glorifying "Christ-loving passion-bearers", "shining lamps", "bright stars" - "defenders of the Russian land." In its ending, there is a prayer call for the martyrs to subdue the nasty "Under the nose of our prince" and deliver them "From a comfortable rati", so that they abide in peace and unity. This is how the patriotic idea common to the entire chronicle is expressed in a hagiographic form. At the same time, the story "About killing Borisov" interesting for a number of "documentary" details, "realistic details".

The story is not idealized by Vasilka. He is not only a victim of slander, cruelty and treachery of Davyd Igorevich, the credulity of Svyatopolk, but he himself reveals no less cruelty both towards the perpetrators of evil and towards innocent people. There is no idealization in the depiction of the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk, indecisive, trusting, weak-willed. The story allows the modern reader to imagine the characters of living people with their human weaknesses and virtues.

The story was written by a medieval writer, who builds it on the opposition of two symbolic images of "cross" and "knife", the leitmotif passing through the whole story.

Thus, "The Tale of the Blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky" sharply condemns the violation by the princes of their contractual obligations, leading to terrible bloody crimes, bringing evil to the entire Russian land.

Descriptions of events associated with the military campaigns of the princes acquire the character of a historical documentary legend, testifying to the formation of the genre of a military story. Elements of this genre are present in the legend of Yaroslav's revenge on the Damned Svyatopolk in 1015-1016.

This chronicle legend already contains the main plot and compositional elements of the military story: gathering troops, setting out on a campaign, preparing for battle, battle and its denouement.

All this allows us to speak about the presence in the "Tale of Bygone Years" of the main components of the genre of the military story.

Within the framework of the historical documentary style, messages about heavenly signs are sustained in the annals.

Elements of the hagiographic style . The compilers of the Tale of Bygone Years also included hagiographic works: a Christian legend, a life of martyrdom (the tale of two Varangian martyrs), a legend about the founding of the Kiev Caves monastery in 1051, the death of his abbot Theodosius of the Caves in 1074, and the legend of the Pechersk monks. The legends about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb (1072) and Theodosius of the Caves (1091) are written in the hagiographic style.

The chronicle glorified the exploits of the founders Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, which was "Delivered" nor "From kings, and from boyars, and from wealth", but "Tears, and fasting, and vigil" Anthony and Theodosius of the Pechersky. Under 1074, following the story of the death of Theodosius, the chronicler tells about the Pechersk monks who "As if she was shining in Russia".

One of the forms of the glorification of princes in the annals are posthumous obituaries associated with the genre of funeral words of praise. The first such a word of praise is the obituary of Princess Olga, placed under 969. It begins with a series of metaphorical comparisons glorifying the first Christian princess. The metaphorical images of "stallion", "dawn", "light", "moon", "beads" (pearls) were borrowed by the chronicler from Byzantine hagiographic literature, but they were used to glorify the Russian princess and emphasize the importance for Russia of her feat - the adoption of Christianity.

The obituary-praise to Olga is stylistically close to the praise to Vladimir, placed in the annals under 1015. The deceased prince receives an evaluative epithet "blissful", that is, righteous, and his feat is equated with the feat of Constantine the Great.

Obituaries to Mstislav and Rostislav can be attributed to the genre of a verbal portrait, in which a description of the external appearance and moral qualities princes: “Be the same Mstislav was debel in body, black in face, great ochima, khbor on rati, merciful, loving the squad for great, the property is not sparing, neither drinking nor eating scolding."

The obituaries to Izyaslav and Vsevolod, along with the hagiographic idealization of these princes, relate to specific moments of their activities, and in the obituary to Vsevolod, a voice of condemnation sounds, since Vsevolod, under his old age, began "Love the meaning of the unlucky, creating light with them."

The chronicler drew moral maxims and figurative comparisons from Christian literature.

The function of biblical comparisons and reminiscences in the annals is different. These comparisons emphasize the importance and greatness of the Russian land, its princes, they allow the chroniclers to translate the narrative from the “temporary” historical plan to the “eternal,” that is, they perform the artistic function of symbolic generalization. In addition, these comparisons are a means of moral assessment of events, actions historical figures.

7. Sermon "The Word of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion as an outstanding oratory of the 11th century. The theme of the equality of peoples, the glorification of the Russian land and its princes. Three-part composition. Metaphors-symbols, rhetorical questions and exclamations, rhythmic organization “Words of Law and Grace”.

"The Word of Law and Grace" by Hilarion. An outstanding work of oratorical prose of the 11th century - "The Word of Law and Grace." It was written between 1037-1050. Ilarion, the priest of the princely church in Berestovo.

"The Word about Law and Grace" is imbued with the patriotic pathos of the glorification of Russia as equal among all states of the world. Hilarion contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of ​​equality of all Christian peoples. Comparing Judaism (Law) with Christianity (Grace), Hilarion at the beginning of his "Word" proves the advantages of Grace over the Law. The law was extended only to the Jewish people. Grace is the property of all nations. Old Testament- The law given by God to the prophet Moses on Mount Sinai regulated the life of only the Jewish people. The New Testament - Christian doctrine - has a worldwide significance, and every nation has every right to freely choose this Grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of Grace. He creates, as D.S.Likhachev rightly notes, his own patriotic concept of world history, glorifying Russia and her "Enlightener" "kagan" Vladimir.

Hilarion glorifies the feat of Vladimir in the adoption and spread of Christianity in Russia. Thanks to this feat, Russia entered the family of Christian countries as a sovereign state. Vladimir ruled "Not in bad luck and not in unknown lands", but "In Russian, even known and heard, there are all ends of the earth."

In praise to Vladimir, Ilarion lists the prince's merits to his homeland. He says that his activities contributed to the glory and power of Russia. At the same time, he emphasizes that the Christian faith was adopted by the Russians as a result of a free choice, that the main merit in the baptism of Rus belongs to Vladimir, and not to the Greeks. The Lay contains a comparison of Vladimir with Tsar Constantine, which is very offensive for the Greeks.

Hilarion's "Word" is built according to a strict, logically thought-out plan, which is communicated by the author in the title of the work: “The word about the law given to him by Moses, and about grace and truth, Jesus who was Christ, and what the law is from, but grace and truth fill the whole earth, and faith in all tongues extended to our Russian language and praise to our kagan Vlodimer, from him the same baptism byh, and prayer to God from the weight of our land. "

The first part - a comparison of Law and Grace - is a lengthy introduction to the second, central, part-praise to Vladimir, which ends with the author's appeal to Vladimir with an appeal to get up from the coffin, shake off sleep and look at the deeds of his son George (the Christian name of Yaroslav). The second part sets as its task the direct glorification of the ruler of Rus' contemporary to Hilarion and his activities. The third part is a prayer appeal to God "From all the earth is ours."

"Word" is addressed to people "The exuberance of those who have had their fill of book sweets", therefore, the author dresses his work in a bookish rhetorical form. He constantly uses quotes from the Bible, biblical comparisons, comparing the Law with the slave Hagar and her son Ishmael, and Grace with Sarah and her son Isaac. These symbolic parallels are intended to more clearly show the superiority of Grace over the Law.

In the first part of the Lay, Hilarion consistently observes the principle of antithesis, a typical method of oratorical eloquence. “First is law, then grace: first is the steppe(shadow) ty, then the truth. "

Hilarion makes extensive use of book metaphors - symbols and metaphorical comparisons: the Law is "Withered lake"; paganism - "The darkness of the idols", "the darkness of the demonic service"; Grace is Flooded source and others. He often uses rhetorical questions and exclamations - typical methods of solemn eloquence, with the help of which a great emotionality of speech is achieved. The rhythmic organization of the Lay serves the same purpose. Hilarion often resorts to repetitions, verbal rhymes. For example: "... Drive away, establish peace, tame the countries, gladgobzi, bolyary wise, the grads have settled, your church will grow, keep your property, save men and wives and babies."

High artistic skill provided the "Word of Law and Grace" great popularity in medieval writing. It becomes a model for the scribes of the 12th-15th centuries who use separate techniques and stylistic formulas of the Lay.

8. Didactic "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh "- a work of political and moral instruction. The image of an outstanding politician and warrior. Autobiographical Elements in the Instruction. Emotional and lyrical coloring of the work.

"Instructions" by Vladimir Monomakh, written by him "Sitting on a sleigh", that is, shortly before his death, somewhere around 1117, it was attributed by the chroniclers to similar wills addressed to children.

An outstanding statesman of the late 11th - early 12th century, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1052-1125), through his policy, contributed to the temporary cessation of princely strife. He became famous for his successful campaigns against the Polovtsians. Having become the Grand Duke of Kiev in 1113, Monomakh contributed in every way to strengthening the unity of the Russian land.

The central idea of ​​the "Teachings" is an appeal addressed to the children of Monomakh and everyone who will hear "This grammar", strictly observe the requirements of the feudal legal order, be guided by them, and not by personal, self-serving family interests. "Instruction" goes beyond the narrow scope of the family will and acquires great social significance.

On the example of a personal rich life experience Vladimir gives a high example of the prince's service to the interests of his land.

A characteristic feature of The Teachings is the close interweaving of didactics with autobiographical elements. Monomakh's teachings are supported not only by maxims from the "Holy Scriptures", but primarily by specific examples from his own life.

The tasks of the general state order are brought to the fore in the "Instruction". The sacred duty of the prince is to care for the welfare of his state, its unity, strict and unswerving observance of oaths and treaties. The prince must "Take care of the souls of peasants", "about the bad stink" and "The poor widow." Internecine feuds undermine the economic and political power of the state. Only peace leads to the prosperity of the country. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the ruler to preserve the world.

Another no less important duty of the prince, according to Monomakh, is the care and concern for the welfare of the church. He understands that the church is the prince's faithful helper. Therefore, for the sake of strengthening his power, the prince must vigilantly take care of the priestly and monastic rank. True, Monomakh does not recommend his children to save their souls in a monastery, that is, to become a monk. The ascetic monastic ideal is alien to this life-loving energetic person.

In accordance with Christian morality, Vladimir demands a caring attitude to "Poor"(to the poor).

The prince must himself be an example of high morality. The main positive quality of a person is hard work. Labor, in the understanding of Monomakh, is, first of all, military feat, and then hunting, when the body and soul of a person are tempered in the incessant struggle against dangers.

Vladimir gives examples from his personal life: he made only 83 large campaigns, and he does not remember small ones, he concluded 20 peace treaties. On the hunt, he was exposed to constant danger, more than once he risked his life: “Tura me 2 threw apart and with a horse, a deer me one bol, and 2 elks, one trampled with his feet, and the other a horn bolt; ... the fierce beast jumped on my hips and the horse is stronger with me. "

Vladimir considers laziness to be the main vice: "Laziness is mother of all: he can do it, then you forget, but you can’t do it, and you don’t learn that."

Monomakh himself appears in his "Teaching" as an unusually active person: "The hedgehog it was for my lad to do, then I myself did it, things in the war and in the lovers, night and day, in the heat and in the winter, not to rest for myself."

One of the positive qualities of the prince is his generosity, constant concern for increasing and spreading his good name.

In everyday life, the prince should be an example for those around him: visit the sick, see the deceased, for everyone is mortal. Family relationships should be built on the respect of husbands for their wives: "Love your wife, but do not give them power over you" - he instructs.

Thus, in the "Teaching" Monomakh covers a fairly wide range of life phenomena. He provides clear answers to many of the social and moral questions of his time.

At the same time, the "Instruction" is a very valuable material for understanding the personality of the author himself - the first worldly writer of Ancient Russia known to us. First of all, this is a well-educated person, well knowledgeable in literature of its time. In his work, he uses the Psalter, Paremiynik, the teachings of Basil the Great, Xenophon and Theodora to children, placed in the "Izbornik 1076", "Six Days".

The "lesson" is built according to a certain plan: the introduction, addressed to children, with self-abasement characteristic of the ancient Russian writer - not to laugh at his writing, but to accept it in your heart, not to scold, but to say that "On the side of the road, but on the sleigh he was gray, he spoke to the blindness", and finally a request: "... Aschev's last one is not good, take the front one."

The central didactic part of the "Teachings" begins with a general philosophical discourse on the love of mankind and mercy of God, on the necessity of victory over evil and the possibility of this victory, the guarantee of which is the beauty and harmony of the world created by God.

Gives a kind of diary of military campaigns, in a manner reminiscent of short chronicle weather records, only without dates. By listing their "Ways" Vladimir arranges them in chronological order from 1072 to 1117.

And again the conclusion follows. When addressing children or others, "Who will read" Monomakh asks not to condemn him. He praises not himself, not his courage, but praises God, who is his "Hudago and sinful" kept from death for so many years and created "Not lazy", "hudago", "human needs for all things."

In the style of "Teachings" one can easily find, on the one hand, its book elements associated with Vladimir's use of literary sources, and on the other hand, elements of a lively spoken language, which are especially clearly manifested in the description "Ways" and the dangers he was exposed to while hunting. A characteristic feature of the "Teachings" style is the presence of polished, bright, easy-to-remember aphoristic expressions.

In general, the "Instruction" and the letter vividly reveal the appearance of an outstanding statesman of the Russian Middle Ages, a man in whom the ideal of a prince who cares about glory and honor was vividly embodied native land.

Old Russian literature ... How can it be of interest to us, people of the 21st century? First of all, by preserving historical memory... It also contains the origins of our entire spiritual life. Our written culture originates from the literature of Ancient Rus. Much in modern life becomes clear if there is a historical retrospective. At the same time, you need to make a number of efforts to understand what they believed in, what they dreamed of, what our distant ancestors wanted to do.
It is advisable to start a conversation with students with a description of the era.
Ancient Russia ... How do we imagine it? What is the peculiarity of the perception of man and the world of a certain era? What is the difficulty in understanding it? First of all, the reader, researcher or teacher is faced with the problem of adequate understanding of the epoch itself, and since the epoch is shown through the prism of a literary work, this is a problem of reading and interpretation. This task becomes especially complicated if the time about which in question, is several centuries distant from the reader. Different times, different morals, different concepts ... What should the reader do to understand people of a distant time? Try to understand the intricacies of this time period yourself.
What is the world of medieval man? To answer this question, it is necessary to move somewhat away from the interpretation of Medieval Russia given in soviet period... The fact is that the starting point of Soviet science was PN Milyukov's pre-revolutionary book "Essays on the History of Russian Culture", in which the Middle Ages period was defined as "unconscious", devoid of meaningfulness and directional goal-setting. Accordingly, in many works of Soviet researchers, the Middle Ages are presented as a time where senseless barbaric customs and manners reigned, and the domination of the church was perceived as evil.
Currently, a new direction in science is being developed - historical anthropology. In the center of her attention is a man with his inner world and the totality of man's relations with the surrounding space, natural, social, everyday. This is how the image of the world is revealed both as a microcosm (through the person of a given era) and as a macrocosm (through social and state relations). The teacher bears a great responsibility for shaping the image of the Middle Ages in the minds of the student. If the space of the past is distorted, then the space of the present is thereby distorted. Moreover, the historical past becomes the arena of ideological battles, where there are distortions of facts, and manipulation, and "fantastic reconstruction", which is so fashionable at the present time. That is why the position of the teacher in the process of teaching Old Russian literature is so important.
What should the reader pay attention to in order to understand the world of the medieval Russian man, to learn to respect the significance and self-meaning of this world? It is important to understand that the meaning of some words and concepts for a person of the 10th-15th centuries is different than for human XXI century. Accordingly, in the light of these meanings, some actions can be viewed and evaluated in very different ways. So, one of the basic concepts of the Middle Ages is the concept of truth. For a modern person, truth is “a sphere of deep feelings, artistic thinking, eternal scientific research. Medieval man was different in that his mood was different: the truth for him was already revealed and defined in the texts of Holy Scripture. "
In addition to the concept of "truth", it is important to reveal the ancient meanings of the words "truth" and "faith". In ancient Russia, "truth" meant the Word of God. “Faith” is the Word of God in the flesh. This is the truth given in God's commandments, apostolic and sacred rules. In a narrower sense, "faith" is the ritual side of religion. Trying to translate this concept into modern language, let's say that "truth" is an idea, and "faith" is a technology for translating this idea into reality. "
The task of the teacher is especially difficult when he has to immerse himself not only in the past, which in itself is fraught with the danger of misunderstanding, but in another spiritual world, the world of the Church, where the reverse perspective is characteristic: the distant edges are larger than the near ones. The most important thing that a teacher should remember is the covenant passed down to us from the depths of the Middle Ages: "Let there be no lies against the holy!"
The images of the saints excited and excite now. but modern man it is difficult to understand the full depth of the deeds of these people. We must make an effort, devote time to this, and then the world of Russian holiness will appear before us.
Old Russian literature differs in many respects from modern literature. In it, one can distinguish a number of specific features, which determine its dissimilarity with the literature of our days:
1) the historicism of the content;
2) syncreticity;
3) voluntariness and didacticity;
4) etiquette of forms;
5) anonymity;
6) the handwritten nature of the narration and being.
In Ancient Russia, fiction was attributed to devilish instigation, therefore, only those events that took place in reality and which were known to the author were depicted. The historicism of the content is manifested in the fact that there were no fictional characters or events. All persons, all events referred to in the narrative are real, genuine, or the author believes in their authenticity.
Anonymity is inherent primarily in chronicles, lives, military stories. The author proceeded from the idea that it is immodest to put his signature when talking about historical events or leading a story about the life, deeds and miracles of the saint. As for sermons, teachings, prayers, they most often have specific authors, because a very authoritative person, respected and revered by those around him, could pronounce or write them. The genre of preaching and teaching itself made special demands on the author. His name, his righteous life influenced the listener and the reader.
In the Middle Ages, great importance was attached to the form of relations between people, scrupulous adherence to tradition, observance of ritual, detailed etiquette. Therefore, literary etiquette was predetermined by the world order and rigid framework of behavior. Literary etiquette assumed how the course of events was supposed to take place, how the actor was supposed to behave, with what words it was necessary to describe what had happened. And if the behavior of a person did not correspond to the generally accepted norm, then it was either a negative character, or it was necessary to keep silent about this fact.
In general, all written works in Old Russian literature are voluntary and didactic. The author writes his works with the thought that he will certainly convince the reader, will have an emotional and volitional impact and will lead him to the generally accepted norms of morality and ethics. This is typical for translated literature, including scientific literature. So "Physiologist", a translated monument, known to Vladimir Monomakh, introduced him to real and mythical animals. At the same time, this text is an insistence to the readers: “The lion has three properties. When the lioness gives birth, she brings a dead and blind cub, she sits and watches for up to three days. Three days later, a lion comes, blows into his nostrils and the cub will come to life. The same is with the faithful peoples. Before baptism they are dead, and after baptism they are purified by the holy spirit. " Synthesis of science and religious beliefs are combined in one text.
The original written works in Old Russian literature belonged, as a rule, to the genres of the journalistic style. Living, preaching, teaching as a genre predetermined the vector of thought, showed moral norms and taught the rules of behavior. Thus, the works of Metropolitan Hilarion are theological treatises in content, sermons in form. In them, he cares about the prosperity of the Russian people, about their morality and morality. Hilarion has a very definite idea of ​​what the people need, for he became a teacher and shepherd "by the grace of a man-loving God."
The syncretic nature of genres is generally characteristic of the era of the emergence of art and literature. It comes in two forms. First, a vivid manifestation of syncreticity can be traced in the annals. They contain a military tale, and legends, and samples of contracts, and reflections on religious topics. Secondly, syncreticity is associated with underdevelopment genre forms... In "Voyages", for example, there are descriptions of specific geographical and historical places, and sermons, and teachings. Elements of military stories can be introduced into the life. And military stories can end with teachings or religious reflections.
To understand the peculiarities of the culture of Ancient Russia, it is also necessary to say about the meaning Byzantine culture and literature for the formation of Old Russian literature. Together with baptism, books came to Russia. The most famous and revered were the works of the Byzantine theologians John Chrysostom (344-407), Basil the Great (330-379) Gregory the Theologian (320-390), Ephraim the Syrian (died 343). They interpreted the foundations of Christianity, people were instructed in Christian virtues.
Of the translated stories and novels, the most popular was the novel Alexandria, which tells about the life of Alexander the Great. This novel about historical events with an entertaining plot, with an interweaving of fictional events and fantastic inserts, with a colorful description of India and Persia was a favorite work in medieval Europe... The Russian translator communicated with this novel quite freely, he supplemented it with episodes from other sources, adapting it to the tastes of Russian readers. Moreover, he believed that all the events of the novel are genuine, and not fictional.
In addition to these books, Russian people were interested in "The Tale of the Destruction of Jerusalem" by Josephus Flavius, the story about Vasily Digenis Akrit (it was known to ancient Russian readers under the name "Devgenie Deed"), the story about the Trojan deeds, the story about Akira the Wise. Even a simple listing gives an understanding of the breadth of interests of the translators of Ancient Russia: they acquaint with the historical events in Jerusalem, admire the exploits of the warrior guarding the eastern borders Byzantine Empire show history Trojan War and tell about the distant past, about the life of the wise counselor of the Assyrian and Nineveh king Sennacherib-Akihar (Akira).
Interested in translators and works about the natural world. These books included The Six Days with information about the Universe, The Physiologist, which described real and imaginary animals, fantastic stones and amazing trees, and The Christian Topography of Kosma Indikoplov, “a swimmer to India”.
The Middle Ages, by tragic accident, appear dark, harsh and unproductive. It seems that people thought differently, imagined the world differently, that they did not correspond to great achievements literary works... Chronicles, teachings, lives and prayers ... Will all this be interesting? After all, now are different times, different customs. But could there be a different view of the native land? In his prayer, Metropolitan Hilarion asks the Savior to "show meekness and mercy" to the Russian people: "... expel the enemies, establish peace, pacify the tongues, satisfy the famines, create the masters of our tongues with the threat of tongues, be wise, spread the cities, grow Your Church, observe Your heritage , save husbands and wives with babies, who are in bondage, in captivity, in captivity on the way, in sailing, in dungeons, in craving and thirst and nakedness - have mercy on all, give consolation to all, rejoice everyone, giving them joy and bodily, and sincere! "
Despite the peculiarities of the vision of the world, the attitude towards God and man, the form of expression of thought remains almost the same for people of the 10th and 21st centuries. We convey thought with the same substances of language. Types of speech and genres exist in time, changing and adapting to a certain era, rather in content than in form.
Genre is the primary speech form of language existence. If speech genres did not exist, then they would have to be created anew at the moment of speech. This would make it difficult to communicate, make it difficult to transfer information. Each time it would be very difficult to create a genre for the first time, and not to use its form. MM Bakhtin in the book "Aesthetics of verbal creativity" defined the following criteria speech genre: subject content, style and speech will of the speaker. All these moments are interconnected and determine the specifics of the genre. However, the genre is not only a speech utterance, but at the same time a historically forming type of literary work, which has characteristics, distinctive features and patterns.
Genre is determined not only by the laws of language, but also by the paradigm of consciousness and the paradigm of behavior. Therefore, the primary genres are those that reflect the simplest things: biography, memorial speech, sermon as reasoning on moral and religious topics, teaching as reasoning on moral and ethical topics, parable, description of the journey. At the beginning of their emergence, genres exist as some kind of unity, distinguished by a rigid structure for the presentation of dominant views. As a result of rethinking life, changing semantic values, the genre also changes. There is no unity of content, and the form of presentation of the material is also destroyed.
Genres are not stable in and of themselves. They interact with each other, mutually enriching. They can change, they can form new combinations.
Over the course of a certain period, the genre changes, acquires new features. We can trace the peculiarities of the development of such a genre as the description of travel, over the centuries. "Voyages", pilgrimages are a religious description of a journey to the Holy Land, Constantinople, and Palestine. "Walking Beyond Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin is already a secular description, to some extent geographic. Further, travels of scientific, artistic and journalistic styles are distinguished. IN latest style the genre of the travel sketch is especially widespread.
Of course, in ancient Russian literature, the subject content depended on the religious worldview and historical events... The theocentric vision of the world largely determined the self-consciousness of a person. The human person is nothing before the power and majesty of the Lord. Thus, the style decision was determined by a person's place in the world. The author's principle should not play any role. The image of historical figures should initially be far from reality. Lack of original style should have been the rule rather than the exception. But all this did not become a dogma for ancient Russian literature. In it, on the contrary, we see works filled with the author's worldview, pain for the fate of the country, they give preference to certain events and people. The chronicler takes pride in, elevates or degrades and condemns his princes; he is not an impartial observer.
In the works of this time, the reader is introduced to religious wisdom. That is why fiction is not allowed, but only facts are transmitted, on their basis Christian truths are revealed. The speech will of the speaker in the works of that time was subordinated to the state and religious idea.
The parameters that determine the genre features of a speech utterance are considered at several levels: on the subject-semantic, on the structural-compositional, at the level of stylistic and linguistic design.
The thematic content of any speech utterance determines the "subject-semantic exhaustion". The author of the speech utterance thinks over how the subject of speech will be presented in the texts and what needs to be said in order for the topic to be disclosed within the given genre framework.
The structural and compositional level prescribes a rather rigid genre scheme. The parable is characterized by its own structure, oratorical speech does not look like a lesson, and the lives of the saints are not like military stories. Compositional organization is the external and internal manifestations of the text material, it is its division into semantic parts. The genres of Old Russian literature were created according to a certain canon, which largely dictated a rigid structure and characteristic composition.
Speech utterance requires special stylistic resources. Firstly, this is the style of the era, in this case, the Old Russian one. Secondly, the style of the genre, parable, walking, etc. The genre itself determines which style features priority in this work. And thirdly, the author's style. The monk does not speak as the prince speaks.
The genre nature of any utterance is specific, therefore, in each genre, it is possible to distinguish a unique, original, characteristic only for a given species. The content depends on the speech will of the speaker, i.e. the subject of speech, the idea, how this subject of speech is defined and what is the author's attitude to it, and the style, in what manner all this is presented. This unity determines the genre of literary and publicistic works, including Old Russian literature.
In ancient Russian literature, there was a division of genres into secular and state-religious.
Secular works are works of oral creativity. In ancient Russian society, folklore was not limited by class or estate. Epics, fairy tales, songs were interesting to everyone, and they were listened to both in the prince's palace and in the dwelling of the smerd. Oral creativity made up for the aesthetic needs for the artistic word.
The written literature was publicistic. She responded to religious, moral, ethical requests. These are parables, the lives of the saints, walking, prayers and teachings, chronicles, military and historical stories.
Thus, oral and written literature covered all spheres of human activity, showed his inner world, satisfied religious, moral, ethical and aesthetic needs.

The literature of Ancient Rus originated in the 11th century. and developed over the course of seven centuries before the Peter's era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the variety of genres, themes, images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works, conversations are held about the most important philosophical and moral problems, about which the heroes of all centuries think, speak, reflect. The works form love for the Fatherland and their people, show the beauty of the Russian land, therefore these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.

The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. So images, ideas, even the style of compositions were inherited by A.S. Pushkin, F.M.Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy.

Old Russian literature did not arise from scratch. Its appearance was prepared by the development of language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria and is due to the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works that appeared in Russia were translated. The books were translated that were necessary for the divine service.

The very first original works, that is, written by themselves Eastern Slavs, belong to the end of the XI-beginning of the XII century. in. The formation of the Russian national literature, its traditions took shape, features that determined its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.

The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.

II. Features of Old Russian literature.

2. 1. Historicism of content.

Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's fiction. Authors works of art, even if they describe the true events of real persons, they conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Russia, it was not at all like that. The Old Russian scribe told only about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the XVII century. Household stories with fictional characters and plots appeared in Russia.

Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described really happened. So the chronicles were for the people of Ancient Russia a kind of legal document. After the death in 1425 of the Moscow prince Vasily Dmitrievich, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes appealed to the Tatar khan to judge their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to Moscow reign, referred to the ancient chronicles, in which it was reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.

2. 2. The handwritten nature of existence.

Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of existence. Even the appearance printing press in Russia, little changed the situation until the middle of the XVIII century. Living literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special reverence for the book. About which even some treatises and instructions were written. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to the instability of ancient Russian literary works. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could continue for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are concepts such as "manuscript" (handwritten text) and "list" (rewritten work). The manuscript may contain lists different compositions and can be written both by the author himself and by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term “editorial”, that is, purposeful reworking of a monument caused by social and political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.

The existence of a work in manuscripts is closely related to such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.

The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muffled, implicitly, Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were reworked: some phrases or episodes were inserted from them or inserted into them, stylistic "decorations" were added. Sometimes the ideas and assessments of the author were even replaced by the opposite. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other.

Old Russian scribes did not at all seek to discover their involvement in literary composition... Many monuments have remained anonymous, the authorship of others has been established by researchers on the basis of indirect evidence. So it is impossible to ascribe to someone else the works of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated "weaving of words." The style of the messages of Ivan the Terrible is inimitable, he boldly mixes grandioseness and rude abuse, learned examples and the syllable of simple conversation.

It happens that in a manuscript this or that text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may equally correspond and not correspond to reality. Thus, among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turovsky, many apparently do not belong to him: the name of Cyril Turovsky gave these works additional authority.

The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian "writer" did not consciously try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.

2. 4. Literary etiquette.

A well-known literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, academician DS Likhachev proposed a special term for the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - "literary etiquette."

Literary etiquette is composed:

From the idea of ​​how this or that course of the event should have taken place;

From ideas about how the actor was supposed to behave in accordance with his position;

From ideas about what words the writer should have described what is happening.

Before us is the etiquette of the world order, etiquette of conduct and verbal etiquette. The hero is supposed to behave in this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only with appropriate expressions.

III. The main genres of Old Russian literature.

The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of the “poetics of the genre”. It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature, the genre did not play such an important role.

A sufficient number of studies have been devoted to the genre originality of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear class of classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.

3. 1. Life genre.

Life is a description of the life of a saint.

Russian hagiographic literature has hundreds of works, the first of them were written in the 11th century. The life that came to Russia from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity became the main genre of Old Russian literature, the literary form in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Russia were clothed.

The compositional and verbal forms of life have been polished for centuries. A lofty theme - a story about a life that embodies ideal service to the world and to God - defines the author's image and the style of the story. The author of the life leads the story excitedly, he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic, admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality, his excitement paint the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. Such an atmosphere is also created by the narrative style - high solemn, saturated with quotes from the Holy Scriptures.

When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be threefold: an introduction, a story about the life and deeds of a saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks the readers for forgiveness for the inability to write, for the rudeness of the narration, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a "biography" of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of the saint is freed from all that is everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules of life, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names of historical persons. The action of living takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and concrete space; it unfolds against the background of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style.

At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most critical parts of life, requiring a great literary art, good knowledge of rhetoric.

The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.

3. 2. Eloquence.

Eloquence is an area of ​​creativity, characteristic of the most ancient period in the development of our literature. Monuments of ecclesiastical and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn.

Solemn eloquence demanded depth of design and great literary skill. The orator needed the ability to effectively construct a speech in order to capture the listener, tune in a high mood corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. There was a special term for a solemn speech - "word". (There was no terminological unity in Old Russian literature. A military tale could also be called a "Word".) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and disseminated in numerous copies.

Solemn eloquence did not narrowly pursue practical goals, it demanded the posing of problems of broad social, philosophical and theological coverage. The main reasons for the creation of "words" are theological questions, questions of war and peace, the defense of the borders of the Russian land, domestic and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.

The oldest monument of solemn eloquence is the "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.

Teaching eloquence is teaching and conversation. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and are written in the Old Russian language, which is generally accessible to people of that time. Lectures could be given by church leaders, princes.

The teachings and talks are purely practical, contain necessary for a person information. "A Teaching to the Brethren" by Luka Zhidyata, bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of conduct that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not say "shameful" words. Go to church and behave in it quietly, honor elders, judge by the truth, honor your prince, not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.

Theodosius of Pechorsky is the founder of the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: do not be late for church, put three bowing to the ground, observe decency and order when singing prayers and psalms, bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora requires a complete detachment from the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigilance. The hegumen severely denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food.

3. 3. Chronicle.

Chronicles were weather (by "years" - by "years") records. The annual record began with the words: "In the summer." After that, there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of descendants. It could be military campaigns, raids of steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.

It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.

Most often ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. It was customary to start telling about history in those days from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If at the disposal of the compiler of the chronicle was not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to "bring them together", that is, combine them, choosing from each of them what he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials related to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to presenting the events of his time. The result of this great work became the annals. After some time, this collection was continued by other chroniclers.

Apparently, the first major monument of Old Russian annals was the annals compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this collection, it is believed, was the hegumen of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).

Nikon's work formed the basis for another collection of chronicles, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. IN scientific literature he received the code name "Primary vault". Its unnamed compiler added to Nikon's collection not only with news of last years, but also chronicle information from other Russian cities.

"The Tale of Bygone Years"

Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era was born Kievan Rus- “The Tale of Bygone Years”.

It was compiled in Kiev in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its likely compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor, also known for his other works. When creating the Tale of Bygone Years, its compiler drew on numerous materials, which he added to the Primary Code. Among these materials were the Byzantine chronicles, the texts of the treaties between Russia and Byzantium, monuments of translated and Old Russian literature, oral legends.

The compiler of the "Tale of Bygone Years" set as his goal not only to tell about the past of Russia, but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.

The chronicler tells in detail about the settlement of the Slavic peoples in antiquity, about the settlement by the Eastern Slavs of the territories that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the manners and customs of different tribes. The "Tale of Bygone Years" emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.

The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus. A story about the first Russian Christians, about the baptism of Rus, about the spread new faith, the construction of temples, the emergence of monasticism, the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the "Tale".

The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in The Tale of Bygone Years suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the Tale, tried to imitate him, and almost certainly placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new collection of chronicles.

Throughout seven centuries of development, our literature has consistently reflected the main changes taking place in the life of society.

Long time artistic thinking was inextricably linked with the religious and medieval historical form of consciousness, but gradually with the development of national and class self-consciousness, it begins to free itself from church bonds.

Literature has developed clear and definite ideals of the spiritual beauty of a person who gives all of himself to the common good, the good of the Russian land, the Russian state.

She created the ideal characters of the spiritually staunch Christian ascetics, valiant and courageous rulers, "kind sufferers for the Russian land." These literary characters complemented the people's ideal of man, which had developed in epic oral poetry.

DN Mamin-Sibiryak spoke very well of the close connection between these two ideals in a letter to Ya. L. Barskov dated April 20, 1896: “It seems to me that the“ heroes ”are an excellent complement to the“ saints ”. And here and there representatives of their native land, behind them it seems that Russia, on the guard of which they stood. Among the heroes, the predominant element is physical strength: they defend their homeland with a broad chest, and that is why this "heroic outpost", put forward on the battle line, in front of which historical predators wandered, is so good ... "Saints" show another side of Russian history, even more important as a moral bulwark and holy of holies of the future multimillion people. These elect had a presentiment of the history of the great people ... "

The literature focused on the historical destinies of the motherland and issues of state building. That's why epic historical themes and genres play a leading role in it.

Deep historicism in the medieval understanding determined the connection between our ancient literature and the heroic folk epic, and also determined the features of the image of the human character.

Old Russian writers gradually mastered the art of creating deep and versatile characters, the ability to correctly explain the reasons for human behavior.

From a static still image of a person, our writers went to revealing the inner dynamics of feelings, to depicting various psychological states of a person, to identifying individual characteristics personality.

The latter was most clearly indicated in the 17th century, when personality and literature began to free themselves from the undivided authority of the church, and in connection with the general process of "secularization of culture", "secularization" of literature also took place.

It led not only to the creation fictional characters, generalized and to a certain extent socially individualized characters.

This process led to the emergence of new types of literature - drama and lyrics, new genres - everyday life, satirical, adventure-adventure stories.

The strengthening of the role of folklore in the development of literature contributed to its democratization and closer rapprochement with life. This affected the language of literature: the old Slavic literary language, which was already outdated by the end of the 17th century, was replaced by a new lively spoken language, a second half of XVII in.

A characteristic feature of ancient literature is its inextricable connection with reality.

This connection gave our literature an extraordinary publicistic acuteness, an agitated lyrical emotional pathos, which made it an important means of political education of contemporaries and which gives it the everlasting significance that it has in the subsequent centuries of the development of the Russian nation and Russian culture.

V. V. Kuskov History of Old Russian Literature. - M., 1998