It is difficult to determine why, after centuries, and sometimes millennia, some representatives of the human race have a desire to get to the bottom of the truth, to confirm or refute some theory that has become habitual a long time ago. Unwillingness to believe without evidence in what is customary, convenient or profitable has allowed and allows new discoveries to be made. The value of such restlessness is that it contributes to the development of the human mind and is the engine of human civilization. One of these mysteries in the history of our Russian fatherland is the first Russian chronicle, which we know as.

The Tale of Bygone Years and Its Authors

Almost a millennium ago, almost the first ancient Russian chronicle began, which told about how and where the Russian people came from, how the ancient Russian state was formed. This chronicle, like the subsequent Old Russian chronicles that have come down to us, are not a chronological listing of dates and events. But it is also impossible to call the Tale of Bygone Years a book in its usual sense. It consists of several lists and scrolls, which are united by a common idea.

This chronicle is the most ancient handwritten document created on the territory of Kievan Rus and extant to our times. Therefore, modern scientists, like historians of previous centuries, are guided precisely by the facts given in the Tale of Bygone Years. It is with its help that they try to prove or question one or another historical hypothesis. It is from here that the desire to identify the author of this chronicle, in order to prove the authenticity of not only the chronicle itself, but also the events about which it tells, is also wanted.

In the original, the manuscript of the chronicle, which is called the Tale of Bygone Years, and was created in the XI century, did not reach us. In the 18th century, two copies were discovered made in the 15th century, something like a re-edition of the Old Russian chronicle of the 11th century. Rather, it is not even a chronicle, but a kind of textbook on the history of the emergence of Russia. It is generally accepted to consider it the author of Nestor, a monk of the Kiev-Pechora monastery.

Amateurs should not put forward too radical theories on this score, but anonymity was one of the postulates of medieval culture. Man was not a person in the modern sense of the word, but was just a creation of God, and only clergymen could be the conductors of God's providence. Therefore, when rewriting texts from other sources, as it happens in the Tale, the one who does it, of course, adds something from himself, expressing his attitude to certain events, but he does not put his name anywhere. Therefore, the name of Nestor is the first name that is found in the list of the 15th century, and only in one, Khlebnikovsky, as scientists called it.

The Russian scientist, historian and linguist A.A. Shakhmatov does not deny that the Tale of Bygone Years was written not by one person, but is a reworking of legends, folk songs, oral stories. It uses both Greek sources and Novgorod records. In addition to Nestor, hegumen Sylvester in the Kiev Vydubitsky Mikhailovsky monastery was engaged in editing this material. So, historically it is more accurate to say not the author of the Tale of Bygone Years, but the editor.

Fantastic version of the authorship of the Tale of Bygone Years

The fantastic version of the authorship of the Tale of Bygone Years claims that its author is the closest associate of Peter I, an extraordinary and mysterious personality, Jacob Bruce. A Russian nobleman and count with Scottish roots, a man of extraordinary erudition for his time, a secret freemason, alchemist and sorcerer. Quite an explosive mixture for one person! So new researchers of the authorship of the Tale of Bygone Years will have to deal with this, at first glance, fantastic version.

On November 9, the Orthodox Church honors the memory of the Monk Nestor the Chronicler. He is known as the compiler of the "Tale of Bygone Years" - the first Russian chronicle, which tells about the history of the Russian state and church.

Life of the Monk Nestor the Chronicler

The Monk Nestor was born about 1056 in Kiev. As a seventeen-year-old youth, he became a novice of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery with the Monk Theodosius. He took tonsure from Abbot Stephen, successor of Theodosius. While in the monastery, Nestor served as a chronicler.

Vasnetsov's painting "Chronicler Nestor" 1919. Photo: Public Domain

Nestor died around 1114. He was buried in the Near Caves of St. Anthony of the Caves of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. A liturgical service in his memory was compiled in 1763.

The Orthodox Church honors his memory on November 9 and October 11 - during the feast of the Cathedral of the Venerable Kievo-Pechersk Fathers in the Near Caves, as well as on the 2nd Week of Great Lent, when the Sobor of all Kievo-Pechersk Fathers is celebrated.

What is known about the writings of the chronicler?

The first written works of Nestor the Chronicler were The Life of Saints Boris and Gleb, as well as The Life of the Monk Theodosius of the Caves. His main work is considered to be the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", written by him in 1113. Its full name is "Behold the tales of time years, where the Russian land came from, who in Kiev began the first princes, and from where the Russian land began to eat."

The Monk Nestor was not the only author of the "Tale"; even before him, his predecessors worked on collecting material. When compiling the chronicle, Nestor used Russian chronicles and legends, monastery records, Byzantine chronicles, various historical collections, stories of the elder boyar Yan Vyshatich, merchants, soldiers and travelers. The merit of the Monk Nestor consisted in the fact that he collected, processed and presented to the descendants his historical work and set forth in it information about the Baptism of Rus, about the creation of the Slavonic charter by the Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius, about the first metropolitans of the Russian Church, about the emergence of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, about its founders and devotees.

Nestorov's "Tale" has not survived in its original form. After the death of the patron saint of the monks of the Caves Svyatopolk Izyaslavich in 1113, Vladimir Monomakh became the prince of Kiev. He came into conflict with the top of the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery and passed on the chronicles to the monks of the Vydubitsky Monastery. In 1116, Vydubytsky abbot Sylvester revised the final articles of The Tale of Bygone Years. This is how the second edition of the work appeared. The Tale of Bygone Years has survived to this day as part of the Laurentian Chronicle, the First Novgorod Chronicle and the Ipatiev Chronicle.

The Tale of Bygone Years (Primary Chronicle, Nestorov Chronicle) is one of the earliest ancient Russian annalistic collections, dating back to the beginning of the 12th century. There are several editions and lists with minor deviations from the main text. It was written in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra by her monk Nestor. Covers the period of Russian history, from biblical times to 1114.

KIEV-PECHERSK LAVRA

Kiev-Pechersk Lavra considered one of the first Orthodox monasteries of the Old Russian state. It was founded in 1051 under Prince Yaroslav the Wise. The founders of the Lavra are considered to be the monk Anthony of Lubech and his disciple Theodosius.

In the 11th century, the territory of the future Lavra was covered with a dense forest, where priest Ilarion, a resident of the nearby village of Berestovo, loved to pray. He dug for himself a small cave here, where he retired from worldly life. In 1051, Yaroslav the Wise appointed Hilarion Metropolitan of Kiev, and the cave was empty. Around the same time, monk Anthony came here from Athos. He did not like life in the Kiev monasteries, and he, together with his student Theodosius, settled in the cave of Hilarion. Gradually, a new Orthodox monastery began to take shape around Anthony's cave.

The son of Yaroslav the Wise - Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich - presented the newly formed monastery with the land located above the caves, and later beautiful stone temples grew here,

Anthony and Theodosius - founders of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra

In 1688 the monastery received the status of a lavra and became "the stavropegion of the Moscow Tsar and the Russian Patriarch." Lavra in Russia refers to large male Orthodox monasteries that have special historical and spiritual significance for the entire state. Since 1786, the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was reassigned to the Kiev metropolitan, who became its holy archimandrite. Under the ground temples of the lavra there is a huge underground complex of the monastery, consisting of the Near and Far caves.

Kiev-Pechersk Lavra

The first dungeons on the territory of the Old Russian state appeared in the 10th century. These were small caves that were used by the population as storerooms or as a shelter from enemies. Beginning in the 11th century, people who wanted to get away from worldly temptations began to flock to the territory of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, and Anthony showed them places to build underground cells.

Gradually, individual dwelling cells were connected by underground passages, caves for joint prayers, extensive storerooms and other utility rooms appeared. This is how the Far Caves arose, which are called in another way Theodosius (in memory of the Monk Theodosius, who drew up the Rule of the cave monastery).

The underground cells were erected at a depth of five to fifteen meters in a layer of porous sandstone that maintained normal humidity and a temperature of + 10 degrees Celsius underground.

The climate of the catacombs not only provided quite comfortable living conditions for people, but also prevented the decay of organic matter. Thanks to this, the mummification (formation of relics) of the deceased monks took place in the caves of the Lavra, many of whom bequeathed to be buried in the cells where they lived and prayed. These ancient burials were the first stage in the creation of an underground necropolis.

Today, there are more than 140 tombs in the lower floors of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra: 73 burials in the Near caves and 71 in the Far ones. Here, along with the graves of monks, there are burials of laymen. Thus, Field Marshal Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev and statesman of post-reform Russia Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin were buried in the dungeons of the monastery.

Very quickly, the underground monastery grew so much that it had to be expanded. Then the labyrinth of the Near Caves appeared, consisting of three "streets" with numerous dead-end branches. As often happens, the Kiev-Pechersk undergrounds quickly became overgrown with myths. Medieval authors wrote about their incredible length: some reported 100-mile long passages, others argued that some of the labyrinths were more than thousands of miles long. Now let's go back to the distant 11th century, to the time when the laurel was just beginning to be created.

In 1073, on the Kiev hills, above the caves of the monastery, the monks laid the first ground stone church, completed and consecrated in 1089. Its interior decoration was designed by the artists of Constantinople, among whom the name Alypius is known.

Seven years later, the monastery, which had not yet matured, survived a terrible attack by the Polovtsians. Orthodox shrines were plundered and desecrated. But already in 1108, under the abbot Theoktistos, the monastery was restored, and new frescoes and icons adorned the walls of ground-based cathedrals.

By this time, the laurel was fenced in with a high palisade. At the temples, there was a hospice, arranged by St. Theodosius for the shelter of beggars and cripples. Every Saturday the monastery sent a cart of bread to Kiev prisons for prisoners. In the 11-12 centuries, more than 20 bishops emerged from the monastery, who served in churches throughout Russia, but at the same time retained a strong connection with their native monastery.

The Kiev-Pechersk Lavra has repeatedly been invaded by enemy armies. In 1151 it was plundered by the Turks, in 1169 the combined troops of Kiev, Novgorod, Sukhdal and Chernigov even tried to finally destroy the monastery during the princely strife. But the most terrible destruction of the Lavra happened in 1240, when the hordes of Batu took Kiev and established their rule over Southern Russia.

Under the blows of the Tatar-Mongol army, the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra either died or fled to the surrounding villages. It is not known how long the desolation of the monastery lasted, but by the beginning of the 14th century it was completely restored again and became the burial place of the noble princely families of Russia.

In the 16th century, an attempt was made to subjugate the Kiev-Pechersk monastery to the Roman Catholic Church, and the monks twice had to defend the Orthodox faith with weapons in their hands. After that, having received the status of a lavra, the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery became a stronghold of Orthodoxy in South-Western Russia. To protect against enemies, the above-ground part of the lavra was first surrounded by an earthen rampart, and then, at the request of Peter the Great, by a stone wall.

Great Lavra Bell Tower

In the middle of the 18th century, next to the main temple of the Lavra, the Great Lavra Bell Tower was erected, the height of which, together with the cross, reached 100 meters. Even then, the Kiev-Pechersk monastery became the largest religious and cultural center in Russia. There was a miraculous icon of the Dormition of the Mother of God, the relics of St. Theodosius and the first Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev. The monks have collected a large library filled with valuable religious and secular rarities, as well as a collection of portraits of the great Orthodox and statesmen of Russia.

During Soviet times (1917-1990), the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra ceased to function as an Orthodox church. Several historical and state museums were created here. During the years of the fascist occupation, the Orthodox churches of the Lavra were desecrated, in which the Germans organized warehouses and administrative structures. In 1943, the Nazis blew up the main church of the monastery - the Assumption Church. They filmed the destruction of an Orthodox shrine on film and incorporated this footage into the official German newsreel.

Nowadays, the Bandera authorities in Kiev are trying to distort this historical data, claiming that the cathedral was blown up by Soviet partisans, who somehow broke into the center of Kiev occupied by the Germans. However, the memoirs of fascist generals - Karl Rosenfelder, Friedrich Heyer, SS Obergruppenfuehrer Friedrich Ekkeln - testify that the Orthodox shrines of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra were systematically destroyed by the German occupation authorities and their minions from among the Ukrainian Banderaites.

After the liberation of Kiev by Soviet troops in 1943, the territory of the Lavra was returned to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. And in 1988, in connection with the celebration of the 1000th anniversary of the baptism of Rus, the territories of the Near and Far Caves were also returned to the monastic community of the Lavra. In 1990, the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Currently, the famous monastery is already located in the center of Kiev - on the right, high, bank of the Dnieper and occupies two hills separated by a deep hollow descending to the water. The Lower (underground) Lavra is under the jurisdiction of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, and the Upper (ground) Lavra is under the jurisdiction of the National Kiev-Pechersk Historical and Cultural Reserve.

NESTOR Chronicler

Nestor the Chronicler (1056-1114) - Old Russian chronicler, hagiographer of the late 11th - early 12th centuries, monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. He is one of the authors of The Tale of Bygone Years, which, along with the Czech Chronicle of Kozma of Prague and the Chronicle and Deeds of Polish Princes and Rulers by Gall Anonymous, is considered the most important document in the history of ancient Slavic statehood and culture. It is also assumed that Nestor wrote "Readings on the Life and Destruction of Boris and Gleb."

The author of "The Tale" and "Readings" was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as the Monk Nestor the Chronicler, and October 27 is considered his day of memory. Under the same name, he is included in the list of saints of the Roman Catholic Church. Nestor's relics are in the Near Caves of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra.

Order of the Reverend Nestor the Chronicler

The future author of the main Russian chronicle was born ca. 1056 and as a young man came to the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, where he was tonsured. In the monastery he carried the obedience of the chronicler. The great feat of his life was the compilation of the "Tale of Bygone Years". Nestor considered his main goal to preserve the legend for the descendants of "where did the Russian land come from, who in Kiev began the first princes and where the Russian land began to eat."

Nestor the Chronicler

Reconstruction on the skull of S.A. Nikitina

The famous Russian linguist A.A. Shakhmatov established that The Tale of Bygone Years was created on the basis of more ancient Slavic chronicles and chronicles. The original version of the "Tale" was lost in antiquity, but its revised later versions have survived, the most famous of which are contained in the Laurentian (14th century) and Ipatiev (15th century) annals. At the same time, none of them contains clear indications on which historical event Nestor the Chronicler stopped his narration.

According to the hypothesis of A.A. Shakhmatova, the oldest chronicle collection "The Tale of Bygone Years" was compiled by Nestor in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra in 1110-1112. The second edition belongs to the pen of Abbot Sylvester, abbot of the Vydubitsky monastery (1116). And in 1118, on the instructions of the Novgorod prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, the third edition of the Tale was written.

Nestor was the first church historian who gave in his work a theological substantiation of Russian history, while preserving many historical facts, characteristics and documents that later formed the basis of educational and popular science literature on history. Deep spiritual saturation, the desire to faithfully convey the events of the state and cultural life of Russia and high patriotism put the "Tale of Bygone Years" on a par with the highest works of world literature.

"WHERE WAS THE RUSSIAN LAND GONE ..."

History of Russia from the time of Noah

F. Danby. Global flood.

4.5 thousand years ago “the waters of the Flood came to the earth, all the springs of the great abyss were opened, and the windows of heaven were opened, and it rained on the earth for forty days and forty nights ... Every living creature that was on the surface of the earth was destroyed; only Noah remained and what was with him in the ark ... ”(Old Testament).

For five months, the water covered the Earth by 15 cubits (cubit - 50 cm), the highest mountains disappeared into its depths, and only after this period the water began to subside. The ark stopped on the mountains of Ararat, Noah and those with him came out of the ark and released all animals and birds to breed them on Earth.

I.K. Aivazovsky. Noah leads the survivors from Ararat.

In gratitude for his salvation, Noah made a sacrifice to God and received from Him a solemn promise that in the future there will be no such terrible floods on Earth. The sign of this promise is the rainbow that appears in the sky after the rain. And then people and animals descended from the Ararat mountains and began to inhabit the deserted land.

To prevent his heirs from quarreling when settling in cities and countries, Noah divided the Earth between his three sons: Shem got the east (Bactria, Arabia, India, Mesopotamia, Persia, Media, Syria and Phenicia); Ham got possession of Africa; and the northwestern territories were ceded to Yafet. Varangians, Germans, Slavs and Swedes are named as the descendants of Yafet in the Bible.

Thus, Nestor calls the forefather of these tribes Yafet, the middle son of Noah, and emphasizes the origin of the European and Slavic peoples from one ancestor. After the Babylonian pandemonium, many peoples emerged from the single tribe of Japheth, who each received their own dialect and their lands. The ancestral home of the Slavs (noriks) in the "Tale of Bygone Years" refers to the banks of the Danube River - the countries of Illyria and Bulgaria.

During the Great Migration of Peoples (4th - 6th centuries), the Eastern Slavs, under pressure from the Germanic tribes, left the Danube and settled on the banks of the Dnieper, Dvina, Kama, Oka, as well as the northern lakes - Nevo, Ilmen and Ladoga.

Nestor connects the settlement of the Eastern Slavs with the times of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called, who stayed in their lands and after whose departure the city of Kiev was founded on the high bank of the Dnieper.

Other Slavic cities in the annals are called Novgorod (Slovenia), Smolensk (Krivichi), Debryansk (Vyatichi), Iskorosten (Drevlyane). At the same time, Ancient Ladoga was first mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years.

Olga Nagornaya. Slav!

The calling of the Varangians to Russia

Battle ship of the Varangians - Drakkar

The initial date of the "Tale" is 852, when the Russian land was first mentioned in the chronicles of Byzantium. At the same time, the first reports appeared about the Varangians - immigrants from Scandinavia ("findrs from overseas"), who sailed on warships - Drakkars and Knorrs - in the Baltic Sea, robbing European and Slavic merchant ships. In Russian chronicles, the Varangians are represented primarily by professional warriors. Their very name, according to a number of scientists, comes from the Scandinavian word "wering" - "wolf", "robber".

Nestor reports that the Varangians were not a single tribe. Among the "Varangian peoples" he mentions Russia (the tribe of Rurik), Sveev (Swedes), Normans (Norwegians), Goths (Gotlandians), "Danes" (Danes), etc. 9th century. Somewhat later, the Constantinople Chronicles mention the Scandinavians (at the beginning of the 11th century, the Varangians appeared as mercenaries in the Byzantine army), as well as the records of the scientist Al-Biruni from Khorezm, who calls them "Varanks".

Varangian society was divided into bonds - noble people (by origin or merit to the state), free warriors and trells (slaves). The most respected of all classes were the bonds - the people who owned the land. Landless free members of society who were in the service of the king or bonds did not enjoy much respect and did not even have the right to vote at general gatherings of the Scandinavians.

The emergence of free, but landless Varangians was explained by the law of inheritance of paternal property: after death, all the property of the father was transferred to the eldest son, and the younger sons had to conquer the land for themselves or earn it by faithful service to the king. For this, young landless warriors united in detachments and, in search of luck, set off on sea voyages. Armed to the teeth, they went out to sea and robbed merchant ships, and later even began to attack European countries, where they seized land for themselves.

In Europe, the Varangians were known under various names, the most common of which were the names “Danes”, “Normans” and “Northerners”. The robbers themselves called themselves "Vikings", which translated as "man from the fjords" ("fjord" - "a narrow deep sea bay with steep rocky shores"). At the same time, not all inhabitants were called "Vikings" in Scandinavia, but only those who were engaged in sea robberies. Gradually the word "viking" under the influence of European languages ​​was transformed into "viking".

The first Viking attacks on European cities began in the middle of the 8th century. One fine day, near the European shores, warships decorated with the muzzles of dragons appeared, and unknown fair-haired fierce warriors began to plunder the coastal settlements of Germany, England, France, Spain and other states.

For their time, Viking ships were very fast. So, a drakkar, going under sails, could reach a speed of 12 knots. Built in the 20th century according to ancient drawings, such a ship was able to cover a distance of 420 kilometers in a day. Possessing such transport, the sea robbers did not fear that the Europeans would be able to catch up with them on the water.

In addition, for orientation in the open sea, the Scandinavians had astrolabes, with the help of which they could easily determine the path through the stars, as well as an unusual "compass" - a piece of the mineral cordierite, which changed its color depending on the position of the Sun and the Moon. The sagas also mention real compasses, consisting of small magnets attached to a piece of wood or dipped in a bowl of water.

Attacking a merchant ship, the Vikings first fired at it with bows or simply threw stones at it, and then went on boarding. It is known that the bows of the barbarians could easily hit the target at a distance of 250 to 400 meters. But in most cases, the outcome of the battle depended on the maritime skill of the attackers and their ability to wield melee weapons - axes, spears, daggers and shields.

Starting with attacks on individual merchant ships, the Vikings soon moved on to raid coastal regions of Europe. The small draft of the ships allowed them to lift up navigable rivers and plunder even cities lying far from the sea coast. The barbarians were fluent in hand-to-hand fighting techniques and always easily dealt with the local militia trying to defend their homes.

The royal cavalry was much more dangerous for the Scandinavians. To hold back the onslaught of the knights chained in iron, the Vikings formed a dense formation, reminiscent of a Roman phalanx: a wall of solid shields appeared in front of the cavalry rushing on them, protecting them from arrows and swords. At first, such a fighting technique brought success, but then the knights learned to break through the barbarian defenses with the help of heavy cavalry and chariots, reinforced on the sides with thick pointed spears.

At first, the Vikings avoided major battles with European armies. As soon as they saw an enemy army on the horizon, they quickly loaded onto ships and sailed into the open sea. But later the barbarians began to erect well-fortified fortresses on the land captured during the attack, which served as strongholds for new raids. In addition, they created special berserker strike squads in their troops.

Berserkers differed from other warriors in their ability to enter a state of uncontrollable rage, which made them very dangerous opponents. Europeans considered berserkers such a terrible "weapon" that in many countries these frenzied warriors were outlawed. Until now, it has not been precisely established with the help of which the berserkers entered a state of combat madness.

In 844, the Vikings landed for the first time in southern Spain, where they sacked several Muslim cities, including Seville. In 859, they broke into the Mediterranean and devastated the coast of Morocco. It got to the point that the emir of Cordoba had to ransom his own harem from the Normans.

Soon all of Europe fell under the blows of fierce sea robbers. The bells of the church bells warned the population about the danger threatening from the sea. When the Scandinavian ships approached, people left their homes in droves, hid in the catacombs, and fled to monasteries. But the monasteries soon ceased to serve as protection for the civilian population, as the Vikings began to plunder Christian shrines as well.

In 793, the Normans, led by Eric the Bloody Ax, plundered a monastery on one of the English islands. The monks who did not have time to escape were either drowned or enslaved. After this raid, the monastery fell into complete desolation.

In 860, the Scandinavians made several raids into Provence and then sacked the Italian city of Pisa. From other European countries at this time, the Netherlands suffered greatly, completely unprotected from attack from the sea. Bands of sea robbers also rose along the rivers Rhine and Meuse and attacked the lands of Germany.

In 865, the Danes captured and plundered the English city of York, but did not go back to Scandinavia, but settled in the vicinity of the city and engaged in peaceful farming. They imposed taxes on the English population and calmly stuffed their own money thanks to this.

In 885, the Vikings laid siege to Paris, approaching it on battle drakkars along the Seine. The army of the Normans was located on 700 ships and amounted to 30 thousand people. All the inhabitants of Paris rose to defend the city, but the forces were unequal. And only consent to a shameful and humiliating peace saved Paris from total destruction. The Vikings received large land holdings in France for their use and imposed tribute on the French.

By the middle of the 9th century, they ruled not only in the coastal territories of Europe, but also successfully attacked cities located at large distances from the Baltic coast: Cologne (200 km from the sea), Bonn (240 km), Koblenz (280 km), Mainz (340 km), Trier (240 km). Only a century later, Europe with great difficulty was able to stop the raids of the barbarians on their lands.

Ancient Novgorod

In Eastern Europe, in the lands of the Slavs, the Vikings appeared in the middle of the 9th century. The Slavs called them Varangians. European chronicles describe how in 852 the Danes laid siege to and plundered the Swedish capital city of Birka. However, the Swedish king Anund managed to buy off the barbarians and send them towards the Slavic lands. Danes on 20 ships (50-70 people on each) rushed to Novgorod.

The first to come under their attack was a small Slavic town, the inhabitants of which were unaware of the invasion of the Scandinavians and could not fight back. The same European chronicles describe how, "having unexpectedly attacked its inhabitants, who lived in peace and silence, the Danes seized it by force of arms and, taking great spoils and treasures, returned home." By the end of the 850s, all of northern Russia was already under the Varangian yoke and was imposed with a heavy tribute.

And then let us turn to the pages of the Novgorod chronicles: "The people who endured a great burden from the Varangians sent to Burivaya to ask him for the son of Gostomysl to reign in the Great City." The Slavic prince Burivy is hardly mentioned in the annals, but Russian chroniclers tell about his son Gostomysl in more detail.

I. Glazunov. Gostomysl.

Burivy, presumably, reigned in one of the earliest Russian cities - Byarme, which the Novgorodians called Korela, and the Swedes called Keskholm (now it is the city of Priozersk, Leningrad Region).

Byarma was located on the Karelian Isthmus and in ancient times was considered a large trade center. Hence the Novgorodians asked for the reign of Burivoy's son, Prince Gostomysl, knowing him as a wise man and a brave warrior. Gostomysl, without delay, entered Novgorod and assumed the princely power.

“And when Gostomysl took power, immediately the Vikings, who were on the Russian land, whom they beat up, which they drove out, and refused to pay tribute to the Vikings, and, having gone to them, Gostomysl won, and built a city in the name of the eldest son of his Choice at the sea, concluded peace with the Varangians, and there was silence throughout the land.

This Gostomysl was a man of great courage, the same wisdom, all the neighbors were afraid of him, and the Slovene loved, the trial of cases for the sake of justice. For this reason, all the close peoples honored him and gave gifts and tributes, buying the world from him. Many princes from distant countries came by sea and land to listen to wisdom, and to see his judgment, and ask for his advice and his teachings, since he was glorified everywhere. "

So, Prince Gostomysl, who headed the Novgorod land, managed to expel the Danes. On the shores of the Gulf of Finland, in honor of his eldest son, he built the city of Vyborg, and around it erected a chain of fortified settlements to protect against the attack of sea robbers. According to The Tale of Bygone Years, this happened in 862.

But after that, the world did not stay on Russian soil for long, since a struggle for power began between the Slavic clans: clan, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. " The outbreak of internecine war was brutal and bloody, and its main events unfolded on the banks of the Volkhov River and around Lake Ilmen.

The burnt settlements recently discovered by archaeologists on the territory of the Novgorod region are vivid evidence of this war. This is also indicated by the traces of a large fire discovered during excavations in Staraya Ladoga. The buildings of the city were destroyed in a total fire. Apparently, the destruction was so great that the city had to be rebuilt.

At about the same time, the Lyubshan Fortress on the Baltic Sea coast ceases to exist. Archaeological evidence suggests that the last time the fortress was taken was not by the Vikings, since all the arrowheads found belong to the Slavs.

The Novgorod chronicles indicate that the Slavs suffered heavy losses in this war: all four sons of Prince Gostomysl perished in strife, and the destruction of Old Ladoga caused great damage to the Novgorod economy, since this city was a large economic center of Northern Russia, through which the trade route passed “from the Varangians to the Greeks.

After all the direct heirs of the Russian throne perished in bloody strife, the question arose of who would "own the land of Ruska." The aged Gostomysl met with the main wise men of Novgorod and after a long conversation with them decided to call the son of his middle daughter - Rurik, whose father was the Varangian king, to Russia. In the Joachim Chronicle, this episode is described as follows:

“Gostomysl had four sons and three daughters. His sons were either killed in the wars, or died in the house, and not a single son remained, and his daughters were given to the Varangian princes as wives. And Gostomysl and the people were grieving about this, Gostomysl went to Kolmogard to inquire of the gods about the heritage and, ascending to a high place, made many sacrifices and gave the Magi. The Magi answered him that the gods promise to give him an inheritance from the womb of his woman.

But Gostomysl did not believe this, for he was old and his wives did not give birth to him, and therefore he sent for the wise men to ask them to decide how he should inherit from his descendants. But he, not having faith in all this, was in sorrow. However, in the afternoon he slept in a dream, how from the womb of his middle daughter Umila a great fruitful tree grows and covers the entire Great City, from its fruits the people of the whole earth are satisfied.

Rising from sleep, Gostomysl summoned the Magi and told them this dream. They decided: "He should inherit from her sons, and the land should be enriched with his reign." And everyone rejoiced that the son of the eldest daughter would not inherit, for he was worthless. Gostomysl, anticipating the end of his life, summoned all the elders of the land from the Slavs, Rus, Chud, Ves, Mer, Krivich and Dryagovich, told them a dream and sent the chosen ones to the Varangians to ask the prince. And after the death of Gostomysl Rurik came with two brothers and their relatives. "

Gostomysl ambassadors "are calling Rurik and his brothers to Russia"

About Rurik (d. 872) the Novgorod chronicles give very short and contradictory information. Presumably, he was the son of the Danish king and princess of Novgorod Umila, the grandson of Prince Gostomysl. By the time he was called to Russia, Rurik with a detachment of Varangians was known throughout Europe: he took an active part in raids on European cities, where he earned the nickname "the plague of Christianity."

The choice of the Novgorodians was not accidental, since Rurik was widely known as an experienced and brave warrior capable of defending his possessions from the enemy. In Russia, he became the first prince of the united northern Slavic tribes and the founder of the royal dynasty of Rurikovich.

M.V. Lomonosov wrote that “the Varangians and Rurik with their kin, who came to Novgorod, were Slavic tribes, spoke the Slavic language, came from ancient Ross and were by no means from Scandinavia, but lived on the eastern-southern shores of the Varangian Sea, between the Vistula and Dvina rivers ".

Monument to Rurik in Veliky Novgorod

Rurik came to Russia with his younger brothers - Truvor and Sineus. The chronicle says: "And the eldest, Rurik, came and sat in Novgorod, and the other, Sineus, was at Beloozero, and the third, Truvor, was in Izborsk." After the death of Gostomysl, the brothers faithfully served the Russian land, repelling any encroachments on its lands both from the Varangians and from other peoples. Two years later, both brothers of Rurik died in battles with enemies, and he began to rule alone in the Novgorod land.

During his reign, Rurik put things in order in his lands, established solid laws and significantly expanded the territory of the Novgorod land by joining neighboring tribes - Krivichi (Polotsk), Finno-Ugrians and Mary (Rostov), ​​Murom (Murom) ... Under the year 864, the Nikon Chronicle reports on an attempt to incite a new internecine war in the Novgorod land, initiated by the Novgorod boyars led by Vadim the Brave. Rurik successfully suppressed their uprising and until 872 solely ruled Veliky Novgorod and the lands belonging to him.

Oleg the Prophet

The Tale of Bygone Years further informs that in 872 Rurik died, leaving his three-year-old son Igor as heir to the throne. Uncle Igor, one of the closest associates of his father, the noble warrior Oleg (d. 912), became regent under him. Continuing the policy of Rurik, Oleg expanded and strengthened the territory of Northern Russia.

He possessed the talent of an outstanding commander, was brave and courageous in battle. His ability to foresee the future and his luck in any business amazed his contemporaries. The warrior-prince was nicknamed the Prophet and enjoyed great respect among his fellow tribesmen.

At this time, in the southern Slavic lands, another state union was formed and strengthened - South Russia. Kiev became its main city. Power here belonged to two Varangian warriors who fled from Novgorod and headed the local tribes - Askold and Dir. Tradition reports that, dissatisfied with Rurik's policy, these Varangians asked him to go on a campaign to Constantinople, but seeing on the way on the banks of the Dnieper the town of Kiev, they remained in it and began to own the lands of the meadows.

Askold and Dir constantly fought with neighboring Slavic tribes (Drevlyans and Uglichs), as well as with Danube Bulgaria. Gathering around them many fugitive Varangian warriors, in 866, on 200 boats, they even embarked on a campaign against Byzantium, which is mentioned in the Byzantine chronicles. The campaign was unsuccessful: during a strong storm, most of the ships were lost, and the Varangians had to return to Kiev.

The Kievans, like all glades, did not like Askold and Dir for their arrogance and contempt for Slavic customs. In the "Veles book" there is a message that, having adopted Christianity under the influence of Byzantium, both princes spoke with contempt of the pagan faith and humiliated the Slavic gods.

Ancient Kiev

For three years Oleg ruled in Novgorod, after which he decided to go to South Russia and annex it to his possessions. Having recruited a large army from the tribes subject to him, he put him on ships and moved along the rivers to the south. Soon Smolensk and Lyubech passed under the rule of the Novgorod prince, and after a while Oleg approached Kiev.

In an effort to avoid unnecessary losses, the prince decided to conquer Kiev by cunning. He hid the boats with the soldiers behind the high bank of the Dnieper and, approaching the gates of Kiev, called himself a merchant going to Greece. Askold and Dir entered into negotiations, but were immediately surrounded by Novgorodians.

I. Glazunov. Oleg and Igor.

Raising little Igor in his arms, Oleg told them: “You are not princes and not a princely family. Here is the son of Ruriks! " After that Askold and Dir were killed and buried on the Dnieper hill. And to this day this place is called Askold's grave.

So, in 882, the unification of Northern and Southern Russia into a single Old Russian state took place, the capital of which was Kiev.

Having established himself on the Kiev throne, Oleg continued Rurik's work to expand the territory of Rus. He conquered the tribes of Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi and imposed tribute on them. A huge territory was under his rule, on which he founded many cities. The famous trade route "from the Slavs to the Greeks" passed through the lands of Ancient Rus. The boats of Russian merchants sailed along it to Byzantium and Europe. Russian furs, honey, pedigree horses and many other goods of the Rus were well known throughout the medieval civilized world.

Byzantium, the superpower of the medieval world, sought to limit the trade relations of the Old Russian state both on its territory and on the lands of neighboring countries. The Greek emperors were afraid of the strengthening of the Slavs and in every possible way prevented the growth of the economic power of Russia. For the Slavs, trade with Europe and with Byzantium itself was very important. Having exhausted diplomatic methods of struggle, Oleg decided to put pressure on Byzantium with weapons.

In 907, having equipped two thousand warships and collecting a huge cavalry army, he moved these forces to Constantinople. Until the Black Sea, Russian boats sailed along the Dnieper, and horse detachments went along the coast. Having reached the Black Sea coast, the cavalry went over to ships, and all this army rushed to the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople, which the Slavs called Constantinople.

“The tale of bygone years about this event is written as follows:“ In the year 907. Oleg went to the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kiev; He took with him a multitude of Varangians, and Slavs, and Chudi, and Krivichi, and Meru, and Drevlyans, and Radimichs, and Polyans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tivertsy, known as the Tolmachi: all of them were called Greeks "Great Scythia".

Having received a report about the approach to the Byzantine shores of the Russian fleet, Emperor Leo the Philosopher ordered to hastily lock the harbor. Powerful iron chains were stretched from one of its banks to the other, blocking the path of Russian ships. Then Oleg landed his troops ashore near Constantinople. He ordered his soldiers to make wheels from wood and put warships on them.

Waiting for a favorable wind, the soldiers raised their sails on the masts, and the boats rushed to the city by land, as if by sea: “And Oleg ordered his soldiers to make wheels and put ships on wheels. And when a fair wind blew, they raised sails in the field and went to the city. The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said, sending to Oleg: "Do not destroy the city, we will give you the tribute you want." And Oleg stopped the soldiers, and brought him food and wine, but did not accept it, since it was poisoned. And the Greeks were frightened, and said: "This is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry, sent against us by God."

And the Greeks agreed, and the Greeks began to ask the world not to fight the Greek land. Oleg, moving slightly away from the capital, began negotiations for peace with the Greek kings Leon and Alexander and sent his soldiers Karl, Farlaf, Vermud, Rulav and Stemis to the capital with the words: "Pay me tribute." And the Greeks said: "What you want, we will give you." And Oleg ordered to give his soldiers 2,000 ships for 12 hryvnia per rowlock, and then give tribute to Russian cities: first of all for Kiev, then for Chernigov, for Pereyaslavl, for Polotsk, for Rostov, for Lyubech and for other cities: for by these cities sit the grand dukes, subject to Oleg. "

The frightened Greeks, having agreed to all of Oleg's conditions, signed an agreement on trade and peace. Drawn up in Russian and Greek, this treaty provided Russia with great advantages:

Oleg nails his shield on the gates of Constantinople. Engraving by F.A. Bruni, 1839

Oleg ruled in Russia for 33 years. Major historical events in the history of our state are associated with his name:

• he significantly increased the territory of the country; his power was recognized by the tribes of the Polyans, Northerners, Drevlyans, Ilmen Slovens, Krivichi, Vyatichi, Radimichi, Ulichi and Tivertsy;
• through his governors and vassals, Oleg started state building - the creation of a management apparatus and judicial and tax systems; at the conclusion of the treaty of 907 with Byzantium, the legal document of the Slavs that has not come down to us is already mentioned - "Russian Law"; annual detours of the lands subject to Oleg to collect tribute (polyudye) laid the foundation for the tax power of the Russian princes;
• Oleg led an active foreign policy; he dealt a strong blow to the Khazar Kaganate, which, having seized the southern sections of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks," collected huge duties from Russian merchants for two centuries; when the Hungarians appeared near the borders of Russia, migrating from Asia to Europe, Oleg managed to establish peaceful relations with them, thereby protecting his people from unnecessary clashes with these warlike tribes; under the command of Oleg, the strongest power of the Middle Ages was defeated - the Byzantine Empire, which recognized the power of Russia and agreed to a trade agreement that was unfavorable for itself;
• under the leadership of Oleg, the core of the Old Russian state was laid and its international authority was consolidated; the European powers recognized the state status of Rus and built their relations with it on the basis of equality and military parity.

M.V. Lomonosov considered Prince Oleg a great commander, the first truly Russian ruler, about whom A.S. Pushkin will write: “Your name is glorified by victory. Your shield is at the gates of Constantinople! " In 912, Prince Oleg, bitten by a poisonous snake, died, and the place of his burial is unknown today. But there is a mound near Staraya Ladoga on the Baltic Sea coast, which is still called the Grave of Prophetic Oleg. According to the Novgorod chronicles, it is here that the legendary Slavic prince, the founder of the Old Russian state, lies.

Prince Igor and Princess Olga

Igor Rurikovich (878-945), according to legend, was the son of Rurik and Efanda, a Varangian princess and the beloved wife of a Russian prince.

After the death of his father, Igor was brought up by Oleg the Prophet and received the princely throne only after his death. He ruled in Kiev from 912 to 945.

Even during Oleg's life, Igor married the beautiful Olga, who, according to the Orthodox Life, was the daughter of a Scandinavian ("from the Varangian language"). She was born and raised in the village of Vybuty, located 12 kilometers from Pskov on the banks of the Velikaya River. In Scandinavian languages, the name of the future Russian princess sounds like Helga.

V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) - famous Russian historian and statesman, author of "History of Russia from the most ancient times."

He believes that Prince Oleg brought Olga to wife Igor from Izborsk and that the young 13-year-old bride belonged to the noble family of Gostomysl. The girl's name was Prekras, but Oleg renamed her Olga.

Subsequently, Igor had other wives, since the pagan faith welcomed polygamy, but Olga for Igor always remained the only assistant in all his state affairs. According to "History" V.N. Tatishchev, Olga and Igor had a son, Svyatoslav, the legal heir to the Russian throne. But, according to the chronicles, Igor also had a son, Gleb, who was executed by the Slavs for adherence to Christianity.

Having become the Grand Duke of Kiev, Igor continued the policy of Oleg the Prophet. He expanded the territory of his state and pursued a rather active foreign policy. In 914, having set out on a campaign against the rebellious Drevlyans, Igor confirmed his power in the Slavic lands and imposed a heavier tribute on the recalcitrant Drevlyans than under Oleg.

A year later, nomadic hordes of Pechenegs appeared on the lands of Russia for the first time, going to the aid of Byzantium against the barbarians, and Igor fought with them several times, demanding the recognition of the power of Kiev. But one of the main events in the activities of this prince was the military campaigns against Constantinople, the purpose of which was to confirm the trade agreements concluded by Prince Oleg.

On June 11, 941, ten thousand Russian warships approached Constantinople, threatening the Greeks with a siege. But by this time, the Byzantine emperors already had at their disposal the latest weapon - Greek fire.

Greek fire ("liquid fire") was a combustible mixture used by the Byzantine army to destroy enemy warships. The prototype of this weapon was used by the ancient Greeks back in 190 BC during the defense of the island of Rhodes from the troops of Hannibal. However, this formidable weapon was invented much earlier. In 424 BC, in a land battle at Delia, ancient Greek soldiers fired from a hollow log at the Persian army some kind of incendiary mixture consisting of crude oil, sulfur and oil.

Officially, the invention of Greek fire is attributed to the Greek engineer and architect Kalinnik, who in 673 tested it and, fleeing from Heliopolis captured by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon), offered his invention to the Byzantine emperor. Kalinnik created a special device for throwing an incendiary mixture - a "siphon", which was a copper pipe, throwing out a burning liquid stream with the help of bellows.

Presumably, the maximum range of such siphons was 25-30 meters, so most often Greek fire was used in the fleet at the time of the approach of ships during a battle. According to the testimony of contemporaries, Greek fire posed a mortal threat to wooden ships. It could not be extinguished, it continued to burn even in water. The recipe for its manufacture was kept in strict secrecy, and after the fall of Constantinople it was completely lost.

The exact composition of this incendiary mixture is not known today. Marco Greco in his "Book of Fire" gives the following description: "1 part of rosin, 1 part of sulfur, 6 parts of saltpeter in finely ground form, dissolve in linseed or laurel oil, then put in a pipe or in a wooden trunk and light. The charge immediately flies in any direction and destroys everything with fire. " It should be noted that this composition only served to eject a fiery mixture in which an "unknown ingredient" was used.

Greek fire was, among other things, an effective psychological weapon: fearing it, enemy ships tried to keep their distance from the Byzantine ships. The Greek fire siphon was usually installed on the bow of the ship, and sometimes the fiery mixture was thrown onto enemy ships in barrels. Ancient chronicles report that as a result of careless handling of these weapons, Byzantine ships often caught fire.

It was with this weapon, which the Eastern Slavs had no idea about, and Prince Igor had to face in 941. In the very first sea battle with the Greeks, the Russian fleet was partially destroyed by the flaming mixture. Leaving Constantinople, Igor's troops tried to take revenge in land battles, but were driven back to the coast. In September 941, the Russian army returned to Kiev. The Russian chronicler narrates the words of the surviving soldiers: “As if the Greeks had heavenly lightning and, letting it go, they burned us; therefore they did not overcome them. "

In 944, Igor gathered a new army from the Slavs, Varangians and Pechenegs and again went to Constantinople. The cavalry, as under Oleg, went along the coast, and then the troops were put on boats. Warned by the Bulgarians, the Byzantine emperor Roman Lakapin sent noble boyars to meet Igor with the words: "Do not go, but take the tribute that Oleg took, and I will add to that tribute."

Negotiations between the Slavs and Greeks ended with the signing of a new military-trade agreement (945), according to which between Russia and Byzantium "eternal peace was established while the sun was shining and the whole world was standing." The contract first used the term “Russian land”, and also mentioned the names of Igor’s wife, Olga, his nephews and son Svyatoslav. Byzantine chronicles report that by this time some of Igor's warriors had already been baptized and, signing the agreement, swore on the Christian Bible.

Polyudye in Ancient Russia

In the fall of 945, upon returning from the campaign, Igor's squad, as usual, went to the Drevlyansky land at polyudye (collecting tribute). Having received the due gifts, the soldiers, dissatisfied with the content, demanded that the prince return to the Drevlyans and take another tribute from them. The Drevlyans did not participate in the campaign against Byzantium, perhaps that is why Igor decided to improve his financial situation at their expense.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” says: “After thinking it over, the prince said to his squad:“ Go home with a tribute, and I will return and look again. ” And he sent his squad home, and he returned with a small part of the squad, wanting more wealth. The Drevlyans, having heard that it was coming again, held a council with their prince Mal: ​​“If a wolf gets into the habit of the sheep, he will carry out the whole flock until they kill him; so this one: if we do not kill him, then we will all ruin. "

The rebellious Drevlyans, led by Prince Mal, attacked Igor, killed his companions, and Igor was tied to the tops of two trees and torn in two. This was the first popular uprising in Russia against the princely power, recorded in the annals.

Olga, having learned about the death of her husband, in a rage took cruel revenge on the Drevlyans. After collecting a tribute from each house of the Drevlyans, one pigeon and one sparrow, she ordered tow to be tied to the paws of birds and set on fire. Pigeons and sparrows each flew to his own house and spread fire across the capital of the Drevlyans, the city of Iskorosten. The city was burnt to the ground.

After that, Olga destroyed all the nobility of the Drevlyans and killed many ordinary people in the Drevlyansky land. Having imposed a heavy tribute on the disobedient, she, nevertheless, had to streamline the collection of taxes in the subject lands in order to avoid similar uprisings in the future. By her order, clear-cut amounts of taxes were established and special graveyards were built throughout Russia to collect them. After the death of her husband, Olga became regent under her young son Svyatoslav and until his adulthood ruled the country independently.

In 955, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, Princess Olga, against the will of her son Svyatoslav, was baptized in Constantinople under the name of Helena and returned to Russia as a Christian. But all her attempts to accustom her son to the new faith met with his sharp protest. Olga, thus, became the first ruler of Russia to be baptized, although the squad, the heir son, and the entire Russian people remained pagans.

On July 11, 969 Olga died, "and her son and her grandchildren and all the people wept for her with great lamentation." According to the will, the Russian princess was buried according to Christian tradition, without a funeral feast.

And in 1547 the Russian Orthodox Church declared her a saint. Only five women in the world, besides Olga, were honored with this honor: Mary Magdalene, the first martyr Thekla, the Greek queen Elena, the martyr Apphia and the Georgian queen-educator Nina.

On July 24, we celebrate the day of this great Russian woman, who, after the death of her husband, preserved all the achievements of the previous princely power, strengthened the Russian state, raised a son-commander and was one of the first to bring the Orthodox faith to Russia.

Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich (942-972)

Formally, Svyatoslav became the Grand Duke of Kiev in 945, immediately after the death of his father, but in reality his independent reign began around 964, when the prince came of age. He was the first Russian prince with a Slavic name, and thanks to him, Europe for the first time saw up close the power and courage of the Russian squads.

From childhood, Svyatoslav was brought up as a warrior. Varangian Asmud was his mentor in matters of military skill. He taught the little prince to always be the first - both in battle and in the hunt, to hold firmly in the saddle, to be able to control a battle boat and swim well, as well as to hide from enemies in the forest and in the steppe. And Svyatoslav learned military leadership from another Varangian - the Kiev governor Sveneld.

As a child, Svyatoslav took part in the battle with the Drevlyans, when Olga led her troops to the Drevlyane city of Iskorosten. In front of the Kiev squad, a little prince was sitting on a horse, and when both troops converged for battle, Svyatoslav was the first to throw a spear at the enemy. He was still small, and the spear, flying between the ears of the horse, fell at his feet. Sveneld turned to the friendship and said: "The prince has already begun, let's follow, the squad, for the prince!" This was the custom of the Rus: only a prince could start a battle, and no matter what age he was at the same time.

The Tale of Bygone Years reports about the first independent steps of the young Svyatoslav, beginning in 964: “When Svyatoslav grew up and matured, he began to gather many brave warriors, and he was fast, like Pardus, and fought a lot. On campaigns, however, he did not carry either carts or cauldrons with him, did not cook meat, but, having thinly sliced ​​horse meat, or animals, or beef and roasted on coals, he ate like that; he did not have a tent, but slept, spreading a saddle-cloth with a saddle in their heads - the same were all his other soldiers. And, setting out on a campaign, he sent his warrior to other lands with the words: "I am going to you!" ".

After the death of Princess Olga, Svyatoslav faced the task of organizing the state administration of Russia. By this time, nomadic hordes of Pechenegs appeared on its southern borders, who overwhelmed all other nomadic tribes and began to attack the border regions of Russia. They ravaged peaceful Slavic villages, plundered nearby towns and took people into slavery.

Another painful problem for Russia at that time was the Khazar Kaganate, which occupied the lands of the Black Sea region and the Lower and Middle Volga regions.

The international trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" passed through these territories, and the Khazars, blocking it, began to collect heavy duties from all merchant ships going through Russia from Northern Europe to Byzantium. Russian merchants also suffered.

Thus, Prince Svyatoslav faced two main foreign policy tasks: to clear the trade routes up to Constantinople from extortions and to protect Russia from the raids of nomads - the Pechenegs and their allies. And the young prince set about solving the vital problems of his country.

Svyatoslav delivered the first blow to Khazaria. The Khazar Khaganate (650-969) was created by nomadic peoples who came to Europe from the Asian steppes during the Great Migration (4-6 centuries). Having seized vast territories in the regions of the Lower and Middle Volga regions, in the Crimea, Azov, Transcaucasia and North-West Kazakhstan, the Khazars conquered the local tribes and dictated their will to them.

Khazars

In 965, Russian troops invaded the border regions of Khazaria. Before that, Svyatoslav cleared the lands of the Slavs-Vyatichi from the numerous Khazar outposts and annexed them to Russia. Then, quickly dragging the boats from the Desna to the Oka, the Slavs descended along the Volga to the borders of the Kaganate and defeated the Volga Bulgars, which were dependent on the Khazars.

Further "The Tale of Bygone Years" says: "In the summer of 965 Svyatoslav went to the Khazars. Hearing, the Khazars went out to meet him with their prince Kagan and agreed to fight, and Svyatoslav the Khazars defeated in the battle. " The Rus managed to capture both capitals of the Khaganate - the cities of Itil and Semender, and also to clear Tmutarakan from the Khazars. The thunderbolt inflicted on the nomads echoed throughout Europe and became the end of the Khazar Kaganate.

In the same year 965, Svyatoslav also went to another Turkic state, which was formed on the territory of Eastern Europe during the Great Migration of Peoples - the Volga, or Silver, Bulgaria. Located in the 10th - 13th centuries on the territory of modern Tatarstan, Chuvashia, Ulyanovsk, Samara and Penza regions, Volga Bulgaria after the fall of the Khazar Kaganate became an independent state and began to claim part of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

The capture of Semender by the Slavs

Having defeated the army of the Volga Bulgars, Svyatoslav forced them to conclude a peace treaty with Russia and thereby secured the movement of Russian merchant ships from Novgorod and Kiev to Byzantium. By this time, the glory of the victories of the Russian prince had reached Constantinople, and the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Thomas decided to use Svyatoslav to fight the Bulgarian kingdom - the first European barbarian state of the 10th century, which won part of its lands from Byzantium and established its power on them. During its heyday, Bulgaria covered most of the Balkan Peninsula and had access to three seas.

Historians call this state the First Bulgarian Kingdom (681 - 1018). It was founded by the ancestors of the Bulgarians (Proto-Bulgarians), who united with the Slavic tribes of the Balkan Peninsula under the leadership of Khan Asparuh. The city of Pliska was considered the capital of Ancient Bulgaria, which in 893, after the adoption of Christianity by the Bulgarians, was renamed Preslav. Byzantium tried several times to regain the lands seized by the Bulgarians, but all attempts ended in failure.

By the middle of the 10th century, after several successful wars with its neighbors, the Bulgarian kingdoms strengthened, and the ambitions of its next ruler increased so much that he began to prepare for the seizure of Byzantium and its throne. In parallel, he sought recognition of the status of an empire for his kingdom. On this basis, in 966, a conflict broke out again between Constantinople and the Bulgarian kingdom.

Emperor Nicephorus Thomas sent a large embassy to Svyatoslav asking for help. The Greeks handed over to the Russian prince 15 centarii of gold and a request to "lead the Rus to the conquest of Bulgaria." The purpose of this appeal was the desire to resolve the territorial problems of Byzantium by someone else's hands, as well as to protect himself from the threat from Russia, since Prince Svyatoslav by this time had already begun to take an interest in the outlying provinces of Byzantium.

In the summer of 967, Russian troops led by Svyatoslav moved south. The Russian army was supported by Hungarian troops. Bulgaria, in turn, relied on the Yases and Kasogs, hostile to the Russians, as well as on the few Khazar tribes.

As chroniclers say, both sides fought to the death. Svyatoslav managed to defeat the Bulgarians and capture about eighty Bulgarian cities along the banks of the Danube.

Svyatoslav's trip to the Balkans was completed very quickly. True to his habit of lightning-fast hostilities, the prince, breaking through the Bulgarian outposts, defeated the army of the Bulgarian Tsar Peter in an open field. The enemy had to conclude a forced peace, according to which the lower course of the Danube with a very strong fortress city Pereyaslavets went to the Russians.

Having completed the conquest of Bulgaria, Svyatoslav decided to make the city of Pereyaslavets the capital of Russia, transferring all administrative structures here from Kiev. However, at that moment a messenger came from a distant homeland, who said that Kiev was besieged by the Pechenegs and Princess Olga was asking for help. Svyatoslav with a horse squad rushed to Kiev and, utterly defeating the Pechenegs, drove them away into the steppe. At this time, his mother died, and after the funeral Svyatoslav decided to return to the Balkans.

But before that it was necessary to organize the administration of Rus, and the prince put his sons on the kingdom: the eldest, Yaropolk, remained in Kiev; the middle one, Oleg, was sent by his father to the Drevlyansky land, and to Novgorod Svyatoslav, at the request of the Novgorodians themselves, gave his youngest son - Prince Vladimir, the future baptist of Russia.

This decision of Svyatoslav, according to the Soviet historian B.A. Rybakov, marked the beginning of a difficult "specific period" in Russian history: for more than 500 years, Russian princes will divide the principalities between their brothers, children, nephews and grandchildren.

Only at the end of the XIV century. Dmitry Donskoy for the first time bequeaths to his son Vasily the Grand Duchy of Moscow as a single "fatherland". But specific skirmishes will persist even after the death of Dmitry Donskoy. For another century and a half, the Russian land will groan under the hooves of princely squads fighting with each other for the Great Kiev throne. Even in the 15th and 16th centuries, real "feudal wars" will continue to torment Moscow Russia: both Ivan III and his grandson Ivan IV the Terrible will fight against appanage princes, boyars.

In the meantime, having divided his possessions between his sons, Syatoslav began to prepare for a further struggle with Byzantium. Having collected in Russia replenishment for his army, he returned to Bulgaria. Explaining this decision of Svyatoslav, The Tale of Bygone Years gives us his words: “I don’t like to sit in Kiev, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube - because there is the middle of my land, all the benefits flow there: from the Greek land - gold, pavoloks, wine , various fruits, from Bohemia and Hungary, silver and horses, from Russia furs and wax, honey and slaves. "

Frightened by the successes of Svyatoslav, the Byzantine emperor Nikifor Foka urgently made peace with the Bulgarians and decided to consolidate it with a dynastic marriage. The bride had already arrived from Constantinople to Preslav when a coup d'etat took place in Byzantium: Nicephorus Phocas was killed, and John Tzimiskes sat on the Greek throne.

While the new Greek emperor hesitated to provide military assistance to the Bulgarians, they, frightened by Svyatoslav, entered into an alliance with him and then fought on his side. Tzimiskes tried to persuade the Russian prince to leave Bulgaria, promising him a rich tribute, but Svyatoslav was adamant: he decided to firmly settle on the Danube, thus expanding the territory of Ancient Russia.

After that, the Greeks transferred their troops to the borders of Bulgaria, placing them in small border fortresses. In the spring of 970, Svyatoslav, together with mercenary detachments of the Pechenegs, Bulgarians and Hungarians, attacked the possessions of Byzantium in Thrace. The number of Russian troops, according to the Greek chronicles, was 30 thousand people.

Due to the numerical superiority and talented strategic command, Svyatoslav broke the resistance of the Greeks and reached the city of Arcadiopol, which was located just 120 kilometers from the Byzantine capital. Here a general battle took place between the Russian and Greek troops, in which, according to the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, Svyatoslav was allegedly defeated. Exhausted by long non-stop marches and lack of food, the Russian troops did not seem to withstand the onslaught of the Greek legions.

However, the Russian chronicles present events differently: Svyatoslav defeated the Greeks near Arkadeopol and approached the walls of Constantinople itself. Having received a huge tribute here, he retreated to Bulgaria. In Svyatoslav's army, indeed, there was not enough food and there was no one to replenish the troops. The huge territorial gap from Russia was felt.

If the bulk of the Russian troops (20 thousand soldiers) were destroyed near Arkadeopol, and the rest were scattered, it is obvious that then Byzantium would have had no reason to seek peace negotiations and pay tribute. In such a situation, the emperor would have to organize the pursuit of the enemy, the capture of his soldiers, go through the Balkan mountains and, on the shoulders of Svyatoslav's soldiers, break into Veliky Preslav, and then into Pereyaslavets. In fact, the Greeks beg Svyatoslav for peace and give him a rich tribute.

"Eye of the World" - this is how Constantinople was called in the Middle Ages

(modern reconstruction)

So, the first stage of the war with the Byzantine Empire ended in victory for Svyatoslav. But the prince did not have the strength to continue the campaign and storm the huge Constantinople. The army suffered heavy losses and needed replenishment and rest. Therefore, the prince agreed to peace. Constantinople was forced to pay tribute and agree with the consolidation of Svyatoslav on the Danube. Svyatoslav "gaze into Pereyaslavets with great praise."

However, Byzantium continued to try to oust the Russians from the Balkan Peninsula. In the spring of 971, Emperor Tzimiskes personally led a huge army, which marched overland towards Bulgaria. 300 Greek warships sailed there along the Danube, the purpose of which was to defeat Svyatoslav's fleet, weakened in battles.

On July 21, another general battle took place, in which Svyatoslav was wounded. The forces of the parties turned out to be equal, and the battle ended in vain. Peace negotiations began between Svyatoslav and Tzimiskes, who unconditionally accepted all the conditions of the Russian prince.

The negotiations took place on the banks of the Danube. The Greek emperor, standing, watched Svyatoslav swim to the shore on a boat. Later he would write about it like this: “Sfendoslav also appeared, having sailed along the river on a Scythian boat; he sat on the oars and rowed together with his entourage, no different from them. This was his appearance: moderate growth, not too tall and not very short, with thick eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub-nosed, beardless, with thick, overly long hair above the upper lip. His head was completely naked, but on one side a tuft of hair hung down - a sign of the nobility of the family; a strong back of the head, wide chest and all other parts of the body are quite proportionate, but he looked gloomy and stern. He had a gold earring inserted into one ear; it was adorned with a carbuncle, framed by two pearls. His attire was white and differed from the clothing of those close to him only in noticeable cleanliness. "

After the conclusion of peace, Svyatoslav decided to return to his homeland, where he was going to form a new army and continue the conquests in Europe. The path of the Russian troops to Kiev lay through the Dnieper rapids, where they had to pull boats to the shore and drag them on dry land in order to get around the pitfalls. Voivode Sveneld said to the prince: "Go around, prince, the rapids on horseback, for they are at the thresholds of the Pechenegs." However, Svyatoslav did not want to abandon his fleet.

Frightened by the power of the Slavs, Tzimiskes persuaded the nomads to meet and defeat the weakened and tired detachments of the Russians on the Dnieper rapids for a large fee. In addition, the bees sought revenge on Svyatoslav for their shameful flight from under the walls of Kiev.

The onset of autumn prevented Svyatoslav's soldiers from climbing to the Russian borders along the frozen river, so the prince decided to spend the winter at the mouth of the Dnieper. In the spring of 972, he repeated his attempt to break through to Russia, but was attacked by detachments of the Pechenegs: “When spring came, Svyatoslav went to the rapids. And smoking attacked him, the prince of the Pechenezh, and they killed Svyatoslav, and took his head, and made a cup from the skull, bound him, and drank from it. Sveneld came to Kiev to Yaropolk. "

The death of Svyatoslav in a battle with the Pechenegs is also confirmed by Leo the Deacon: “Sfendoslav left Doristol, returned the prisoners according to the agreement and sailed with his remaining comrades-in-arms, heading his way home. On the way, they were ambushed by the Patients, a large nomadic tribe that devours lice, carries dwellings with them and spends most of their lives in carts. They killed almost all the dews, killed Sfendoslav along with the rest, so that only a few of the huge army of Ross broke through unharmed to their native places. "

“The Russian prince Svyatoslav lived a short but bright life filled with love for his native land. He carried Russian banners from the Caucasus to the Balkans, he crushed the formidable Khazar Kaganate and terrified the mighty Constantinople. His victories have glorified the Russian name and Russian weapons for centuries. His reign became an important page in our ancient history. And his tragic death in less than thirty years, more like a ritual sacrifice, marked the end of an entire era. And even the killer Pechenegs, raising a bowl made from his skull, proclaimed: "Let our children be like him!"

Prince Vladimir Red Sun

Vladimir Svyatoslavich (c. 960 - 1015) - Prince of Novgorod (970-988), Grand Duke of Kiev from 987, son of Svyatoslav, grandson of Igor and Princess Olga.

As the legend says, the future ruler of the Russian land was born in a small village near Pskov, where the angry Olga exiled his mother - her former housekeeper Malusha, who dared to answer the love of Prince Svyatoslav and gave birth to his son Vladimir.

By the way, Vladimir's mother, Malusha, was not a slave by birth, but by fate: the daughter of the Drevlyan prince Mal, she was captured during Olga's military campaign and turned into slavery.

The customs of the Slavs allowed the son of a slave and a prince to inherit the father's throne, therefore, as soon as Vladimir grew up, Olga took him to Kiev. The boy's guardian was his maternal uncle, vigilante Dobrynya. He raised his nephew as a warrior and a future prince, taught him the art of war, hunting, and constantly took him with him to the druzhina veche, where Vladimir was present when deciding important state issues.

As already mentioned, after the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk became the Grand Duke of Kiev, the second son Oleg remained in the Drevlyansky land given to him by his father, and Vladimir inherited Novgorod. In historical science, in this regard, a hypothesis arose that Vladimir was the second son of Svyatoslav by age: the Novgorod reign was considered much more prestigious than the Drevlyansky land, where Oleg ruled.

In 972, an internecine war broke out between the brothers: Vladimir and Oleg united their troops and moved to Kiev. However, both were unsuccessful this time. During the battle, Oleg fell into the ditch and was crushed by a horse falling from above. And Vladimir with the remnants of his troops fled to Norway to his kinsman King Hakon the Mighty. Yaropolk declared himself the Grand Duke of all Russia.

However, soon, having recruited a new army in Norway, Vladimir returned to Russia with his loyal assistant Dobrynya. He again reigned in Novgorod, and then conquered Polotsk, which supported Yaropolk. Taking revenge on the killers of his brother Oleg, Vladimir killed the Polotsk prince Rogvolod and forcibly made his daughter Rogneda his wife, who was considered the bride of Yaropolk.

After that, Vladimir moved his troops to Kiev. His elder brother Yaropolk perished in the battle for the city, and Vladimir remained the only contender for the Russian throne. He reigned in Kiev and began to reform the government. And his first reform was an attempt to strengthen and change the pagan religion, giving it the features of a class ideology.

By the middle of the 10th century, property inequality had long existed in Ancient Rus, but the ancient pagan religion did not support the strengthening of the tribal nobility and its claims to state power. All pagan gods were considered equal in their importance, and this equality of them extended to human society. Vladimir needed a religion that would sanctify his supreme power and the rights of rich warriors and boyars. The first step in gaining such an ideological support was the prince's attempt to reform the old paganism.

According to the princely order, a huge temple was erected in the center of Kiev, on the territory of which there were wooden idols of the main pagan gods - Perun, Stribog, Khors, Makosh, Semargl and Dazhbog.

Ancient Slavic temple. Fictional adaptation.

The pagan pantheon of Vladimir testified to the great work done by the Kiev sorcerers under the leadership of the prince himself. The temple was not a simple renovation of old sanctuaries, which were previously erected far from cities, in the depths of groves and forests.

As already mentioned, new idols were erected in the center of Kiev, near the prince's tower. Here, for solemn divine services, now the residents of Kiev came together with their families. “The Tale of Bygone Years” writes about this: “The beginning of the princess Volodimer in Kyev is one. And put idols on the khlma outside the courtyard of the tower: Perun is drevyana, and his head is srebryanu, and ys is gold, and Khrsa, and Dazhbog, and Stribog, and Semargla, and Makosh. "

Perun is the patron saint of the prince and the squad.

In addition, the new system of polytheism developed in Kiev affirmed the autocratic nature of the princely power. From the former pagan pantheon, Vladimir excluded all the deities who were considered the patrons of the peasants, merchants and the urban population of Russia. Even Veles, widely revered by the Slavs, the cattle god and patron of the underworld, did not get into the new pantheon.

Now the patron saint of the prince and his squad Perun, the Slavic god of thunder and war, was declared the head of the Slavic gods.

The prince's indisputable power over his subjects was also confirmed by the fact that the idols of Perun were set up in Novgorod and all major cities of Russia, and one of them was brought by Vladimir's ambassadors to Constantinople and installed on the territory of the Russian community, not far from the imperial palace.

The selection of pagan gods who entered the new pantheon is also interesting. Perun faced strong princely power. Khors transferred the entire Universe into the possession of the Russian prince, Stribog - the sky, Dazhbog - the sun and white light, Makosh - the fertile land. Simargl was considered an intermediary between heaven and earth. Thus, the new sanctuary no longer personified the power of the people, but the druzhina-princely. Peasants and ordinary residents of the Russian land were invited to pray to their gods on the ground.

The creators of the Kiev sanctuary tactfully excluded from it all the ancient Slavic gods, the veneration of which was associated with pagan orgies. The new religious system was supposed to reflect the greatness and moral purity of state power. Moreover, striving to oppose the ancient Slavic religion to Christianity, Vladimir introduced into it a kind of "trinity": "god the father" (Stribog), "god the son" (Dazhbog) and the "goddess of the Mother of God" (Makosh). These were the ideas laid down by Vladimir in the religious reform of 980.

To date, archaeologists have established the exact layout of the Vladimirov temple. In 1975, Soviet scientists excavated its remains in the old part of Kiev - on Starokievskaya Gorka. A stone foundation was discovered there, on which six pedestals for pagan idols were clearly marked: one large in the center (Perun), three smaller on the sides and behind (Stribog, Dazhbog and Khors) and two very small ones at the “feet” of the other gods (Makosh and Semargl).

The now little-known pagan deity Semargl did not enjoy wide veneration among the Kiev nobility and quickly disappeared from the territory of the Vladimir temple, on which only five idols soon remained.

The image of Semargl itself is unusual for Slavic mythology. This deity has been preserved in the Old Russian pantheon since the times of the ancient Indo-European community of tribes, from which the Slavic branch later emerged. Semargl was depicted as a winged lion-dog and was considered a guardian deity of the seeds and roots of plants, as well as crops in general. In the pagan religion, he was used as a messenger connecting Heaven with Earth. Already in the 10th century, the image of Semargl was poorly understood by the Russian people, and by the end of this century, the winged dog-lion simply ceased to be used in the religious rites of the Slavs.

For eight years, Vladimir tried to adapt ancient paganism to the needs of the early feudal monarchy that was forming in Russia, but he failed to make the freedom-loving pagan gods patrons of the princely power. Trade and economic ties with European and Middle Eastern states helped the prince to get acquainted with their ideological base - Christianity, Islam and Judaism - and to be convinced of its advantages.

Jewish temple. Jerusalem.

For almost two hundred years, Ancient Russia was a pagan state, although all the empires surrounding it adopted Christianity long ago. In Byzantium, it was considered the state religion for six centuries, in friendly Bulgaria - more than a hundred years. If numerous pagan deities personified freedom and equality in relations between the prince and ordinary Russians, then Christianity, Islam and Judaism by this time had become the religions of a class society, and their main thesis was the requirement: "Let slaves obey their masters."

In the end, Prince Vladimir decided to replace paganism with monotheism in Russia and announced this to his squad, many of whose noble warriors had long been converted to Orthodoxy. The question arose about the choice of religion. According to legend, at the invitation of the Kiev court, priests, representatives of three world monotheistic religions - Christianity, Islam and Judaism arrived to Vladimir. Each of the ambassadors tried to persuade the Russian prince to choose his own religion.

After listening to a Muslim, Vladimir rejected Islam. He did not understand the rite of circumcision, and he considered the prohibition to drink wine reckless. "The merriment of Russia is drinking, without drinking Russia can not be" - so, allegedly, answered the prince to the temptations of the Muslims.

A. Filatov. The choice of faith by Prince Vladimir. 2007 year.

Vladimir did not accept Judaism because the Jews did not have their own state, as a result of which they were scattered throughout the land.

After listening to the rabbi, Vladimir asked him where is the Fatherland of the Jews? “In Jerusalem,” the preachers replied, “but God, in his wrath, scattered us into foreign lands.” Then the Russian prince exclaimed: '' And you, being punished by God, dare to teach others? We do not want, like you, to lose our Fatherland ''.

The Russian prince also refused to the Pope's envoys, referring to the fact that his grandmother Princess Olga did not recognize Catholic Rome. The ambassadors of the German Catholics talked for a long time about the power of the Catholic world and the grace emanating from the monastery of the Pope, but Vladimir answered them: "Go back!"

Cathedral of st. Sofia. Constantinople.

And only the sermon of the priest, who arrived from Byzantium and represented the Orthodox faith, made a blessed impression on the prince. The Greek religious philosopher, whose name history has not preserved, in a few words refuted the merits of all other religions, and then colorfully presented to Vladimir the content of the Bible and the Gospel. He competently and emotionally spoke about the creation of the world and the first people, about Paradise, the fall of Adam and the Flood, and in conclusion he showed the prince the picture of the Last Judgment brought to Kiev. Struck by the spectacle of hellish torment, Vladimir exclaimed: "Bless the virtuous and woe to the wicked!" The Greek humbly said: "Be baptized, prince, and you will be in Paradise with the first." But Vladimir was in no hurry to make a decision.

Having sent all the ambassadors to their lands, he sent his noble warriors to other countries, once again to look at all the religious rites and evaluate them. In Constantinople, the Russian envoys were greeted with great honor, in the Cathedral of St. Sophia held a solemn divine service for them, accompanied by beautiful organ music, and then invited to the imperial feast.

The ambassadors, who returned from Byzantium with rich gifts, enthusiastically told Vladimir about the beauty of the Greek temples and about the great honor that was shown to them by the emperor himself, as well as by the Patriarch of Constantinople. They ended their story with the words: “Every man, having tasted something sweet, already has an aversion to something bitter; so we, having learned the faith of the Greeks, do not want another ”.

Then Vladimir, having gathered in the princely mansion the best people of Kiev - boyars and elders, wished to hear their opinion again. "If the Greek law," they said, "was not better than others, then your grandmother, Olga, the wisest of all people, would not have thought of accepting it." After that, the Grand Duke of Kiev made his choice.

This was also facilitated by the strong economic ties between Russia and Byzantium and the existence in Kiev of a large Russian Orthodox community, which arose here during the time of Princess Olga.

Vladimir's adoption of Orthodoxy is also explained by the international political situation. The Pope by this time sought to subjugate not only religious, but also secular power in the Slavic countries. The Catholic Church was notable for its intolerance of other religious views and persecuted dissidents.

In Byzantium, the Orthodox Church was subordinate to the emperor, which corresponded to Eastern traditions, where the prince was simultaneously considered the head of a religious cult. At the same time, Orthodoxy tolerated other forms of monotheism and even paganism, which was important for a multinational country.

Byzantium in the 10th century was the largest world power, the heir to Ancient Rome. Its authority was recognized by all European countries, and it was a great honor for the young Slavic state to accept the state religion from Constantinople. No European country would dare to object to this.

Baptism of Prince Vladimir

According to the chronicle, in 987, at the council of the boyars, Vladimir made a decision on baptism "according to the Greek law." Soon after that, the Byzantine emperors Vasily and Constantine Porphyrogenitus turned to him for help: one of their generals - Barda Phoca - rebelled and, having won a number of major victories over the imperial army, demanded that the brothers abdicate from power.

Leading his squads to the Greek city of Chrysopolis, Vladimir defeated the rioters and in gratitude for this demanded the Greek princess Anna, the sister of Vasily and Constantine, as his wife. After the Greeks tried to deceive him with the help of a fake bride, Vladimir took the Greek city of Korsun by storm and began to threaten Constantinople. In the end, the Greeks agreed to Anna's marriage with Vladimir, but demanded that the Russian prince be baptized and converted to the Orthodox faith.

Without postponing the decision of the issue for the future, Vladimir, in the same place, in Korsun, was baptized from the hands of the Korsun priest, after which the marriage ceremony was performed and the prince returned to Kiev with his young wife.

The marriage of Vladimir to a Greek princess became a major political success for Russia. Before that, Anna was wooed by many European monarchs, but they were refused, and now the princess became the wife of a Russian prince. This significantly strengthened the international authority of Russia and contributed to its rapprochement with the European powers.

At his baptism, Vladimir, in honor of the Byzantine emperor, took the name Basil, which corresponded to the practice of political baptisms of that time. On his return to Kiev, he set about preparing a nationwide religious reform, and Princess Anna devotedly helped him in this. The church charter of Vladimir says that the prince consulted with his wife in church matters: "I guess I am with my princess Anna."

Kiev was the very first of the Russian cities to be baptized. Soon after his return from Korsun, Vladimir ordered to take out of the capital and dump into the Dnieper all the pagan idols of the Kiev pantheon he had recently created. After their destruction, the prince proceeded to baptize his family: all his twelve sons were converted to the Orthodox faith.

Now, according to Christian law, the prince could have only one spouse, so he released all his former numerous wives and concubines, whose fate is not known to us. Rogneda, who by that time was already a Christian, Vladimir offered to choose a new husband, but the princess refused. She cut her hair as a nun under the name Anastasia and went to a monastery.

After that, the Greek priests who had arrived with Anna went through the city with sermons, and Prince Vladimir himself helped them in this. After sermons and admonitions, Vladimir ordered to notify the population of Kiev: "Whoever does not come to the river the next day, whether he is rich, poor or poor, whether a worker or a boyar, will be disgusted with the prince." On the morning of the next day, Vladimir, following the priests, went to the bank of the Dnieper tributary - the Pochayna River. Many people gathered there too.

“The Tale of Bygone Days” further informs: “The people of Kiev began to enter the water and stood in the river, some up to their necks, others up to their chest; the children stood at the very shore; many adults entered the water with babies in their arms; and the baptized wandered along the river, learning to those who were baptized what to do during the performance of the sacrament, and immediately becoming their recipients. " The priests read prayers from the shore. So all the Kievites were baptized and each began to disperse to his own home. Vladimir prayed and rejoiced. " However, a popular legend has come down to us that the Kiev sorcerers and the most ardent pagans did not accept baptism in Pochayna and fled from Kiev to the forests and steppes.

Baptism of Novgorod. The Magi are against Dobrynya.

In 990-991, Vladimir began to baptize Novgorod. At this time, Veliky Novgorod was already considered one of the most important urban settlements in Russia. It was a large craft and trade center of the Russian north and a stronghold of the ancient pagan religion of the Slavs. The Novgorod land was a vast land rich in furs, forests, fish, and iron ore deposits. Its population regularly paid Kiev a rich tribute and supplied the great Russian princes with warriors for campaigns.

Vladimir entrusted the responsible task of the baptism of Novgorod to his educator and closest adviser - voivode Dobryna. The prince well understood what difficulties the envoys of Kiev would have to face in the Novgorod land, therefore, despite the threat of an attack on the southern lands of Russia by the Pechenegs, the Dobrynya detachment was reinforced by the most loyal to Kiev warriors under the command of Voivode Putyata.

According to the Joachim Chronicle, the conversion of Novgorodians to Christianity took place in three stages:

• at first, on the Trade side of the city, residents who were loyal to the new faith were baptized; it was the so-called "small baptism of Novgorod";
• after the crossing of the Kiev troops to the left bank of the Volkhov, a mass conversion to the new faith of the rest of the population of Novgorod took place;
• in conclusion, all who tried to deceive the missionaries and declared themselves baptized were betrayed to baptism.

For the arrival of the Kiev troops, the Novgorodians began to prepare in advance. On the main square of the city, a popular veche gathered, at which the Novgorodians unanimously decided: the Christian army of Dobrynya should not be allowed into the city and “not let the idols be refuted”! The popular resistance to the will of the Kiev prince was led by the Novgorod thousand Ugonyay and the chief sorcerer of the region - Bogomil, nicknamed the Nightingale for his ability to speak beautifully. Ordinary Novgorodians were supported against Vladimir by many boyars, who were afraid of the strengthening of Kiev's power.

Having approached Novgorod, Dobrynya and Putyata stopped at its Slavic end and offered the pagans to be baptized, but they refused. Then the missionaries went to the "trading side, walked the marketplaces and streets, taught people, christening several hundred." In turn, the sorcerer Bogomil went around the houses of Novgorodians, forbidding them to accept the new faith. Following him, the thousand Ugonyay rode around the city on horseback and shouted: "It is better for us to die, even if our gods are to be mocked."

Spurred on by these appeals, the pagans revolted in the city. They are "the house of Dobrynya the ruin, the estate of the plunderer, his wife and some of his relatives izbish."

After that, the rebellious crowd broke the bridge over the Volkhov and placed two stone throwers on its bank, stocking up on a large number of stones. Due to the large superiority of forces, the Novgorodians could expel the missionaries from the city, so Dobrynya decided to immediately attack the rebels until they received help from other areas of Novgorod.

Kiev warriors went down the Volkhov to the fords, went to Novgorod from the other side and attacked the rioters in the back. Part of the soldiers, led by Putyata, seized the thousand-strong Uphill and the sorcerer Bogomil. Left without leaders, the Novgorodians were at a loss. Taking advantage of this, the Kiev troops attacked the main forces of the pagans, and "swiftly slaughtered evil between them."

While the rebellious Novgorodians smashed the houses of Christians in the city and set fire to a Christian church, Dobrynya, in order to stop the carnage, ordered the houses of the rebels to be set on fire. Most of them rushed to save their goods, and the new leaders of the rioters asked the Kiev governor for peace. Dobrynya stopped the fires and ordered a new veche to be assembled, at which it was decided to immediately baptize the townspeople in the waters of the Volkhov. Those who still resisted were forcibly converted to the new faith.

Upon completion of all the rituals, Dobrynya and Putyata ordered the destruction of the Novgorod pagan temple, throwing all idols into Volkhov. The Tale of Bygone Years mentions that because of this, “there was real mourning in Novgorod. Husbands and wives who saw this, with a great cry and tears, asked for them, as for their real gods. Dobrynya, however, mocking them, broadcast to them: "What, madmen, do you regret about those who cannot defend themselves, what benefit can you hope to get from them?"

The overthrow of Perun remained in the memory of the Novgorodians for a long time. Many legends are associated with this event, one of which said that, sailing along the Volkhov into the sea, the idol of Perun moaned and talked, and then called on the townspeople to protect him "with the help of a club."

At the end of the baptismal ceremony, the Kiev warriors began to go around the houses of the townspeople, identifying those of them who did not have an Orthodox cross around their necks. In the end, all of them were also forced to enter the Volkhov waters and were christened. As in Kiev, some pagans, having abandoned the new faith, led by the surviving Magi, went into the forests.

Novgorod boyars

The most important result of this baptism was the complete subordination of Novgorod to the Kiev princely power. Nestor reports that after Vladimir's pagan reform, the entire northern region of Rus refused to obey Kiev, although Vladimir managed to establish a new pantheon of idols here.

Now the resistance of the Novgorod boyars was broken, and not only the “Northern Gate” of Rus', but also the entire Novgorod section of the trade “route from the Varangians to the Greeks” came under the grand prince's control.

Leaving Novgorod a strong military garrison of warriors loyal to Prince Vladimir, Dobrynya and Putyata went back to Kiev and baptized small towns and villages of the Novgorod land along the way. They also retained small military garrisons, later replenished by the Kievites.

The Joachim Chronicle reports that in Novgorod, before the official act of baptism, there were already several Christian churches and pagans peacefully coexisted with Christians here. Obviously, the fierce resistance of the Novgorodians to baptism was of a political nature and betrayed the desire of the boyar elite of Novgorod to free themselves from the power of the Great Kiev Prince. It is no coincidence that the main center of resistance was on the Sofia side of the city, where the houses of the nobility stood and all the administrative structures of Novgorod were located.

After baptism, the administration of the entire Northern Territory of Russia underwent great changes: the pagans could no longer occupy any leading posts, and a Christian community headed by people sent from Kiev stood at the head of Novgorod. Later, the Kievites, who were proud that the baptism of their city was relatively peaceful, gloatingly pointed out to the Novgorodians: "Putyata baptized you with a sword, and Dobrynya with fire."

Baptism of Rostov the Great

For a long time already, both great centers of Ancient Rus - Kiev and Novgorod, were baptized, and Rostov, the main city of the Upper Volga region, still remained pagan. The Finno-Ugric tribes of the Meri, recently annexed to Russia, lived here, who actively resisted the introduction of Christianity. Kiev repeatedly tried to carry out a religious reform in the Rostov lands, but until the middle of the 11th century, all these attempts ended in failure.

In the 1060s, the Greek priest Leonty came here from the Kiev-Pechora Lavra, who knew Russian well and was distinguished by great tolerance for pagans. Under his leadership, a wooden church of the Archangel Michael was erected near Rostov. It was not easy for Leonty in the early years of his missionary career. Several times the tribal leaders of the Meri expelled him from their lands, but he again and again returned to his temple. Leonty addressed Orthodox sermons primarily to the youth and children of Rostov, since the adults of Rostov stood firm in the pagan faith.

In 1071, after a drought and the resulting crop failure, a famine began in the Rostov land, which the inhabitants of the region associated with the activities of Christian missionaries. In the midst of popular unrest, two wise men appeared in Rostov, who began to call upon the townspeople to revolt. The Kiev governor Yan, who is in the Rostov land, tried to stop the impending riot. However, the rebels led by the Magi inflicted a bloody massacre on the defenders of Christianity. Presumably, Leonty was also killed during the uprising.

Only after Yan's threat "to bring a squad to Rostov for a year's feeding" (that is, to force the townspeople to keep the guards for a year and provide them with tribute) did the noble Rostovites give the Kiev voivode both magi, and they were thrown into reprisals for the angry guards who lost their companions. For several days the executed Magi hung on a tree, after which their bodies were given to be eaten by a bear.

But even after the suppression of the Rostov uprising, the inhabitants of the city long resisted the introduction of the new faith. In 1091, the sorcerer who came out of the forest reappeared here, who called the townspeople to revolt. However, the fear of princely reprisals stopped people, and, as the "Tale of Bygone Years" reports, the sorcerer "quickly perished." And, probably, not by itself: the former pagans finally realized that it was better to "accept the cross." Rostov was baptized, but up to the 12th century, protests against Orthodoxy flashed on its lands every now and then.

When a stone cathedral was erected in Rostov during the reign of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (12th century), the relics of the priest Leonty, killed by pagans, were allegedly found in the excavation, who has since been considered the spiritual patron of North-Western Russia.

For almost a hundred years, the Orthodox Church patiently spread the Christian faith among the pagan tribes of the Old Russian state, and everywhere baptism was accompanied by the establishment of a church hierarchy. Russia became one of the many metropolises of Constantinople. The adoption of Christianity was twofold, like any other phenomenon.

On the one hand, the new faith contributed to the strengthening of the princely and boyar power, and, therefore, the growth of the exploitation of the common people. The princely and boyar land tenure, sanctified by the Christian Church and protected by the military organization of the early feudal state, more and more rapidly attacked the personal and communal land property of free peasants.

This was facilitated by the bureaucratic apparatus of Russia, which guards the interests of the nobility. An increasing number of peasants, losing the right to their allotments for debts, turned into tenants of the boyar land and, in one way or another, depended on the nobility.

But on the other hand, the introduction of Christianity in Russia contributed to the acceleration of the country's socio-economic and cultural development. The Orthodox Church exerted a significant influence on the policy of the Russian princes in the field of strengthening the central power and uniting around it all the lands and peoples included in the Old Russian state. This strengthened the country and ensured its international authority and external security.

Together with the Greek and Bulgarian priests, books began to appear in Russia, the first schools were created, and national literature arose and rapidly developed. Modern archaeological excavations show that a significant part of the population of Russian cities has mastered literacy.

Christianity also influenced the development of handicrafts. In Kiev and other large cities, icon painting, fresco painting appeared, book writing accelerated, and the first libraries appeared. The church strengthened and protected the monogamous family, fought against some barbaric rituals of paganism. Thanks to the activities of the brothers Cyril and Methodius, a new alphabet, accessible to the entire population, appeared in Russia - the Cyrillic alphabet.

The adoption of Christianity and the development of architecture promoted: in Kiev and Novgorod, in Vladimir and Pskov, Ryazan and Tver, stone and wooden churches, as well as stone Orthodox cathedrals were built.

In 989, Prince Vladimir began to build in Kiev the first stone church of the Old Russian state - the Church of the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos, or the Tithe Church (built on a tithe from the prince's income). The temple was built as a cathedral near the prince's tower. Its construction was completed in 996. The chronicles say that the church was decorated with icons, crosses and precious vessels. The walls were decorated with marble, for which contemporaries called the cathedral "marble". Unfortunately, the Tithe Church was destroyed by the Tatars in 1240.

St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev.

At the beginning of the 11th century, Prince Yaroslav the Wise erected the Cathedral of St. Sophia on the site of the victory over the nomads, in which the original mosaics and frescoes of the 11th century have survived to this day.

The temple was built by Greek craftsmen using the Byzantine mixed masonry technique - from alternating stone and brick blocks, connected with a pink mortar. The building looked like a beautiful palace ensemble, decorated with thirteen domes. Its luxurious choir, flooded with light, where the Grand Duke was during the service, have no analogues in the world. The main dome of Hagia Sophia symbolized Jesus Christ, the other twelve smaller domes - his apostles. The entire under-dome space of the temple was decorated with beautiful mosaics and frescoes. Their palette consisted of 177 shades!

At the zenith of the dome is a mosaic depicting Christ the Almighty (Pantokrator), around Him are four archangels. Of these, only one has survived in the mosaic - in blue clothes, the rest were added in the 19th century by M.A.Vrubel with oil paints. The drum between the windows depicts the figures of the twelve apostles, and below, on the sails of the dome, the evangelists are depicted.

Kiev Sophia of the Wisdom of God

Built in the distant 11th century, St. Sophia of Kiev continues to delight people with its grandeur and beauty today. It is no coincidence that the ancient Russian writer Illarion said about her: "The Church is marvelous and glorious to all the surrounding countries ...".

Temple of Saint Sophia in Novgorod

A few years later, the stone Cathedral of St. Sophia was founded in Novgorod (1046). It was also built of stone, but the more pragmatic Novgorod refused to use marble for facing the temple, replacing it with limestone. Externally, the Novgorod Sophia had only six domes, it looked stricter and more modest than the Kiev cathedrals, but the interior was beautiful.

Magdeburg Gate

The architecture of the cathedral reflected the influence of both Byzantine architecture and the medieval traditions of Europe: the bronze Magdeburg Gate in the Romanesque style with a large number of high reliefs and sculptures was mounted on the western portal, but the internal interior and general proportions of the building are close to the canons of Constantinople.

Like the Kiev Cathedral, Novgorodskaya Sophia is still considered one of the most outstanding architectural monuments of world importance. Its construction testifies to the intention of the residents of Novgorod to repeat the splendor of Kiev stone architecture. But despite the closeness of the plans, the design of the Novgorod Temple is significantly different from its prototype.

Novgorodskaya Sofia reflects the outlook of the emerging trading bourgeoisie in Russia, which is not accustomed to investing huge amounts of money in the external design of the city. Therefore, the church of St. Sofia is simpler, laconic and more modest here. Novgorodians, as already mentioned, abandoned expensive marble, slate and mosaics during the construction of the cathedral. The interior is decorated with fresco paintings.

The first icons for Novgorod Sophia were brought from Constantinople. It was easier to buy them than to pay for the work of Greek craftsmen, as was done in Kiev. Most of the icons in the iconostasis were decorated with silver, not gold, vestments, but nevertheless of a very high artistic work.

Fresco painting, or al-fresco painting, was a way of creating pictorial images with water paints on a still wet plaster. The frescoes perfectly conveyed the brightness and shades of color, the drawings were well preserved, so many icons and images of scenes from the Bible that adorned the walls of the Novgorod Cathedral have survived to this day.

On the cross of the central dome of the Novgorod Temple is the lead figure of a dove, which symbolizes the image of the Holy Spirit. According to legend, once a dove sat down to rest on the domed cross of Novgorod Sofia. Since then, he has adorned the top of the cathedral.

Later, the Mother of God revealed to one of the monks that this dove was sent from Above to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of foreign troops, and until it flies off the cross, the city is not threatened by any enemy invasion.

During the Great Patriotic War, the iconostasis, along with the rest of the interior of the Novgorod church, was taken by the Nazis to Germany. At the end of the war, in 1947, the icons returned to Novgorod, but were significantly damaged. After many years of work of scientists-restorers, they returned to their place. In the 1970s, the Central Iconostasis in its present form was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church.

Even a small survey of Old Russian culture shows how great was the role of the Orthodox Church not only in strengthening the Old Russian state, but also in the development of Russian national culture. The well-known philologist V. N. Toporov, assessing the significance of the adoption of Christianity for the Russian civilization, writes: “The adoption of Christianity in Russia introduced to the Christian world the most extensive and most remote part of a single space - Eastern Europe ... And whatever the subsequent fate of Christianity in Eastern Europe, his legacy has become an integral part of Russian spiritual culture. "

The adoption of Orthodoxy was a major political and ideological success of Prince Vladimir, but his domestic and foreign policy was no less important for Russia. He began his reign with the establishment of order on the borders of the state. The raids of the nomadic Pechenezh tribes remained a big problem at this time.

Pechenegs appeared on the southern borders of Russia in the 9th century. They were a union of nomadic tribes who came to Europe a century earlier and occupied the Caspian territories, then known as the "Great Steppe". In 988, the Pechenegs besieged Kiev, but were defeated by the squads of Prince Svyatoslav who arrived in time. From this moment, the centenary history of the Russian-Pechenezh wars begins.

A.S. Pushkin in the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" colorfully depicted a picture of the raid of the Pechenezh hordes on the southern cities of Russia:

Raising black dust in the distance,
Camping carts are coming,
Bonfires are burning in the hills.
Trouble: the Pechenegs revolted!

The last documented Russian-Pecheneg conflict is the siege of Kiev in 1036, when the nomads who surrounded the city were finally defeated by the great Kiev prince Yaroslav the Wise. After that, the Pechenegs ceased to play an independent role in history and then acted as part of a new tribal union of nomads called black hoods. But the memory of the Pechenegs was still alive much later: for example, in the old Russian poem "Zadonshchina" the hero Chelubey, who entered into a duel with Alexander Peresvet, was called the Pecheneg.

At the time of Prince Vladimir, the threat of the nomads was still very strong. In 990 and 992 they plundered and burned Pereyaslavl; in 993 - 996, Russian squads unsuccessfully fought with the Pechenegs near the city of Vasilev; in 997 the nomads attacked Kiev. After that, thanks to several well-prepared military campaigns, Vladimir drove the Pechenezh hordes to the south, at a distance of one day of horse crossing to the Russian borders.

After that, for the defense of the southern regions of Russia, the prince ordered the construction of fortified fortresses along the entire southeastern border of the state. On both banks of the Dnieper, the Zmievy Shafts were dug - deep and wide earthen ditches and embankments. In the years 1006-1007, the Italian ambassador traveling through the Russian lands wrote that Russia was fenced off from the nomads by ramparts, which the Russian prince fenced off from all sides with a strong palisade, and that these ramparts stretch at a distance of up to 800 kilometers.

By order of Vladimir, four defensive lines were also built, which consisted of a chain of fortresses located 15-20 kilometers apart from each other, as well as a whole system of signal towers. Now, an hour before the approach of the Pechenegs advancing on Russia in Kiev, they already knew about this and could prepare for a rebuff. Hundreds of small and large villages and dozens of Russian cities were spared from barbaric raids, for which the people lovingly christened their prince the Red Sun.

The second important event in the life of the country was the suppression of the Varangians, who once helped Prince Oleg to seize Kiev and since then demanded an annual tribute from the Kievites. The detachments of the Varangians who settled in the city were a serious military force, but after the defeat of the Pechenegs, Vladimir was able to expel them from Kiev forever.

Ensuring the security of the Russian borders, Vladimir made several military campaigns against the Poles, freeing Cherven Rus from their occupation. In alliance with the nomads, he fought against Bulgaria and concluded many political and economic agreements beneficial for Russia - with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Byzantium and Pope Sylvester II.

At the same time, Vladimir finally annexed the Vyatichi and the Baltic Yatvingians, thereby opening Rus access to the Baltic Sea.

Along with an active foreign policy, Prince Vladimir was constantly engaged in the internal structure of the state. He adopted all laws in agreement with the council of boyars and elders, to which representatives of large cities were also invited.

Building map of the Old Russian city (Novgorod - 11th century)

Large villages under Vladimir lived according to the military regulations: each city was a single organized regiment, headed by a tysyatsky elected by the townspeople and approved by the prince. Smaller units - hundreds and tens (led by sotsk and ten) - were subordinate to him. Elders, representing the zemstvo aristocracy, also participated in the management of the city. Under Vladimir, new cities were also founded, among which one can name - Vladimir-on-Klyazma (990), Belgorod (991), Pereyaslavl (992) and others.

On the basis of the "Old Russian Law", Vladimir reformed the judicial system of Russia, abolishing the death penalty, which was introduced by agreement with Byzantium. Instead of execution, criminals, according to an ancient custom, were punished with a fine - vira. Vladimir is credited with the "Church charter", which determined the rights and obligations of church courts.

For the first time in Russia under Vladimir, the constant minting of coins began - gold coins and silver coins, created on the model of Byzantine metal money. Most of the coins depicted the prince sitting on the throne and the inscription: “Vladimir on the table” was applied. Along with Russian coins, Arab ducats, Byzantine gold pendants and silver milparisias were in free circulation.

The Bulgarians became the first coin-makers in Russia. The minting of their own coins was dictated not by economic needs (Russia was well served by Byzantine and Arab banknotes), but by political goals: their own coin served as an additional sign of the sovereignty of the princely power.

After the introduction of Christianity, Vladimir carried out an educational reform in the country, which, like everyone else, was carried out by force. The prince ordered to open schools for children at large monasteries and city Orthodox cathedrals: “He sent to collect children from the best people and send them to book education. The mothers of these children wept for them; for they were not yet established in the faith and wept for them as for the dead. "

Holy Mount Athos - Abode of the Virgin

Byzantine and Bulgarian priests worked as teachers in these schools, many of whom were trained on Mount Athos, located on the peninsula of the same name in Eastern Greece, where an Autonomous Monastic State already existed at that time, which consisted of 20 Orthodox monasteries. It was under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople and was considered the largest center of Orthodoxy in the world.

To this day, Athos is the largest concentration of Orthodox monasticism on the planet, one of the main holy places of the Orthodox Church. Athos is revered as the Lot of the Virgin and is now recognized as an important UNESCO World Heritage Site. One of the most famous customs of the monastic Holy Mountain is the prohibition on the entry of women and female animals.

Thanks to the educational activities of the Athonite monks, a national intelligentsia began to form in Russia. One of the graduates of the schools opened by Vladimir was the Kiev Metropolitan and writer Hilarion - the first metropolitan of Slavic origin in the Old Russian state.

He owns the "Word of Law and Grace" - a solemn speech on the day of the Resurrection of Christ, in which he sings the truth to the Russian land "revealed through Jesus", and Prince Vladimir, who brought the Christian faith to Russia. The speech was delivered in one of the Kiev Orthodox cathedrals, and then distributed in a handwritten copy among educated people.

In the memory of the people, stories have been preserved about the generosity of the great Kiev prince Vladimir, who every Sunday organized feasts in his yard, gathering boyars, wealthy merchants and warriors-heroes for them. For the Kiev poor, all the poor and sick, the prince, according to legend, ordered to deliver food and drink on carts. Nestor writes: “And he ordered to equip the carts and, putting on them bread, meat, fish, various vegetables, honey in barrels, and in others kvass, carry it around the city, asking:“ Where is the sick or beggar who cannot walk? ”And so give out whatever they need. "

Princely feast in Kiev

As an intelligent and far-sighted strategist, Vladimir paid special attention to his squad, for he remembered the parable that if a country does not want to feed its army, then it will soon have to feed someone else's. The prince richly endowed his soldiers and consulted with them when deciding state affairs, saying: "I will not find a squad with silver and gold, but I will get silver and gold with the squad, just as my grandfather and my father with the squad sought gold and silver."

In the last years of his life, Vladimir, presumably, was going to change the principle of succession to the throne in order to bequeath power to his beloved son Boris, whom he, bypassing his older sons, entrusted the command of the squad.

Two of his eldest heirs, Svyatopolk and Yaroslav, rebelled against their father in 1014. Having imprisoned Svyatopolk, Vladimir prepared for war with Yaroslav, but suddenly fell ill and died on July 15, 1015 in his country residence, Berestovo.

He was buried in the Church of the Tithes in Kiev: the marble sarcophagi of the prince and his wife stood in the center of the temple in a specially built tomb. In 1240 the Tatar-Mongol hordes burned down the city, and the burial of Prince Vladimir was lost. But 400 years later, in 1632-1636, during the dismantling of the ruins of the Tithe Church, sarcophagi were discovered that allegedly belonged to Vladimir and Anna. However, until now, scientists have not been able to confirm this assumption. Today, July 15 is considered the day of remembrance of the great Kiev prince Vladimir, who brought the Orthodox faith to Russia.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise (about 978-1054)

Yaroslav Vladimirovich (about 978 - 1054) - the third son of Vladimir Krasnoe Solnyshko and the Polotsk princess Rogneda, Prince of Rostov (987 - 1010), Prince of Novgorod (1010 - 1034), Grand Duke of Kiev (1034 - 1054). At baptism he received the name of George. Memorial Day - February 20. It was first mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years when describing Vladimir's marriage to Rogned and the message about their common children - Izyaslav, Mstislav, Yaroslav and Vsevolod.

N.K. Roerich. Boris and Gleb

This is followed by a message about the death of Vladimir and that at that time the eldest and only heir to the Kiev throne was Svyatopolk, the son of Vladimir from Julia, one of the pagan wives of the prince. The father's attempt to change the law of succession in favor of the youngest son Boris, his son from Princess Anna, led to the war of the eldest sons against the father. In the struggle for the Kiev throne, Svyatopolk killed his younger brothers - Gleb, Boris and Svyatoslav, for which he received the nickname "Cursed". However, soon death overtook him. By 1034, the only legitimate heir to the throne, Yaroslav Vladimirovich, remained alive.

In 987-1010, Yaroslav ruled in Rostov, and then, after the death of his elder brother Vysheslav, he received his throne in Novgorod. Here he learned about the villainy of Svyatopolk and his father's violation of the law of succession to the throne. Gathering a squad, Yaroslav went to Kiev. Svyatopolk, who called on the Varangians to help himself, had a more prepared and strong army, but the people came to the aid of the Novgorod prince: the Novgorodians and Kievans supported Yaroslav and helped him defeat his brother.

For the help provided by the Novgorodians, Yaroslav generously rewarded them, endowing each warrior with ten gold hryvnias. Then, leaving Novgorod, the prince left the city a legal charter with the written laws listed in it, subject to execution in order to avoid strife and uprisings. This Charter later received the name "Yaroslav's Charter" and a few years later became the basis of national legislation - "Russian Truth".

Ingegerda and Yaroslav the Wise

Back in 1019, Yaroslav, already a Christian, married the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf Shchetkonung - Ingegerda, who was named Irina in Russia. Yaroslav's first wife, Anna from Norway, was captured in 1018 by the Polish king Boleslav the Brave and was forever taken to Poland.

Now a new princess has arrived in Russia - Ingegerda. As a wedding gift, she received from her husband the city of Aldeygaborg (Ladoga) with the adjacent lands. Hence, the name of the Ladoga territories appeared - Ingermanlandia, or Ingegerdy Land.

In 1034, together with his court, wife and children, Yaroslav moved to Kiev and took over his father's throne, becoming the Grand Duke of Kiev. From the very first days of his reign, he took the necessary measures to ensure the safety of Russian villages and cities from the Pechenegs that reappeared on the Russian borders.

Two years later (1036), the prince won a final victory over the nomads, utterly defeating their tribal union. In memory of this, at the site of the battle with the Pechenegs, Yaroslav ordered to lay the famous Temple of St. Sophia. The best artists from Constantinople were invited to Russia to paint it.

For 37 years of his reign, Yaroslav Vladimirovich led an active foreign policy. He finally annexed the Yam and other Baltic tribes to Russia, fought successfully with the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, took part in the struggle for the Polish throne, and concluded peace treaties with France, Germany and other European countries.

The prince consolidated his foreign policy activities with dynastic marriages. His sister Maria was given as a wife to the Polish king Casimir and became Queen Dobronega in Poland. One son of Yaroslav, prince Izyaslav, married the Polish princess Gertrude. Another - Vsevolod - was married to the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. In 1048, ambassadors of Henry of France arrived in Kiev to ask for the hand of Yaroslav's daughter, Princess Anna, who, under the name of Anna of Russia, became Queen of France.

In addition to Anna, Yaroslav's family had two more daughters - Anastasia and Elizaveta. Anna's sister Princess Elizabeth became the wife of the Norwegian king Harold the Terrible, who was at the Russian court for a long time as a hired soldier. Nord repeatedly asked Yaroslav for Anastasia's hand, but was refused. He writes about this in his beautiful poems dedicated to the Russian princess.

Harold had to accomplish many feats before Yaroslav agreed to his marriage with his middle daughter. The young warrior traveled the world for a long time in search of worthy opponents. He visited Byzantium and Sicily, in Africa and on the ships of pirates, and from everywhere sent letters and expensive gifts to Elizabeth, hoping to win the heart of the young princess.

After his wedding with Elizabeth was finally played in Kiev, Harold took his young wife home, where he immediately won the royal throne. The Norse king participated in many of the Viking campaigns, who was nicknamed Harold the Bold or Harold the Terrible in the ancient Scandinavian sagas. In 1066 he died in one of the battles. Elizabeth became a widow and was left alone with two daughters in her arms.

The girls' names were Ingerda and Maria. They grew up and became educated women, because Elizabeth herself was engaged in their training and upbringing. Later Ingerda and Maria did a lot to maintain good relations between Norway and Kievan Rus. And their mother married the Danish king Sven, and Kiev had another ally - Denmark.

Yaroslav the Wise married his third daughter, Anastasia, to the Hungarian king Andrew the First. It happened in 1046. After the wedding, the name of Queen Agmunda appeared in the documentation of the Hungarian court (this is what Anastasia was called after the adoption of the Catholic faith).

Anastasia was less fortunate than her sisters. When her husband died, she ruled Hungary on her own for a while. Then her son Shalamon grew up and rightfully took the royal throne. But at this time the illegal claimant to the place of the Hungarian king - Bela the First - opposed Shalamon.

The war began, and events did not develop in favor of Elizabeth's son. In the end, the Queen Mother had to flee to neighboring Germany, and there her tracks were lost. And to this day, no one knows how the third daughter of Yaroslav the Wise lived out her life and where her grave is. By this time, her father Yaroslav had already died, and there was no one left in Kiev who would have wished to find a Russian princess.

But the most interesting and unusual fate was bestowed from Above on the youngest daughter of the Russian prince - the beautiful golden-haired Anna.

Anna Yaroslavna is the youngest daughter of Yaroslav the Wise from marriage to Ingigerda of Sweden, the wife of the French king Henry the First. She received a good education, spoke foreign languages ​​- Greek and Latin. The 17th century historian François de Mesere wrote that King Henry of France "got the fame of the charms of the princess, namely Anna, daughter of George, King of Russia, now Muscovy, and he was fascinated by the story of her perfection."

By this time, the aged French monarch was widowed and struggled to hold back the reins of government. A marriage with Anna as a representative of the young and strong Russian state could have contributed to strengthening the power of Henry. In addition, he ensured reliable allied ties with Russia, which was recognized as an ally even in Byzantium.

Further, the French chronicles report that the king sent his embassy headed by Bishop Gauthier and one of his vassals Gaslin de Chaoney to the “land of the Russians”, located “somewhere near the Greek borders”. Upon arrival in Kiev, the king's envoys asked Yaroslav for the hand of his youngest daughter, and the prince gave his consent to this marriage.

On May 19, 1051, the wedding of Henry and Anna took place, who brought with her a rich dowry in money and jewelry, as well as a large library. In 1052, Anna gave birth to the king's heir Philip, and then three more children: Emma, ​​Robert and Hugo.

At the French court, the Russian princess was the only literate person; in a letter to her father she complained: “What barbarous country did you send me to? here the dwellings are gloomy, the churches are ugly and the manners are terrible. " Anna was amazed that Henry's courtiers and the king himself, during feasts, took food from the table with their hands and wore wigs with lice. With her arrival, the customs at the French court began to change.

The fame of the intelligence, erudition and beauty of the young queen flew to Rome. In 1059, Pope Nicholas wrote to Anna: "The rumor about your virtues, adorable virgin, has reached our ears, and with great joy we hear that you are fulfilling your royal duties in this very Christian state with laudable zeal and wonderful mind."

After the death of Heinrich, Anna remained at the French court, and her further fate was similar to that of the heroine of a knightly novel. Two years after the death of her husband, the young queen was kidnapped by a descendant of Charlemagne - Count Raoul de Crépy de Valois.

In the church of the Senlis castle, against Anna's will, they were married by a Catholic priest. Meanwhile, the count was married at this time. His wife Alinora appealed to the Pope with a complaint about her husband's behavior, and the Pope declared the marriage of Raoul and Anna invalid.

However, the count ignored the decision of the Vatican and even introduced the young wife to the court. Anna enjoyed the love of her son, King Philip, often communicated with him and accompanied him on trips with her illegitimate husband. During these years, Anna became even more carried away by political activities. Under many state documents of that time, next to Philip's signature is her signature: "Anna, mother of King Philip."

After the death of Count Raoul de Valois, Anne returned to her son's court and plunged into state affairs. The last letter, signed by the already middle-aged ex-queen, dates back to 1075. And her beloved son, King Philip the First, ruled on the French throne for a long time.

Philip the First (1052 - 1108) - King of France since 1060, the eldest son of Henry the First and Anna of Russia, grandson of Yaroslav the Wise. Was a representative of the French royal Capetian dynasty.

By his mother, he was closely related to the Byzantine emperors, therefore he received a Greek name uncharacteristic for the French nobility. Since then, the name Philip has become one of the most common in the Capetian dynasty.

Since the prince was a late child (when he was born, his father was already 49 years old), Henry already in 1059 organized the coronation of the seven-year-old heir. Thus, he provided his son with an automatic, no election, succession to the throne.

The first wife of Philip was the Dutch princess Bertha. Together with her husband, she lived on the territory of the royal domain, which included the lands around Paris and Orleans. The real power of the French king in those years extended only to this territory, since he was considered not an autocrat, but only the first among his equal position of French aristocrats who in every possible way tried to limit the influence of the king on their allotments.

Philip became the first French king who managed to expand his domain by annexing neighboring lands: he acquired the territories of Gatine, Corby, Vexin and Berry. Unlike his predecessors, as the French chronicles report, Philip "did not have the same brilliance, but showed strictness, consistency in the management of the heritage of his ancestors, as well as greed, which the Pope accused Philip of, for he ordered his servants to make the most of the trade."

Medieval french castle

Philip's life changed dramatically in the first half of the 1090s. The king unexpectedly sent his wife Bertha to de facto imprisonment in the castle of Montreuil-sur-Mer. And on the night of May 15, 1092, he stole from one of his powerful vassals Fulk of Anjou a beautiful wife, Bertrade de Montfort (probably with her consent). Then Philip organized a formal divorce from Bertha ("it turned out" that the spouses were in a relationship too close for marriage) and married Bertrade.

This act of his provoked the outrage of the clergy: in 1094, the Cathedral of Clermont, headed by Pope Urban II, excommunicated the king from the church. However, until 1104, Philip continued to maintain his marriage to Bertrada. Only four years before his death, he broke off their relationship. Excommunication greatly worsened the position of royal power. Philip was unable to take part in the crusades, and his vassals, in accordance with the will of the pope, ceased to obey the French crown.

In a marriage with Bertha of Holland, Philip gave birth to his only son, Louis, whom the king made his co-ruler upon reaching adulthood. Despite the intrigues of Bertrada's stepmother, who sought to put her illegitimate son on the French throne, Louis became king of France after the death of his father. And Philip calmly lived out his life in Fleury Abbey, here he died in the summer of 1108. In the same abbey, near Orleans, Philip was buried.

Fleury Abbey. France.

The 48-year reign of Philip the First was a record for France for the duration, and the assessment of the activities of this king was also controversial. In the first half of his life, he significantly expanded the royal domain, successfully fought the opposition nobility, fought several strategically important battles and prevented the invasion of France by Anglonorman troops. But the scandalous details of the king's personal life in the second half of his life overshadowed these achievements in the eyes of his contemporaries.

Such was the fate of one of the grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise - the Russian prince, who, thanks to his broad dynastic connections, put the princely dynasty of Russia on a par with the leading royal houses of Europe and laid the tradition of marriage contracts between them.

Yaroslav spent his last years in Vyshgorod, where he died on February 20, 1054 in the arms of his youngest son Vsevolod. They buried the Grand Duke of Kiev in the Church of St. Sophia. His marble six-sided sarcophagus still stands here, in one of the premises of the temple.

In 1936, 1939 and 1964, Yaroslav's sarcophagus was opened for historical research. According to the results of the autopsy in 1939, the Soviet anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov created a sculptural portrait of the prince, whose height was determined to be 175 centimeters. It was found that Yaroslav, after being wounded in one of the battles, was limping: the prince's right leg was longer than the left.

On September 10, 2009, Ukrainian anthropologists once again opened the sarcophagus of Yaroslav the Wise. It turned out that it contains only one skeleton - the remains of Prince Irina's wife. In the course of an investigation carried out by journalists, it was established that in 1943 the remains of the prince were removed from Kiev and today, possibly, are at the disposal of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the United States, in the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople.

For his state activities, Yaroslav received the nickname of the Wise among the people. The prince was a highly educated person who spoke five foreign languages. He collected the richest library, which he handed over to the St. Sophia Cathedral before his death; organized a regular state chronicle writing in Russia; a group of Russian and foreign specialists worked at the prince's court, translating European and Byzantine books and textbooks into Russian.

The prince opened schools throughout the country, thanks to which literacy quickly spread among ordinary people. In Novgorod, he founded the first school for boys, who were trained here for government activities.

During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia reached its highest prosperity, was recognized as equal in power and level of cultural and economic development of Byzantium and Europe, and also successfully repelled all attempts of external aggression and political pressure from neighboring states.

Under Yaroslav the Wise, the Russian Orthodox Church was first headed by the patriarch of Slavic origin - Hilarion. This meant the end of the Byzantine ecclesiastical influence on the territory of the Old Russian state. The prince himself was already called "tsar", as evidenced by the solemn inscription on his sarcophagus: "about the repose of our king."

Having founded the city of Yuryev (Tartu) not far from Lake Peipsi, Yaroslav thereby consolidated the Russian positions in the Baltic States, which ensured Rus access to the Baltic Sea. In 1035, after the death of his brother Mstislav, who owned the lands of Eastern Russia, Yaroslav finally became the sovereign ruler of the Old Russian state.

Golden Gate of Kiev

Kiev, built up under Yaroslav with stone chambers and churches, rivaled Constantinople in beauty and international prestige. There were about 400 Orthodox churches and 8 markets in the city, and the front entrance to the capital of Russia was decorated with the Golden Gates, erected on the model of those of Constantinople.

NORMAN THEORY - a theory created by European historians and politicians, according to which the power and greatness of the Russian state is explained by the fact that its founders are European (Scandinavian) princes called to Russia, who allegedly laid the foundations of the Russian state according to European models.

The purpose of such statements by some foreign "theorists" is the desire to humiliate our state, claiming its creation. Europe even today cannot understand that the strength of Russia lies not in the tsar, but in the Russian people - in their wisdom, endurance and devotion to their native land.

For the first time, the thesis about the origin of the Varangians from Sweden and their main role in the state building of Russia was put forward by the Swedish king Johan III in correspondence with Ivan the Terrible. The reason for this statement was the defeat of Sweden in the Livonian War (1558-1583) and an attempt to justify this shame, attributing the successes of the Russian army to the hereditary influence of the Vikings.

The Norman theory became widespread in Russia in the first half of the 18th century thanks to the activities of German scientists invited to work at the Russian Academy of Sciences - G.Z. Bayer, G.F. Miller, Strube-de-Pyrmont and A.L. Schlözer.

This theory was immediately opposed by the great Russian encyclopedist, writer and scientist - Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). Already then he emphasized that the Varangians called to Russia - Rurik, Truvor and Sineus - were the sons of the Russian princess and the grandchildren of the Novgorod prince Gostomysl.

That is why Gostomysl chose them as his heirs: they carried Russian blood in themselves, were raised by a Russian woman, knew the Russian language and Slavic customs well. And, as we can see, the Novgorod prince was not mistaken in his choice. Rurik and Oleg, Igor and Svyatoslav, as well as all their subsequent descendants, served our people faithfully.

It is no coincidence that several centuries later, O Writing about the life of Russian princes, Metropolitan Hilarion rightly said: "They were not sovereigns in a bad country, but in the Russian one, which is known and heard in all parts of the earth."

Let us take care of the heritage of our great ancestors - the bright and beautiful Russian Land, as Oleg and Igor, Svyatoslav and Vladimir took care of it, as the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise loved our Motherland and multiplied its dignity!

The Tale of Bygone Years (PVL) is the most important source on the history of Ancient Rus and the most controversial. Some researchers suggest treating it as a collection of legends and tales, others continue to study, finding new facts from the history of Russia, others (mainly archaeologists) try to connect topographic and ethnonymic information from the Tale with data from archaeological research and, to tell the truth, not always they succeed. The most pressing issue is the problem of attributing the Tale to the host of historical sources. It seems that there is no unequivocal solution, the truth is always somewhere in between. In this article, we will try to answer the question: can the Tale of Bygone Years be a source for the study of the history and culture of Ancient Rus, and if so, is this source reliable.

The tale of bygone years was "noted" in almost all the annalistic collections known to science today. It was created at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. and is compiled in nature. PVL consists of two parts. The first - cosmogonic - describes the formation of the Russian people and the Russian state, deriving their genealogy from Noah and his sons. In the first part there are no dates and facts, it is more legendary, epic-mythical, and serves the purpose - to explain and consolidate the independence of the recently born Russian Orthodox Church. This is quite logical, the author of the story is a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery - Nestor, respectively, he explains the history of Russia on the basis of the Christian paradigm, however, this has nothing to do with science itself, perhaps only with the history of religion. Unfortunately, we learn about the formation of the Slavs as an ethnic group not from the source, which in the first lines tells us that he will talk about “where the Russian land came from”, but from the chronicle of the Goth - Jordan, who lived in the 6th century. ad. The strange thing is that "Nestor" does not know anything about this Jordan. At least there are no borrowings or references to this chronicle in the PVL text. The historiography emphasizes the fact that Nestor for his work used some other vault that did not come down to us (the most ancient, as the researchers lovingly and with trepidation call it), however, for some reason he did not use Jordan's chronicle. The initial code, which, in the opinion of all historians, was used by Nestor, is the same chronicle, but revised, to which events contemporary to the author of the work are added.

It can be assumed that Nestor did not know about the Goths and their historians, therefore he did not have access to the "Getica" of Jordan. We disagree with this assumption. During Nestor's time, and long before him, Russia did not live in isolation, the Goths were its closest neighbors. In addition, monasteries at all times were a collection of knowledge and wisdom, it was in them that books were kept, and these books were copied for the preservation of descendants there. That is, in fact, it was Nestor and moreover only he had access to other written sources, not only Russian, but also Byzantine and Gothic. The library at the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was created during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. The prince specially sent the monks to Constantinople to bring books from there and, I think, did not insist that only church books be taken away. So the library in the Pechersky Monastery was worthy, and most likely there were many chronicles on which Nestor could rely. But for some reason he did not lean. None of the famous historians of antiquity or the early Middle Ages (with the exception of Armatol, about which below) is quoted in the PVL, as if there were none at all, as if Russia described in the Tale was some kind of mythical country, like Atlantis.

The Tale of Bygone Years is also the oldest known to us. As mentioned above, it was found that the PVL was written on the basis of another, even more ancient source (code), which has not come down to us, but this is the conclusion of linguists, not historians. Although historians have accepted this hypothesis. The well-known linguist Shakhmatov, during almost his entire life, studied the text of the PVL and identified the linguistic layers characteristic of a particular era, on the basis of which he concluded that the chronicle borrows some fragments from an older text. It is also known that in addition to this ancient set, the author of the Tale relied extensively on the Chronicle of George Armatolus, written in the 9th century. The Byzantine Armatolus tells a general story from the creation of the world to 842. The cosmogonic part of the Tale repeats this Byzantine text almost word for word.

Thus, it is not known what sources the chronicler relied on when creating a dated part of the chronicle from 842, except for the already mentioned Primary Code, parts of which Nestor used to describe the acts of the first Russian princes. No material evidence of the existence of this chronicle has survived (does not exist?)

As for the main question, about attributing PVL to historical sources, in science it has been resolved unambiguously. PVL was and is a chronicle, on the basis of which ancient Russian history was reconstructed. In fact, absolutely everything can be recognized as a historical source, any evidence of the era, both oral and written, as well as visual and even psychological (cultural), for example, a custom or a meme. Thus, the Tale is indeed a very large and significant source - how many facts, names and events are described in it! The Tale also lists the first princes of the Russian land, tells about the vocation of the Varangians to Russia.

Fortunately, today, we can no longer limit ourselves to just one Story, but look at the so-called parallel sources, i.e. documents and evidence created at the same time as PVL or describing the same period of time. In these sources, fortunately, we find both Princess Olga and the Khagan of St. Vladimir, so yes, in this part the Tale can really be considered a source, because it agrees with other evidence, which means it writes truthfully. Only the dates do not agree: the Tale tells us about some events, giving details, and is silent about some. That is, we can say that the author of the chronicle did not invent the main historical characters, but his "deeds" did not always convey correctly - he embellished something, invented something, kept silent about something.

The problem of the author of the Tale remains an acute issue. According to the canonical version, the author of the PVL is the monk of the Pechersk monastery Nestor, who compiled the whole text. Some inserts in the Tale belong to another monk - Sylvester, who lived later than Nestor. In historiography, opinions on this issue were divided. Someone believes that Nestor wrote only the introductory sacred part of the chronicle, someone assigns authorship entirely to him.

Nestor. Sculptural reconstruction based on the skull, by S.A. Nikitin, 1985

Tatishchev, who wrote a fundamental work on the history of Russia from ancient times and included the Tale in his author's chronicle, has no doubt that Nestor is a historical character, and not a collective image of all chroniclers and that he is the author of the PVL. The historian is surprised that the bishop of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, Peter Mogila from the 17th century, does not see, for some reason, that Nestor is the author of the Primary Code, on the basis of which subsequent scribes made insertions into the chronicle. Tatishchev believed that the most ancient collection that has not come down to us belongs to the pen of Nestor, and the Tale itself, in the form in which it came down to us, is the fruit of the labor of the monk Sylvester. It is curious that Tatishchev reports that the Bishop of the Tomb has one of the best libraries, and that Vladyka could take a closer look there, you see, and he would have found the Primary Vault.

We find a mention of Nestor's authorship only in the Khlebnikov list of PVL, this is a 16th century chronicle collection, which was restored and edited in the 17th century, under the guidance of whom do you think? - the same Peter Mogila. The bishop carefully studied the chronicle, made notes in the margins (these marks were preserved), however, for some reason he did not see the monk's name, or he saw it, but did not attach any importance. And after that he wrote: "Nestor's writing of Russian deeds through the war is lost to us, read, wrote Simon Bishop of Suzdal." Tatishchev believes that the Tomb speaks of the continuation of the Nestorian chronicle, which was lost, and the beginning, that is, what has survived, undoubtedly belongs to the pen of Nestor. Note that the very first Bishop of Suzdal named Simon (and there were several of them) lived at the beginning of the 12th century. Nestor died in 1114, so it is quite possible that Tatishchev correctly understood the Tomb and it meant that Simon Bishop of Suzdal continued Nestor's story, however, it is not known from what point exactly where Nestor stopped.

In general, the question of Nestor's authorship is currently almost beyond doubt. But it must be remembered that Nestor was not the only author of the Tale. Simon of Suzdal, another monk, Sylvester, and numerous scribes of subsequent generations were co-authors.

Although this point can be disputed. The same Tatishchev noticed in his "History of Russia" a curious fact, in his opinion, the entire chronicle was written by the same adverb, that is, style, whereas if there are several authors, then the syllable of the letter should be at least slightly different. Except perhaps for the notes after 1093, which were clearly made with the other hand, but there is no longer any secret - the abbot of the Vydubetsky monastery Sylvester directly writes that it is he who is now compiling the chronicle. It is possible that new linguistic research will help shed light on this interesting question.

The chronology issue is very badly resolved in the Tale of Bygone Years. And this is very surprising. The word "chronicle" means that the record is kept by years, in chronological order, otherwise it is not a chronicle at all, but a work of art, for example, an epic or a tale. Despite the fact that the PVL is a chronicle, a source on history, in almost all works on the historiography of PVL one can find the following phrases: "the date was calculated inaccurately here", "I mean ... (year such and such)", "in fact the campaign took place a year earlier, ”etc. Absolutely all historiographers agree that some date is wrong. And this is, of course, not just like that, but because this or that event was documented in another source (I just want to say “more reliable than non-Steven chronicle writing”). Even in the first line of the dated part of the chronicle (!) Nestor makes a mistake. Year 6360, indicta 15. "Michael began to reign ...". According to the Constantinople era (one of the chronology systems from the creation of the world), 6360 is 852, while the Byzantine emperor Michael III ascended the throne in 842. A mistake in 10 years! And this is not the most serious one, since it was easy to track, but what about the events where only Russians are involved, whom Byzantine and Bulgarian chronographs did not cover? One can only guess about them.

In addition, the chronicler first cites a kind of chronology of the text, calculating how many years have passed from one event or another to another. In particular, the quote: "And from the Nativity of Christ to Constantine 318 years, from Constantine to Michael this 542 years." This Michael, we believe, is the one who began to reign in 6360. By simple mathematical calculations (318 + 542) we get the year 860, which now does not agree with the data of the chronicle itself, or with other sources. And such discrepancies are legion. A completely natural question arises: why was it necessary to arrange any dates at all, if they are taken approximately, and some of them are generally from different chronologies and chronologies. D. Likhachev, who devoted a lot of time to the study of PVL, believes that it was not Nestor himself who set the dates in the annals, but late scribes who not only "suggested" to him what year this or that event happened, but also sometimes simply altered the whole story. Several generations of historians have been trying to separate truth and fiction in such a collective work.

The historian I. Danilevsky believes that the word "chronicle" does not necessarily mean a description of events in chronological order, confirming this by the fact that, for example, "Acts of the Apostles" is also called a chronicle, although there are no references to dates in them. From this we can conclude that in fact Nestor's work is not a reworking of some other source, the same Primary Code, but the essence of a story that the chronicler expanded, and subsequent scribes put down dates in it. That is, Nestor did not set the task of establishing the chronology of ancient Russian events, but only to convey the general cultural context in which Russia was formed as a state. In our opinion, he succeeded.

In the literature, it is noted that during the period when the Tale was created, the genre of history was undeveloped in Russia, in which, for example, the "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus or the history of Herodotus was written. Accordingly, PVL is a kind of innovative work, the author of which has reworked the existing legends, deeds and lives so that they correspond to the chronicle genre. Hence the confusion with dates. From the same point of view, the Tale is primarily a cultural monument, and secondarily a source on the history of Ancient Rus.

Unwittingly, every historiographer who studies PVL, either takes the position of a lawyer, inventing excuses for Nestor, for example, why the title emphasizes twice that it will come from “where there is the Russian land has gone "(literally:" Where to eat went Russian land, who in Kiev began the first princes, and where will Russian land became there is») Or why the formation of the Russian ethnos is described according to the Old Testament, and not according to historical chronicles. Others, take the position of the accuser and point out that, for example, about the baptism of Russia, Nestor invented everything and the story of the three embassies that offered Vladimir the Red Sun a choice of three faiths is nothing more than a fairy tale, since Russia by that time was already Christian and evidence of this are available (The historian has already written about this in the article "The Baptism of Rus: How It Was").

But it is historiographers who use the Tale as an important source for their research, since the presence of the author-compiler is read in every line of the PVL: Nestor loves some princes, brands some princes, some events were written out with special care, some years were missed altogether - they say it was not nothing significant, although parallel sources say otherwise. It is the author's image that helps to better understand the mentality of the enlightened part of the population of Ancient Russia (scribes, priests) in relation to the role that Russia plays in the political arena of the emerging feudal Europe, as well as to express the author's opinion on the foreign and domestic policies of the ruling elite.

In our opinion, when defining the genre, and therefore the reliability of PVL as a historical source, one should be guided by the name that the author gave to his work. He called it neither a temporary, nor a chronograph, not an annals, nor a life, nor deeds, he called it “ The story bygone years ". Despite the fact that “temporary summers” sounds rather tautological, the definition of “story” is very suitable for Nestorov's work. We see the most that neither is the narrative, sometimes jumping from place to place, sometimes out of tune chronologically - but this was not required. The author was faced with a task, which he reveals to the reader, namely: "From where the Russian land went, who in Kiev began the first princes." And, having learned about it, we understand that the author must have fulfilled a certain social order, otherwise why is it so important who "first" became the prince? Is it all the same who Kiy was and where he came from?

However, for the chronicler, the question of the first ruler is very important, and all because, most likely, during the writing of the chronicle, the author was faced with the task of showing the legitimacy of the then prince and his tribe. At the indicated time, the great Kiev prince was Svtyapolk Izyaslavich, and then Vladimir Monomakh. The latter needed to substantiate his rights to Kiev, according to his order, the chronicler figured out who was “the first to begin princes”. For this, the Legend of the division of the land by the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Yafet is given in the Tale. This was noticed in his work "Reading the Tale of Bygone Years" Vladimir Egorov. According to Yegorov, these words of the Tale “Shem, Ham and Japheth divided the land, casting lots, and decided not to join anyone in the share of his brother, and each lived in his own part. And there was a single people ”are aimed at undermining the foundations of the law, when the Kievan throne was inherited by the eldest in the family, and not by a direct descendant (son). And if Vladimir Monomakh inherited his brother Svyatopolk precisely by seniority in the family, then after the death of Monomakh, his son, Mstislav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Great, becomes the prince of Kiev. Thus, the right of everyone to live in their own way is realized. By the way, the legend about the sons of Noah and about the division of the land by them, according to Yegorov, is pure fiction. The Old Testament does not provide any details about the land deal.

In addition to the text of the PVL itself, its translation into modern Russian is often criticized. Today, only one version of the literary translation is known, made by D.S.Likhachev and O.V. Tvorogov, and there are many complaints about it. It is argued, in particular, that translators are quite free to handle the original text, filling in spelling gaps with modern concepts, which leads to confusion and inconsistencies in the text of the chronicle itself. Therefore, advanced historians are still recommended to read the Tale in the original and build theories and put forward propositions based on the Old Russian text. True, for this you need to learn Old Church Slavonic.

The same V. Egorov points out such, for example, discrepancies between the translation and the Old Russian source. Old Slavonic text: “you Var ѧ̑ gy Rus. How these friends are called Svee. friends of the Ourmans. Anglѧne. inѣy and Goethe ", but the translation of Likhachev-Tvorogov:" Those Varangians were called Rus, as others are called Swedes, and some Normans and Angles, and still other Gotlandians. " As you can see, the Swedes in the annals are actually called sves, as it should be in the indicated era, but the translator for some reason decided to modernize them. For some reason, "Goethe" is called the Gotlandians, although such peoples are not observed anywhere else, in any other chronicles. But there are closest neighbors - the Goths, who are very consonant with "goethe". Why the translator decided to introduce the Goths instead of the Goths remains a mystery.

Much confusion in the Tale is noted in connection with the consideration of the ethnonym rus, which is assigned to the Varangians, then to the original Slavs. It is said that the Varangians-Ros came to reign in Novgorod and from them the name of Rus came from, then it is said that the tribes that originally lived on the Danube were Rus. Thus, it is not possible to rely on the Tale in this matter, which means that it will not work to understand “where the Russian land came from” - either from the Varangians, or on behalf of the Ros river. As a source here, PVL is unreliable.

In the Tale of Bygone Years, there are a lot of later insertions. They were made in the XIII, XIV, and even the XVI centuries. Sometimes they can be traced, when the terms and ethnonyms are very different from the Old Russian ones, for example, when the German peoples are called "Germans" we understand that this is a late insertion, whereas in the XI-XII centuries they were called fryagami. Sometimes they merge with the general canvas of the narrative and only linguistic analysis can distinguish them. The bottom line is that truth and fiction have merged in the Tale into one large epic layer, from which it is difficult to isolate individual motives.

Summing up all of the above, we can conclude that the Tale of Bygone Years is, of course, a fundamental work on the history of the culture of Ancient Rus, however, tendentious work, fulfilling the social order of the ruling grand-ducal dynasty, and also pursuing the goal of placing Rus in the continuum of the Christian world in order to find one's own rightful place. In this regard, it is worth using the Tale as a historical source with extreme caution, relying on the Old Slavonic text when deriving any provisions, or more often comparing the translation with the original. In addition, when deriving certain dates and compiling chronologies, it is imperative to consult with parallel sources, giving preference to chronicles and annals, rather than the lives of certain saints or abbots of monasteries.

We emphasize once again that, in our opinion, PVL is an excellent literary work, interspersed with historical characters and facts, but in no way can it be a historical or historiographic source.

1) The history of the creation of the "Tale of Bygone Years".

The Tale of Bygone Years is one of the oldest chronicles of Russian literature, created at the beginning of the 12th century by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor the chronicler. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russian land, about the first Russian princes and about the most important historical events. The peculiarity of the "Tale of Bygone Years" is poetry, the author masterfully mastered the syllable, the text uses various artistic means to make the story more convincing.

2) Features of the narration in the "Tale of Bygone Years".

In The Tale of Bygone Years, two types of narration can be distinguished - weather records and chronicle stories. Weather records contain reports of events, and chronicles describe them. In the story, the author seeks to depict an event, to give specific details, that is, he tries to help the reader imagine what is happening and arouses the reader's empathy. Russia fell apart into many principalities, and each had its own chronicle vaults. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of their region and wrote only about their princes. The Tale of Bygone Years was part of the local annals, which continued the tradition of Russian chronicle writing. "The Tale of Time Legs" defines the place of the Russian people among the peoples of the world, depicts the origin of Slavic writing, the formation of the Russian state. Nestor lists the peoples who pay tribute to the Russians, shows that the peoples who oppressed the Slavs disappeared, but the Slavs remained and govern the fate of their neighbors. The Tale of Bygone Years, written in the heyday of Kievan Rus, became the main work on history.

3) Artistic features of the "Tale of Bygone Years". How does the chronicler Nes narrate about historical events?

Nestor narrates about historical events poetically. The origin of Russia Nestor draws against the background of the development of the entire world history. The chronicler unfolds a wide panorama of historical events. A whole gallery of historical figures takes place on the pages of the Nestorov Chronicle - princes, boyars, merchants, ambassadors, church ministers. He talks about military campaigns, about the opening of schools, about the organization of monasteries. Nestor constantly touches the life of the people, their moods. On the pages of the chronicle, we will read about the uprisings, the murders of princes. But the author describes all this calmly and tries to be objective. Nestor condemns murder, betrayal and deception; honesty, courage, courage, loyalty, nobility, he exalts. It is Nestor who strengthens and improves the version of the origin of the Russian princely dynasty. Its main goal was to show the Russian land among other powers, to prove that the Russian people are not without family and tribe, but have their own history, which they have the right to be proud of.

From afar, Nestor begins his story, with the biblical flood itself, after which the earth was distributed among the sons of Noah. This is how Nestor begins his story:

“So let's start this story.

By the flood, the three sons of Noah divided the earth - Shem, Ham, Japheth. And the east went to Sim: Persia, Bactria, even as far as India in longitude, and in width to Rinokorur, that is, from east to south, and Syria, and Media to the Euphrates River, Babylon, Korduna, Assyrians, Mesopotamia, the oldest Arabia, Eli-maize, Indy, Arabia Strong, Colia, Commagene, all of Phenicia.

Ham got the south: Egypt, Ethiopia, neighboring with India ...

Japheth got the northern and western countries: Media, Albania, Armenia Small and Great, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, G apathy, Colchis ...

Shem Ham and Japheth divided the land, casting lots, and decided not to share with anyone in the share of his brother, and each lived in his own part. And there was one people. And when people multiplied on earth, they planned to create a pillar to the sky - this was in the days of Nekgan and Peleg. And they assembled in the place of the field of Senaar to build a pillar to the sky, and near it the city of Babylon; and they built that pillar 40 years, and did not complete it. And the Lord God came down to see the city and the pillar, and the Lord said: "Behold, there is one generation and one people." And God mixed the nations, and divided them into 70 and 2 nations, and scattered them throughout the whole earth. After the confusion of the nations, God destroyed the pillar with a great wind; and its remnants are located between Assyria and Babylon, and have a height and width of 5433 cubits, and these remnants are preserved for many years ... "

Then the author talks about the Slavic tribes, their customs and morals, about the capture of Constantinople by Oleg, about the founding of Kiev by three brothers Kiy, Schek, Khoriv, ​​about Svyatoslav's campaign against Byzantium and other events, both real and legendary. He includes in his "Tale ..." teachings, records of oral stories, documents, contracts, parables and lives. The leading theme of most chronicle records is the idea of ​​the unity of Russia.