The most important features of medieval culture. A brief essay of the culture of the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries)

30.04.2019

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The era of the Middle Ages was considered by the advanced thinkers of the new time as time was gloomy, not giving the world: a narrow religious worldview imposed by the Catholic Church prevented the development of science and art. At today's lesson, we will try to challenge this statement and prove that the Middle Ages, which lasted a thousand years, left a rich cultural heritage for future generations.

In the XI century in the south of France, in Provence, the knightly in Esu appeared. Provencal poets singers were called pipelists (Fig. 1). The imagination of the poets was created the image of an idea knight - a bold, generous and fair. In the poetry of Trubadurov, the ministry of the beautiful lady, Madonne ("My Madam"), in which the worship of Our Lady and the Earth, Live and Beautiful Woman were connected. In Northern France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Knight's poets were called drowways and minnesing agers (in translation - singers of love).

Fig. 1. Trubadur ()

On the same century, poems arose knightly novels and stories. Especially widely in novels reflected legends about the King Arthur and the knights of the round table. Arthur courtyard appeared as a place where the best knightly qualities flourished. Roma transferred the reader into a fantastic world, where there were fairies, great, wizards, oppressed beauties, waiting for help from bold knights.

In the XII century, began the flourishing of urban literature. The townspeople are still short stories in verses and fables on the topics. Their heroes were most often found, cunning burgher or a cheerful, worst peasant. They invariably left their opponents in the fools - Chvanitish knights and greed monks. The poems of Va-Gantov are connected with the city literature (translated from Latin - Broadway). Vagatants were called Scholyarov and students, which in the XII-XIII centuries nomaded over the cities and university of Europe in search of new teaching televisions.

An outstanding Middle Ages was Dante Aligierey (1265-1321) (Fig. 2). Dante was born in Florence in the old two-Riyan family. He studied in the city school, and then all his life studied philosophy, astrono-miya, antique literature. At 18, he reassembled the love of young Beatrice, afterwards you walked married another and early deceased. On his experiences, Dante with an unprecedented, for those times, frankly told in a small book "New Life"; She glorified his name in the literature. Dante wrote a great job in verses, which called the "comedy". The descendants called her "bo-romance comedy" in the sign of the highest praise. Dante describes the journey to the afterlife kingdom: hell for sinners, paradise for righteousness and purgatory for those who have not made their sentence. At the gate of hell, located in the north, the inscription, which has become a winged: "Leave the hope of everyone here is incoming." In the center of the southern hemisphere - a huge mountain in the form of a truncated cone, on the occasions of the mountain is located, but purification, and on its flat top - Zemnya paradise. Accompanied by the Great Roman poet Vergil Dante visits hell and purgatory, and in paradise he leads Beatrice. In the hell 9 circles: than the tearing sins, the lower the circle and severe punctu. In Addu Dante, he placed bloodthirsty Vlas-Tollyubs, cruel rulers, criminals, buying. In the center of Ada - the devil himself, ricking traitors: Judas, Bruta and Cassia. Dante was played in hell and their enemies, including non-ring dads. In his depicting, sinners are not disembodied shadows, and living people: they lead to the poet of conversations and disputes, a poly-tichetic launcher will be raised in hell. Dante talks with righteousness to paradise and finally contemplates the Virgin and God. The paintings of the afterlife are drawn so alone and convincing that the contemporaries of Kaza-elk, as if the poet saw it with his own eyes. And he described essentially a diverse earthly world, with its contradictions and passions. Ema was written in Italian: the poet of Ho-bodies so that he was understood by the widest range of readers.

Fig. 2. Domenico Petarnini. Dante Aligiery)

Since the XI century, large construction began in Western Euro-ne. The rich church expanded the number and magnitude of the temples, rebuilt the old structures. Until the XI-XII centuries, Romanesque style dominated in Europe. Romanesque temple is a massive building with almost smooth walls, high towers and a concise decor. Everywhere there is a chain of a semicircular army - on the arches, window openings, entrances to the temple (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Church of San Martin in Fromist (1066) - one of the best monuments of Romanesque style in Spain)

From the middle of the XII century, commercial premises were built in free cities, halls for assembly of workshops and guilds, pains, hotels. The main umbrellas of the city were the town hall and especially the Cathedral. The construction of the XII-XV centuries received later the name of the gothic. Now the light and high rogue arch is based inside on the bundles of narrow, high columns, and outside the Mas-silent support poles and co-unity arches. The halls are spacious and high, there are more light and air in them, they are richly decorated with painting and threads, bas-reliefs. Thanks to wide aisles and through gallery, many huge windows and lace stone threads, gothic cathedrals seem transparent (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Cathedral of the Paris Our Lady (

In the Middle Ages, the sculpture was inseparable from architecture. The temples are stamped outside and inside with hundreds, and even the thousands of reliefs and statues depicting God and the Virgin Mary, Apostles and Such, Bishops and Kings. For example, in the Cathedral in Chartra (France) there were up to 9 thousand statues, not counting the reliefs. Church art was supposed to serve the "Bible for non-competent" - to portray the scenes described in Christian books, to strengthen in the faith and mouth-tool with the flour of hell. Unlike ancient art, the beauty of the human body, the artist, the middle ages, sought to reveal the rich soul, thoughts and feelings of man, his on-greened inner life. In gothic statues, in their flexible, elongated figures, the appearance of Lu-dei was especially given, under the folds of clothing, the shape of the body appear, in the poses more movement. All the idea of \u200b\u200bthe harmony of the external and internal appearance of a person manifests itself Female images are especially beautiful - Mary in Reimsky Cathedral, coats in Nuumburg.

Walls of Romanesque temples were covered with paintings. Large achievement was a book mini-ature. In a multitude of bright drawings, the whole life of people was reflected. Household scenes were depicted on frescoes, which is especially characteristic of the German and Scan-Dernal temples of the XIV-XV centuries.

Considering the cultural heritage of the Middle Ages, we will focus on scientific achievements. Astrology and alchemy flourished in the average century. Observations and experiments of astrologers and alchemists contributed to the accumulation of knowledge on astronomy and chemistry. Alchemi, for example, discovered and improved methods for producing metal alloys, paints, medicinal substances, created many chemical instruments and adaptations for experiments. Astrologers studied the arrangement of stars and shining, their movement and laws of physics. Accumulated useful knowledge and medicine.

In the XIV-XV centuries in the mining and craft, water mills are actively used. The Diana Wheel has long been the basis of mills that were built on rivers and lakes for grain grinding (Fig. 5). But later invented a more powerful wheel, which was driven by the power of the water in the force of it. The energy of the mill was also used in the Sucpiests, for washing ("enrichment") and melting of metal ores, lifting weights and others. Mel-Nitsa and mechanical clock - the first mechanis medieval.

Fig. 5. Upper-free water wheel ()

The appearance of firearms. After an early metal, the metal melted in small mountains, the air sharpening in them with manual furs. From the XIV century, the domain began to build - melting furnaces up to 3-4 meters in height. The water wheel was connected, but with large furs, which with the power of the air in the oven. Thanks to this, a very high temperature was swept in the house: the iron-nai ore melted, a liquid chu-gun was formed. Different products were cast from the cast iron, and the iron and steel were obtained by swamping. Metal has now been paid much more than before. For melting metal in the domains began to use not only wood, but also stone coal.

For a long time, rare Europeans were decided to start in the distant swimming in the open sea. Without the right maps and naval devices, Ko-Rabli walked "COVER" (along the coast) on Mo Ray, wash Europe, and along North Af Rica. Going out in the open sea has become safer after the sailors have a compass. Astrolabia was invented - instruments for determining the place where the ship is located (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Astrolabia ()

With the development of states and cities, science and morpelvas, the volume of knowledge increased and, at the same time, the need for educated people, in the expansion of training and in books, including studies. In the XIV century in Europe began to make cheaper writing material - paper, but the books still lacked. To multiply the text, we made a print with a wooden or copper board with letters carved on it, but this method was very imperfect and demanded a lot of labor costs. In the middle of the XV century, the German Johann Gutenberg (approx. 1399-1468) invented a typography. After long and hard work and searches, it began to cast separate listers from the metal (letters); Of these, the inventor was the row and page of the set from which the paper was made on paper. With the help of a collapsible font, you could dial any of the pages of any text. Gutenberg invented the printing machine. In 1456, Guttenberg released the first printed book - the Bible (Fig. 7), which in the wise relationship was not inferior to the best hand-writing books. The invention of typography is one of the greatest discoveries in human history. It contributed to the development of educational, science and literature. Thanks to the printed book of knowledge accumulated by people, all the necessary information began to spread faster. They are fully preserved and transferred to the next generations of people. Successes in the dissemination of information of an important part of the development of culture and all sectors of society, they made their next important step in later, a step to a new time.

Fig. 7. Bible Johann Guttenberg ()

Bibliography

Agibalova E.V., G.M. Don. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012
Atlas Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
Illustrated world history: from ancient times to the XVII century. - M., 1999
The history of the Middle Ages: KN. For reading / ed. V.P. Budanova. - M., 1999
Kalashnikov V. Puzzles of history: Middle Ages / V. Kalashnikov. - M., 2002
Stories on the history of middle ages / ed. A.A. Svanidze. M., 1996.

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Homework

What genres of literature developed in medieval Europe?
Why does Dante consider the most great poet of the Middle Ages?
What styles dominated in medieval architecture?
What technical inventions are Middle Ages you know?
Why is the invention of typography is considered one of the most important discoveries in the history of mankind?

The term "mid-century" was introduced by humanists around 1500. So they denoted the millennium, separating them from the "Golden Age" of antiquity.

Medieval culture is divided by periods:

1.v in. AD - XI century. n. e. - Early Middle Ages.

2. Continuous VIII century. AD - Start IX century. N.E.- Caroling Revival.

Z.Hi - XIII centuries. - Culture of mature medieval.

4. Chiv-Hu Uzb. - The culture of the late Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages is the period of which the beginning of which coincided with the dying of the ancient culture, and the end - with its revival in a new time. Early Middle Ages include two outstanding cultures - the culture of Caroling Revival and Byzantium. They gave rise to two great cultures - Catholic (Western Christian) and Orthodox (Eastern Christian). Medieval culture covers more than millennium and in socio-economic terms corresponds to the emergence, development and decomposition of feudalism. In this historically long-term sociocultural process of development of the feudal society, a peculiar type of human relationships to the world, qualitatively distinguishing him both from the culture of ancient society and from the subsequent culture of the new time.

The term "Caroling Revival" describes a cultural ascent in the Empire of Karl the Great and in the kingdoms of the Caroling dynasty in the VIII-IX centuries. (mainly in France and Germany). He was expressed in the organization of schools, attracting educated figures to the royal court, in the development of literature, visual art, architecture. The dominant direction of medieval philosophy has become scholasticism ("School theology").

Follow indicate the origins of medieval culture:

Culture of "barbaric" peoples of Western Europe (the so-called German beginning);

Cultural traditions of the Western Roman Empire (Romanesque Start: Powerful statehood, law, science and art);

Christianity.

The culture of Rome digested during his conquest "barbarians", interacted with the traditional pagan tribal culture of the peoples of North-Western Europe. The interaction of these began impulses to the formation of the actual Western European culture.

The conditions for the formation of medieval culture were as follows.:

The feudal form of ownership, based on the personal and stale dependence of the peasants from the Vassalov-Landowners;

The estate-hierarchical structure of society (Vassal service of Susurene);

The process of endless wars, which carried the feeling of the tragedy of human life;

The spiritual atmosphere of the era, where the traditions of the "deceased" antique culture, Christianity and the spiritual culture of the barbaric tribes (heroic epic) were peculiarly intertwined.

The medieval culture was formed under the conditions of domination of the natural economy of the closed world of rural estates, the underdevelopment of commodity-money relations. In the future social basis of culture, urban environments, burgherism, handicraft workshop production, trade were increasingly becoming more and more. The process of technical development: the use of water and windmills, lifts for the construction of temples, etc. Machines were becoming increasingly distributed, preparing the emergence of the "new" Europe.

A characteristic feature of the Middle Ages is the idea of \u200b\u200ba class division of society. The concept of "estate" is given a special meaning and value, for behind this term there is a thought of an uncommon. In the medieval picture of the world, the central place was held by social groups that were a reflection of the heavenly throne, where angel creatures made up a hierarchy from "Nine Chinners of Angels", grouped into the triad. This corresponded to the earth routine - three main estates of feudal society : clergy, chivalry, people.

In the Middle Ages, the transition began from a slave-owned society to the feudal hierarchy of senors and vassals, from ethics of statehood - to the ethics of personal ministry. The essential difference between the medieval society was the lack of personal freedom. In the early periods of the Middle Ages, each person was doomed to fit his role prescribed by social order. Social mobility was absent, because a person had no opportunity to move on a social staircase from one class to another, and moreover, it was almost impossible to move from one city to another, from one country to another. The man should have stayed where he was born. Often he could not even dress as he liked. At the same time, since the social structure was considered as a natural order, a person, being a certain part of this order, had confidence in his safety. Competition was relatively small. At birth, a person fell into a well-established Wednesday, which guaranteed him a certain living standard, which became traditional.

The most vividly peculiarity of medieval culture was manifested in folk holidays, including carnivals from which laughter was born. This cultural and psychological phenomenon was associated with the fact that people had a natural need for psychological unloading, in a carefree fun after grave labor, poured into parody ridicuing of the vices of Christian culture. The presence of folk culture is an ideological opposition to orthodox Christianity.

You can highlight main features of the spiritual culture of the Middle Ages:

Dominance of Christian religion;

Traditionalism, retrospectivity - the main trend "What ancient, the more authentic", "innovation is the manifestation of pride";

Symbolism - the text of the Bible was the object of reflection and interpretations;

Didactism - the figures of medieval culture, first of all, preachers and teachers of theology;

universality, the encyclopedicity of knowledge - the main advantage of the thinker is the erudition (the creation of "sums");

Reflexivity, self-profit - confession plays a big role;

Hierarchy of the spiritual sphere (the ratio of faith and mind); As the experienced knowledge of Augustine's expertise is accumulated, "I believe to understand," was supplanted by the principle of P. Abelar "I understand to believe", which has developed a substantially soil for the development of natural sciences.

In the XI-XIII centuries. In Europe, there was a certain economic and cultural ascent. It is at this time that the processes (primarily the growth of urban culture) begin to be crowned, which made it a world development leader in the future. The culture of mature Middle Ages is the flourishing of Western Christian, Catholic cultural tradition, "medieval classic".

The structure of the culture of mature medieval He was a complex system, which was four subcultures:

- "The culture of the temple and the monastery",

- "Culture of the Castle and Palace",

- "Rustic Culture",

- "The culture of the medieval city."

For the culture of mature, "high" medieval was characteristic sampling culture - Strengthening the non-religious, secular nature of culture.

At the same time, there was a process of accumulating practical knowledge: the XI-XIII centuries. - The epoch of the highest heyday of the Middle Ages, finding sustainable forms of social organization, new state entities, organically born with the awakening of the national identity. Young Europe found in this era synthesis of flows, borrowing and traditions, which, without merging with each other, influenced the globility of a medieval person. So appeared roman style - First pan-European artistic style.

The essence of the synthesis found is in combination of figurative expressiveness and sampling geometricality, sootimyless immediance and a subwindow convention with a sophisticated ornament and massive, sometimes rude monumentality. Term "Romanesque Style" It was introduced by analogy with the term "Romanesque Languages" and conventionally indicates the continuity of Rome, covering the art of Western and Central Europe of the XI-XII centuries. Architecture has become in the days of the Middle Ages the leading art, as evidenced by the then true major construction. The main creation of a romance style that meet the needs of self-defense - the castle-fortress and the church-fortress. Feudal castles were a powerful structure that had high stone walls, a gate, a high tower - Donjon.

The temple usually had the shape of the oblong cross with narrow rare windows. Based on the Temple Architecture of the Romanesque Style Ly roman Basilica. Christian architecture, continuing the ancient tradition, used the structure of such structures, as quite suitable for the temple, designed to accommodate the altar as many praying as possible. Buildings often looked harsh, simple and heavy. Romanesque style sometimes emphasized such epithets as "common", "Menietian", and Arabs considered him primitive. But it was this style that the medieval Europe for the first time told the true word in art, thereby claiming its historical identity and at the same time organic continuity of the artistic heritage of antiquity.

The church and monasteries were increasingly turned into an incremental enterprise for the sale of posts, indulgences, sacred relics, etc. All this gave birth to criticism of the church, the demands of her spiritual cleansing, which was expressed in the emergence of numerous movements, which the Catholic Church hurried to declare heretical and exterminate. In the fight against them, a variety of monasses was born - Dominican OrderHe was provided by the Pope of Roman Emergency Powers to eradicate heresy. In the XII - XIII, when social contradictions have achieved a special acute, the image of a militant Christian, a fierce persecutor of any dissent, which was expressed in the activities of the Inquisition, not only against the innerities, but also Christians, comes to replace the "bright" Christian ideal In which, along with the knight, the Crusader participated in the monk, with a cross and sword.

In the XI-XIII centuries. An ideal image occurs knight With a peculiar "Code of honor", which was reflected in the heroic epos, knightly novels, historical chronicles, and fixed in the eight-pointed knightly cross the stamp symbolism of spiritual and knightly orders. The knight, as a rule, came from an ancient kind, but in the knights were dedicated for military exploits. From the knight required power and courage. He had to constantly take care of the glory, which required the tireless confirmation of his military qualities, and therefore, new tests and feats. The "wandering knight" becomes the usual element of medieval life. Crusades of the XI-XIII centuries. The knightly morals were consonant. The most important knightly virtue was loyalty to God, Sisser, the Word, which gave rise to vows, oaths, will not be "reached the goal". The knight was supposed to be distinguished by a kind of beauty athlete, which along with the beauty of the costume, armor, the decoration of the horse, etc. It corresponded to his social status. The immutable quality of the knight was to be generosity towards equal one. Poorness led to the loss of honor and position in society. The glory of the Knight brought not so much victory as noble behavior in battle. The obligatory attribute of the Code of honor was the ministry of the "beautiful lady". "Fight and love" - \u200b\u200bsuch is the motto of the knight. In order to improve the morals, the elevation of the soul is developing code of Curituous Love. In the center of this model "sophisticated love" is a married woman - lady. In her honor, the knight had to perform feats, win in tournaments, storing loyalty in long-term separation, climb their feelings in aesthetic forms of courtship. Formed curituismic culture - Aristocratic cult of excellent ladies.

The courteous love condemned by the Church rose from the Christian postulate of love as suffering. She answered the needs of his time - to rehabilitate the earthly love, which the church considered lowland and sinful. However, under the surface court gloss, wild morals were often buried, rude in their foundations Knight's life, full violence, cruelty and cunning.

The most important element of medieval culture was literature. Medieval literature is religious, the works built on biblical myths dedicated to God, the life of the saints; They are written in Latin. Secular literature acts as an embodiment of ideal ideas about a person. The main genres - epos, lyrics, novels. There is a so-called so-called knight's literature, chanting the spirit of war, vassal structure, worshiping a beautiful lady.

Idealized, the raised knight's image remained largely unclaimed in real life, but at the same time he had a great influence on the formation of the Middle Ages knightly literature, which was usually built in secular motives, alien official church morality, and closely connected with the traditions of oral folk creativity. This is clearly visible in the knightly heroic epic - the Spanish "Side Side", the French song about Roland, the German "Song about Nibelungah". These later options for folk legends arising in the early Middle Ages, widely introduce the themes of impeccable courteous love, the struggle for faith, the execution of vassal debt, where the reality is bizarre combined with a fabulous flavor. The same motives are permeated and knight's "novels"told in verses and prose about legendary King Arthur.and his associates, about grate and gallant knight Lancelotaabout unhappy in love with tristan and isold, about virtues, adventures and fights. Romance - leading literary genre of mature medieval. The Mental Model of the Middle Ages, laid down in these works covered simultaneously the vision of the world inherent in soldiers, and at the same time assumed simplified dualism, the opposition of two opposites. The whole spiritual life of people of the pore concentrated around the opposition of good and evil, virtues and the vices of the soul and body. This storyline had extraordinary success in the Middle Ages: the virtues turned into romantic works in the knights, and the vices are in monsters.

With all the motley and the dissolution of the plots of knightly literature, its length limitations, there is often a deep humanity in it, contributing to the creation of irreversive artistic values. Such. poetry "Trubadurov" (from fr. To invent, compose), which reflected the economic and cultural lift of Southern France (Provence and Languedoc) in the XII century. Among the troubadurov met representatives of different estates, but most often - knights . Troubadura - poets and singers of the court culture. In the center of Provencal Poetry - a love passion, awakening bright feelings, harmony of life and joy, but not alien to her and war. At the same time, the militant knightly lyrics did not hide his contemptuous attitude towards the people.

Poetry Troubadurov responded in the XIII century. in the north of France in creativity trovers (FR. find, invent) and especially in Germany, minnezinger (it. Singer of love). The idea of \u200b\u200bthe combination of a knightly Christian ideal and a secular worldview was further developed in their poetry, and even an attempt to go beyond the framework of court-knitting courts. From the XV century Curvage literature comes in decline: the arrow time passed, and two more centuries, knightly novels will become the target of eatens of humanists.

Folk culture The Middle Ages was a carnival-laughing culture. Folk holidays were poured into carnival processions, "festivals of fools", etc., where pagan traditions were traced and a grotesque attitude towards the surrounding world was manifested. During the Middle Ages, theatrical acts were an integral part of the folk fair of culture or addition to church services. At first appeared liturgic drama - Short staging on the topic of birth and resurrection of Christ, shown in the church during the festive services - Liturgy. In the XIII-XIV centuries. originated miracle - Genre of religious plays about miracles. The top of the medieval theater is considered to be mystery - Medieval theater action, spiritual drama, brave plots from the Holy Scriptures.

Crusades have significantly expanded not only economic, trading contacts and exchanges, but also contributed to the penetration of the barbaric Europe of the more developed culture of the Arab East and Byzantium. In the midst of crusades, Arabic science began to play a huge role in the Christian world, contributing to the rise of the medieval culture of Europe XII century. The Arabs were transferred to Christian scientists from the Greek science, accumulated and saved in eastern libraries, which eagerly absorbed by the enlightened Christians. The authority of the pagan and Arab scientists was so strong that the references to them were in medieval science with almost mandatory, sometimes they attributed their original thoughts and findings Christian philosophers.

As a result of a long communication with the population of the more cultural east, the Europeans were perceived by many achievements of the culture and technology of the Byzantine and Muslim world. This gave a strong impetus for the further development of Western European civilization, which was reflected primarily in the growth of cities, strengthening their economic and spiritual potential. Between the X and XIII centuries. There was a rise in the development of Western cities, and the image changed. One function was prevailed - trading, reviving old towns and created a little later the handicraft function. Cityhe became the focus of hated seenors of economic activity, which led to a certain extent to the migration of the population. From a variety of social elements, the city created a new society, contributed to the establishment of a new mentality concluded in the choice of life of an active, rational, and not contemplative. The flowering of urban mentality favored the emergence of urban patriotism. City society managed to create the values \u200b\u200bof aesthetic, cultural, spiritual, attached to the new impetus to the development of the medieval West.

Romanesque art, who was an expressive manifestation of early Christian architecture, throughout the XII century. It began to transform. Old Romanesque temples have become close for multiplying cities population. It was necessary to make the church of the spacious, full air, saving the expensive space inside the city walls. Therefore, the cathedrals are pulled up, often hundreds and more than meters. For citizens, the cathedral was not just a decoration, but also impressive evidence of the power and wealth of the city. Along with the Town Hall, the Cathedral was the center and the focus of all social life. The town hall focused on the business, the practical part associated with the city administration, and university lectures were read in the cathedral other than the worship service, theatrical performances (Mysteries) took place, sometimes a parliament took place in it. Many city cathedrals were so great that the entire population of the then city could not fill it. Cathedrals and Town Hall were built by order of city communes. Due to the high cost of building materials, the complexity of the work of the temples is sometimes erected for several centuries. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture. In it, an active and contemplative life was looking for an equilibrium. Huge windows with colored glasses (stained glass) created a shimmering twilight. Massive semicircular arches were changed by fitted, rib. In combination with a complex reference system, it made it possible to make walls with light, openwork. Evangelical characters in the sculptures of the Gothic Temple acquire the elegance of court heroes, flirtary smiling and "sophisticated" suffering. Gothic - an artistic style, mainly architectural, which has achieved the greatest development in the construction of light pointed, directed by the upstream cathedrals with strangers and rich decorative decoration, became the top of the medieval culture. In general, it was the celebration of engineering thought and skills of shop artisans, the invasion of the Catholic Temple of the secular spirit of urban culture. Gothic is associated with the life of the medieval city-commune, with the fight of cities for independence from the feudal seen. Like Romanesque art, Gothic spread across Europe, the best of his creations were created in the cities of France.

Changes in architecture entailed changes in monumental painting. The place of the frescoes occupied stained glass windows. The church was installed canons in the image, but even through them made themselves to know the creative individuality of the masters. According to its emotional impact of stained glass paints, transmitted using the picture, are in the last place, and on the first - color and with him light. Big skills reached the design of the book. In the XII-XIII centuries. Manuscripts of religious, historical, scientific or poetic content are elegantly illustrated color miniature. From the liturgical books, chairs and psalters, intended mainly for the laity become the most common. The concept of space and perspective for the artist was absent, so the drawing is schematic, the composition is static. The beauty of the human body in medieval painting was not attached. The first place was the beauty of the spiritual, moral appearance of a person. The appearance of the naked body was considered sinful. Of particular importance in the appearance of a medieval person was attached to the face. Medieval epoch Created grandiose artistic ensembles, solved gigantic architectural tasks, created new forms of monumental painting and plastics, and most importantly - he was the synthesis of these monumental arts in which she sought to pass the full picture of the world.

Moving the center of gravity of culture from monasteries to the cities especially clearly manifested in the field of education. During the XII century. Urban schools are strongly ahead of monastic. New training centers, thanks to their programs and techniques, and most importantly, a set of teachers and students, very quickly come forward.

Listeners from other cities and countries gathered around the most brilliant teachers. As a result, it starts to be created higher School - University. In the XI century In Italy, the first university was opened (Bologna, 1088). In the XII century Universities arise in other countries of Western Europe. In England, the first was the university in Oxford (1167), then university in Cambridge (1209). The largest and first of France universities were Paris (1160). Studying and teaching sciences becomes craft, one of the many activities that specialized in urban life. The name of the University itself comes from the Latin Corporation. Indeed, universities were corporations of teachers and students. Development of universities with their traditions of disputes, as the main form of education and the movement of scientific thought, the appearance in the XII-XIII centuries. A large number of translation literature from Arabic and Greek became incentives of intellectual development of Europe.

Universities appeared by the concentration of medieval philosophy - scholastics.The scholastic method was in consideration and collision of all arguments and counterproofs of any position and in the logical deployment of this situation. Old dialectic, the art of dispute and arguments receive extraordinary development. There is a scholastic ideal of knowledge, where high status acquires rational knowledge and logical proof that opens on the teachings of the Church and on authorities in various branches of knowledge. Mysticism, which had a significant impact in the culture in general, is taken in scholasticism very carefully, only in connection with alchemy and astrology. Until HS in. Scholasticism was the only possible way of improving the intellect because science was subordinate to theology and served him. Scholastam belonged to the merit of the development of formal logic and a deductive way of thinking, and their method of knowledge was nothing more than the fruit of medieval rationalism. The most recognized from Scholastov, Thomas Aquinas, considered the science of the "servant of theology". Despite the development of scholasticism, it was universities that became centers of a new, non-religious culture.

At the same time, there was a process of accumulating practical knowledge, which were transmitted in the form of industrial experience in handicraft workshops and shops. There were many discoveries and finds supplied by half with mysticism and magic. The technical development process was expressed in the appearance and use of windmills, lifts for the construction of temples.

The new and extremely important phenomenon was to create non-church schools in the cities: these were private schools, financially independent of the church. From this time there is a quick distribution of literacy in the midst of the urban population. Urban non-church schools became foci of freight. Poetry has become a mouthpiece of such sentiment vagatov - Stray poets-Shkolearov, immigrants from the bottom. A feature of their creativity was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy, ignorance. Vaganti believed that these qualities, ordinary for a simple person, should not be inherent in the Holy Church. The church, in turn, was pursued and condemned Vagatants.

The most important monument of English literature XII century. - Famous ballads about Robin Hoodwho also remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.

Developed urban culture. The poetic novels depicted slutty and korestole-loving monks, stupid peasants-villas, cunning burghers ("Roman about the fox"). Urban art was powered by the peasant folklore and was distinguished by great integrity and organicity. It was on the city soil that appeared music and theater With their touching drags of church legends, instructive allegories.

The city contributed to the growth of the productive forces, which gave impetus to development natural science. English scientist-encyclopedist R. Konek (XIII century) believed that knowledge should rely on experience, and not on authorities. But the emerging rationalistic ideas were combined with the search for scientists-alchemists of the "Elixir of Life", "Philosophical Stone", with the aspirations of astrologers to predict the future on the movement of the planets. They were parallel to discovery in the field of natural sciences, medicine, astronomy. Scientific searches gradually contributed to the change in all parties to the life of a medieval society, prepared the emergence of "new" Europe.

For the culture of middle ages, it is characteristic:

Teocentrism and creationism;

Dogmatism;

Idea intolerance;

Sufficient renunciation of peace and thrust to the violent worldwide transformation of the world in accordance with the idea (Crusades)

Middle centuries cultureologists call a long period in the history of Western Europe between antiquity and new time. This period covers more than millennium from V to the XV century.

Folk culture This era is new and almost undelivered in science theme. The ideologists of the feudal society managed not only to push the people from the means of fixing his thoughts and sentiment, but also to deprive researchers of the next time the ability to restore the main features of his spiritual life. "The Great Some", "Great Missing", "People without archives and without persons" - so refer to modern historians people in the era, when direct access to the means of written fixation of cultural values \u200b\u200bwas closed. People's culture of the Middle Ages is not lucky in science. Usually, when they talk about it, they mention the most remnants of the ancient world and epic, remnants of paganism.

Early medieval - from the end of the IV century. The "great resettlement of peoples" began. Everywhere, where Rome's domination allowed deeper roots, "Romanization" captured all the fields of culture: the dominant language was Latin, the dominant right - the Roman law, the dominant religion - Christianity. The barbaric peoples who created their states the ruins of the Roman Empire were either in Roman or in a novel environment. However, it should be noted the crisis of the culture of an ancient world during the period of the invasion of the barbarians.

High (Classic) Middle Ages - At the first stage of the late feudalism (XI-XII century) craft, trade, urban life was weakly developed. The feudal-deranged feudal-deceased. In the classic period or high Middle AgesWestern Europe began to overcome difficulties and reborn. There is a so-called knightly literature. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic - "Song of Roland". During this period, the so-called "urban literature" is developing rapidly, for which it was characterized by a realistic image of the city's daily life of various layers of urban population, as well as the emergence of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Chekko Angeoli, Guido Orlandi (end of the XIII century).

Later Middle Ages The processes of formation of European culture began during the classics period. In these periods, uncertainty and fear of the masses. The economic climb is replaced by long recession periods and stagnation.

In the Middle Ages, a set of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental plants and behavior systems, which could be called "folk culture" or "folk religiousness", one way or another was the property of all members of society. The medieval church, with caustic and suspicion of the usual, faith and religious practice of simpleness, experienced their influence on themselves. The entire cultural life of the European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.

The term "mid-century" was introduced by humanists around 1500. So they denoted the millennium, separating them from the "Golden Age" of antiquity.

Medieval culture is divided by periods:

1. V c. AD - XI century. n. e. - Early Middle Ages.

2. End of VIII century. AD - Start IX century. N.E.- Caroling Revival.

Z. XI - XIII centuries. - Culture of mature medieval.

4. HIV-HU GR. - The culture of the late Middle Ages.

Medieval culture covers more than millennium and in socio-economic terms corresponds to the emergence, development and decomposition of feudalism. In this historically long-term sociocultural process of development of the feudal society, a peculiar type of human relationships to the world, qualitatively distinguishing him both from the culture of ancient society and from the subsequent culture of the new time.

The origins of the medieval culture should be denoted:

Culture of "barbaric" peoples of Western Europe (the so-called German beginning);

Cultural traditions of the Western Roman Empire (Romanesque Start: Powerful statehood, law, science and art);

One function was prevailed - trading, reviving old towns and created a little later the handicraft function. The city became a focus of the hated seniority of economic activity, which led to a certain extent to the migration of the population. From a variety of social elements, the city created a new society, contributed to the establishment of a new mentality concluded in the choice of life of an active, rational, and not contemplative. The flowering of urban mentality favored the emergence of urban patriotism. City society managed to create the values \u200b\u200bof aesthetic, cultural, spiritual, attached to the new impetus to the development of the medieval West.

The town hall focused on the business, the practical part associated with the city administration, and university lectures were read in the cathedral other than the worship service, theatrical performances (Mysteries) took place, sometimes a parliament took place in it. Many city cathedrals were so great that the entire population of the then city could not fill it. Cathedrals and Town Hall were built by order of city communes. Due to the high cost of building materials, the complexity of the work of the temples is sometimes erected for several centuries. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture.

In it, an active and contemplative life was looking for an equilibrium. Huge windows with colored glasses (stained glass) created a shimmering twilight. Massive semicircular arches were changed by fitted, rib. In combination with a complex reference system, it made it possible to make walls with light, openwork. Evangelical characters in the sculptures of the Gothic Temple acquire the elegance of court heroes, flirtary smiling and "sophisticated" suffering.

Gothic - The artistic style, mainly the architectural, which has achieved the greatest development in the construction of light pointed, directed by the upstream cathedrals with silicon crops and rich decorative decoration, was the top of the medieval culture. In general, it was the celebration of engineering thought and skills of shop artisans, the invasion of the Catholic Temple of the secular spirit of urban culture. Gothic is associated with the life of the medieval city-commune, with the fight of cities for independence from the feudal seen. Like Romanesque art, Gothic spread across Europe, the best of his creations were created in the cities of France.

From the liturgical books, chairs and psalters, intended mainly for the laity become the most common. The concept of space and perspective for the artist was absent, so the drawing is schematic, the composition is static. The beauty of the human body in medieval painting was not attached. The first place was the beauty of the spiritual, moral appearance of a person. The appearance of the naked body was considered sinful. Of particular importance in the appearance of a medieval person was attached to the face. The medieval era created the grand artistic ensembles, solved the gigantic architectural tasks, created new forms of monumental painting and plastics, and most importantly - was the synthesis of these monumental arts in which it was striving to pass the full picture of the world .

Studying and teaching sciences becomes craft, one of the many activities that specialized in urban life. The name of the University itself comes from the Latin Corporation. Indeed, universities were corporations of teachers and students. Development of universities with their traditions of disputes, as the main form of education and the movement of scientific thought, the appearance in the XII-XIII centuries. A large number of translation literature from Arabic and Greek became incentives of intellectual development of Europe.

Mysticism, which had a significant impact in the culture as a whole, is taken in Scholastics very carefully, only in connection with alchemy and astrology. Until HS in. Scholasticism was the only possible way of improving the intellect because science was subordinate to theology and served him. Scholastam belonged to the merit of the development of formal logic and a deductive way of thinking, and their method of knowledge was nothing more than the fruit of medieval rationalism. The most recognized from Scholastov, Thomas Aquinas, considered the science of the "servant of theology". Despite the development of scholasticism, it was universities that became centers of a new, non-religious culture.

The most important monument of English literature XII century. - Famous ballads about Robin Hoodwho also remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.

The city contributed to the growth of the productive forces, which gave impetus to development natural science. English scientist-encyclopedist R. Bacon (XIII century) believed that knowledge should rely on experience, and not on authorities. But the emerging rationalistic ideas were combined with the search for scientists-alchemists of the "Elixir of Life", "Philosophical Stone", with the aspirations of astrologers to predict the future on the movement of the planets. They were parallel to discovery in the field of natural sciences, medicine, astronomy. Scientific searches gradually contributed to the change in all parties to the life of a medieval society, prepared the emergence of "new" Europe.

For the culture of middle ages, it is characteristic:

Teocentrism and creationism;

Dogmatism;

Idea intolerance;

Sufficient renunciation of peace and thrust to the violent worldwide transformation of the world in accordance with the idea (Crusades)

· Introduction ................................................ 2

· Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality ............ .4

· Scientific culture in the Middle Ages ............. ...... 7

· Art culture of medieval Europe ....... ... .10

· Medieval music and theater .................. 16

· Conclusion ...............................................21

· List of literature used .................. .22

Introduction

Middle centuries cultureologists call a long period in the history of Western Europe between antiquity and new time. This period covers more than millennium from V to XV century.

Inside the millennial period of the Middle Ages, it is customary to allocate at least three periods. It:

Early medieval, from the beginning of the era to 900 or 1000 years (up to the X - XI centuries);

High (classic) Middle Ages. From the X-XI centuries to about the XIV century;

Later Middle Ages, the XIV and XV century.

Early Middle Ages - the time when stormy and very important processes occurred in Europe. First of all, it is the invasion of the so-called barbarians (from Latin Barba - beard), which already from the II century, our era constantly attacked the Roman Empire and settled on the lands of her provinces. These invasions ended in the fall of Rome.

New Western Europeans, as a rule, took Christianity , Which in Rome by the end of its existence was a state religion. Christianity in various forms gradually displaced the pagan beliefs throughout the Roman Empire, and this process did not cease this process after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.

The third essential process was the formation on the territory of the former Roman Empire of New State Education , The same "barbarians" created. Numerous Frankish, Germanic, Gothic and other tribes were in fact not so wild. Most of them have already had a beginnings of statehood, owned crafts, including agriculture and metallurgy, were organized on the principles of military democracy. Tribal leaders began to proclaim themselves with kings, dukes, etc., constantly fighting with each other and subjugate the weaker neighbors. At Christmas 800, the King of Frankov Karl The Great was crowned in Rome Catholic and as the emperor of the entire European West. Later (900), the Holy Roman Empire broke up into countless dukes, counties, markers, bishops, abbey and other goods. Their rulers behaved like quite sovereign owners, not counting the necessary to obey any emperors or kings. However, the processes of formation of state entities continued in subsequent periods. The characteristic feature of life in the early Middle Ages was constant robbery and emptying, which were subjected to residents of the Sacred Roman Empire. And these rabes and raids slowed down essentially economic and cultural development.

During the period of classic, or high medieval, Western Europe began to overcome these difficulties and reborn. Since the century, cooperation under the laws of feudalism made it possible to create larger state structures and collect enough strong armies. Due to this, it was possible to stop the invasion, significantly limit the robbery, and then go gradually in the offensive. In 1024, the Crusaders took the Eastern Roman Empire from the Byzantines, and in 1099 he captured the Holy Land from Muslims. True, in 1291, both were lost again. However, from Spain, the Maurians were expelled forever. In the end, Western Christians won domination over the Mediterranean Sea and His. Islands. Numerous missionaries brought Christianity in the kingdom of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, so these states entered into the orbit of Western culture.

Committed relative stability ensured the possibility of fast focus of cities and a pan-European economy. Life in Western Europe has changed much, society quickly lost the features of barbarism, spiritual life bloomed in the cities. In general, the European society has become much richer and civilized than during the time of the ancient Roman Empire. An outstanding role in this was played by the Christian Church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization. On the basis of the artistic traditions of the ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque came, and then brilliant Gothic art, and along with architecture and literature all other types were developed - theater, music, sculpture, painting, literature. It was in this era who were created, for example, such masterpieces of literature as "Song about Roland" and "Roman about Rose". It was especially important that during this period, Western European scientists were able to read the compositions of ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, especially Aristotle. On this basis, the Great Philosophical System of the Middle Ages -Sholasticism was originated and increased.

Later, the Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture, which began during the classics. However, their move was far from smooth. In the XIV - XV centuries, Western Europe has repeatedly experienced great hunger. Numerous epidemics, especially the bubonic plague ("Black Death"), also brought inexhaustible human sacrifices. Very slowed down the development of culture of the centenary war. However, in the end, the city was revived, craft, agriculture and trade were established. People who survived from Mora and War received the opportunity to arrange their lives better than in previous era. Fodal know, aristocrats, began to build magnificent palaces instead of locks as in their estates and in cities. New rich from the "low" classes imitated them in this by creating household comfort and the corresponding lifestyle. There were conditions for a new lift of spiritual life, science, philosophy, art, especially in northern Italy. This lift with the need led to the so-called revival or renaissance.

Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality

The most important feature of the medieval culture is the role of the Christian creed and the Christian church. In the conditions of universal decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was a dominant political institution, but even more significantly was the influence that the church provided directly to the consciousness of the population. In conditions of severe and scanty life, against the background of the extremely limited and most often of the most familiar knowledge about the world, Christianity offered people a slender system of knowledge about the world, about his device, about the forces acting in it and laws. Add to this emotional attractiveness of Christianity with its warmth, with a commonly significant preaching of love and all clear social dormitory standards (Decalog), with the romantic raise and ecstatic plot of the redemptive victim, finally, with a statement of equality of all without exception in the highest instance to At least approximately appreciate the contribution of Christianity to the worldview, in the picture of the world of medieval Europeans.

This picture of the world, entirely determining the mentality of believers of the villagers and citizens, was based mainly on the images and interpretations of the Bible. Researchers note that in the Middle Ages, the initial point of explanation of the world was complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, sky and land, souls and bodies.

Medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. In his consciousness, the world was seen as a peculiar Arena of the confrontation of the forces of heaven and hellish, good and evil. At the same time, the consciousness of people was deep magic, everyone was absolutely sure about the possibilities of miracles and perceived everything, as the Bible reported, literally. By successful expression of S. Averintsev, I read the Bible and listened to the Middle Ages as we read fresh newspapers today.

In the most general terms, the world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical logic as a symmetric scheme, reminiscent of two pyramid bases. The peak of one of them, the top - God. Below are tiers or levels of sacred characters: first the apostles are the most close to God, then the figures that are gradually removed from God and approach the earthly level - Archangels, angels and the like celestial creatures. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first dad and cardinals, then clearing lower levels, below their simple laity. Then further from God and closer to the ground, animals are placed, then plants and then the land itself, already completely inanimible. And then there is a mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with the "minus" sign, in the world, as if underground, in the rise of evil and intimacy to Satan. It is placed on the top of this second, the chtonic pyramid, speaking as a symmetric God, as if repeating it with the opposite sign (reflecting like a mirror) is a creature. If God is the personification of good and love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of evil and hatred.

Medieval European, including the highest strata of society, up to kings and emperors, was illuminated. The level of literacy and education even the clergy in the parishes was terribly low. Only by the end of the XV century the church realized the need to have educated personnel, began to open spiritual seminaries, etc. The level of education of the parishioners was generally minimal. The mass of the laity listened to semi-armed priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was for ordinary laity prohibited, its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible to the immediate perception of simple parishioners. To interpret it was allowed only to clergy. However, their education and literacy was in the mass, as mentioned, very low. Mass medieval culture is the culture of infantless, "Doguenenbergov". She relied not on the printed word, but for hersard sermons and exhortation. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, magic climbs.

At the same time, the meaning of the word written and especially sounding, in medieval culture was unusually large. Prayers, perceived functionally as spells, sermons, biblical plots, magical formulas - all this also formed medieval mentality. People are accustomed to hardly peering into the surrounding reality, perceiving it as a symbol system, as a system of symbols containing a supreme sense. These symbols of words had to be able to recognize and extract the divine meaning of them. This, in particular, explains many features of medieval artistic culture, designed to perceive in the space that, deeply religious and symbolic, verbally armed mentality. Even painting there was primarily a word, like the Bible itself. The word was universally suitable for everything, explained everything, hidden for all the phenomena as their hidden meaning. Therefore, for medieval consciousness, medieval mentality, culture primarily expressed meaning, the soul of man, brought the person to God, as it would have transferred into a different world, in an excellent earthly existence. And the space it looked as described in the Bible, the lives of the saints, the writings of the fathers of the Church and the sermons of priests. Accordingly, the behavior of the medieval Europeans was determined, all its activities.

Scientific culture in the Middle Ages

The Christian Church in the Middle Ages was completely indifferent to Greek and in general to pagan science and philosophy. The main problem that the Fathers of the Church tried to solve the knowledge of the knowledge of the "pagans", while determining the boundaries between the mind and faith. Christianity was forced to compete with the mind of the pagans, such as Hellenists, Romans, with the Jewish scholarship. But in this rivalry it should have strictly stay on a biblical basis. It can be remembered here that many fathers of the church had an education in the field of classical philosophy, not essentially to their Christian. The fathers of the Church perfectly realized that many rational and mystical systems contained in the works of pagan philosophers would greatly make it difficult to develop traditional Christian thinking and consciousness.

A partial solution to this problem was proposed in the V century St. Augustine. However, chaos, which occurred in Europe due to the invasion of the German tribes and the decline of the Western Roman Empire, pushed a serious debate on the role and admissibility of pagan rational science in the Christian society for seven centuries and only in the X-XI centuries after the conquest of Spain and Sicily conquering interest in the development of ancient Heritage. For the same reason, Christian culture was now capable of perceiving the original works of Islamic scientists. The result was an important movement, which included the collection of Greek and Arab manuscripts, transfer them to Latin and commenting. The West received this way not only the full case of the writings of Aristotle, but also the work of Euclidea and Ptolemy.

Universities emerged in Europe from the XII century became centers of scientific research, helping to establish an indisputable scientific authority of Aristotle. In the middle of the XIII century, Foma Akvinsky carried out the synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian doctrines. He emphasized the harmony of mind and faith, strengthening in this way the foundation of natural theology. But Tomist synthesis was not left without a response call. In 1277, after the death of Aquinat, the Archbishop of Paris declared unsuitable 219 of the claims of the Thomas contained in its writings. As a result, the nominal doctrine (W. Okkam) was developed. Nominalism, which sought to separate science from theology, became the cornerstone in the overridency of science and theology later, in the XVII century. More complete information about the philosophical culture of the European Middle Ages must be given in the course of philosophy. During the XIII and XIV centuries, European scientists seriously praised the fundamental foundations of Aristotel methodology and physics. British Franciscans Robert Grossetest and Roger Bacon introduced mathematical and experimental methods into science, and also contributed to the discussion about the vision and the nature of light and color. Their Oxford followers introduced quantitative, reasoning and physical approach through their studies of the accelerated movement. For La Mansha, in Paris, Jean Buridan and others became the concept of impulse, while invested a number of bold ideas in astronomy, which opened the doors for the Pantheism of Nicholas Kuzansky.

An important place in the scientific culture of the European Middle Ages was made by alchemy. Alchemy was devoted mainly to finding a substance that could turn ordinary metals in gold or silver and serve as a means of infinite extension of human life. Although its goals and used funds were very dubious and most often illusory, alchemy was in many ways the predecessor of modern science, especially chemistry. The first accuracy of European alchemy reached us belong to the English monk Roger Bacon and the German philosopher Albert Great. They both believed in the possibility of transmuting lower metals in gold. This idea hit the imagination, greed of many people, during all middle ages. They believed that gold was the most perfect metal, and lower metals are less perfect than gold. Therefore, they tried to make or invent a substance called a philosophical stone, which is perfect gold, and therefore can be used to improve lower metals to the level of gold. Roger Bacon believed that gold dissolved in the "royal vodka" (Aquaregia) is the elixir of life. Albert Great was the greatest practical chemist of his time. Russian scientist V. L. Rabinovich did a brilliant analysis of alchemy and showed that it was a typical product of medieval culture, combining the magical and mythological vision of the world with sober practicalism and an experimental approach.

Perhaps the most perhaps the paradoxical result of a medieval scientific culture is the emergence on the basis of scholastic methods and irrational Christian dogmakes of new principles of knowledge and training. Trying to find the harmony of faith and mind, combine irrational dogmas and experimental methods, thinkers in monasteries and spiritual schools gradually created a fundamentally new way to organize thinking - disciplinary. The most developed form of theoretical thinking of that time was theology.

It is theologicalists, discussing the problems of the synthesis of pagan rational philosophy and the Christian biblical principles, focused on the forms of activity and the transfer of knowledge, which were most effective and necessary for the emergence and formation of modern science: the principles of learning, evaluation, recognition of truth that are used in science and today. "Thesis, protection, dispute, title, network of citation, scientific apparatus, explanation with contemporaries using supports - references to predecessors, priority, prohibition of repeated plagiarism - all this appeared in the process of reproduction of spiritual frames, where the vow of celibacy forced the use of" foreign "For the spiritual profession, the younger generation."

The theology of medieval Europe in search of a new explanation of the world has been first focused on a simple reproduction of already known knowledge, but on the creation of new conceptual schemes that could combine such different, practically intact knowledge systems. This led to the emergence of a new paradigm of thinking - forms, procedures, installations, ideas, ratings, with the help of which participants in the discussions achieve mutual understanding. M. K. Petrov called this new paradigm disciplinary (Ibid.). He showed that medieval Western European theology gained all the characteristic features of future scientific disciplines. Among them - "The main set of disciplinary rules, procedures, requirements for the completed product, methods of reproduction of disciplinary frames". The vertex of these methods of reproduction of personnel and became a university, a system in which all the listed finds flourish and work. University as a principle as a specialized organization can be considered the greatest invention of the Middle Ages .

Artistic culture of medieval Europe.

Roman style.

The first independent, specifically European artistic style of medieval Europe was Romance, who are characterized by the art and architecture of Western Europe from about 1000 to the occurrence of Gothic, in most regions to about the second half and the end of the XII century, and in some and later. It arose as a result of the synthesis of residuals of Rome's artistic culture and barbaric tribes. At first, it was a great-romance style.

At the end of the great-romance period, the elements of the Romanesque style were mixed with Byzantine, with Middle Eastern, especially Syrian, who also came to Syria from Byzantium; With German, with Celtic, with the features of the styles of other northern tribes. Various combinations of these influences created in Western Europe many local styles, which received the common name Romanesque, in the meaning "in the manner of the Romans". Since the main number of preserved fundamentally important monuments of Gen-Romanesque and Romanesque style are architectural structures: various styles of this period often differ in architectural schools. Architecture The V-VIII centuries is usually simple, with the exception of buildings in Ravenna, (Italy), erected by Byzantine Regulations. The buildings were often created from elements seized from old Roman buildings, or decorated them. In many regions, such a style was a continuation of early Christian art. Round or polygonal cathedral churches, borrowed from the Byzantine architecture, were built during the romanian period;

later they were erected in Aquitain in the south-west of France and in Scandinavia. The most famous and best practiced samples of this type are the San Vitan Cathedral of the Byzantine Emperor of Justinian in Ravenna (526-548) and the octagonal palace chapel, built between 792 and 805, Karl's Great in Aa-Khalel (in the present time Aachen, Germany), straightly inspired by the Cathedral of San Vital. One of the creations of Caroling architects was an intestine, a multi-storey inlet facade, flanked by bell tower, which began to add to Christian Basilica. Sensors were prototypes of the facades of giant romance and gothic cathedrals.

Important buildings were also designed in the monastery style. Monasteries, the characteristic religious and social phenomenon of that era, demanded enormous buildings that combined both housing for monks and chapels, premises for prayers and services, libraries, workshops. Carefully worked out-of-romanesque monastery complexes were erected in Saint Galle (Switzerland), on the island of Raychenau (the German side of Lake Constance) and in Monte Cassino (Italy) by Benedictine monks.

An outstanding achievement of architects of the Romanesque period was the development of buildings with stone volts (arched, supporting structures). The main reason for the development of stone arches was the need to replace easily inflammed wooden floors of the Ga Romanesque buildings. The introduction of volt structures led to universal use of heavy walls and pillars.

Sculpture. Most Romanesque sculptures were integrated into church architecture and served both structural, constructive and aesthetic purposes. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about a romance sculpture, not touching church architecture. A small sculpture of the romance era of bone, bronze, gold was manufactured under the influence of Byzantine models. Other elements of numerous local styles were borrowed from crafts of the Middle East countries, known thanks to imported illustrated manuscripts, carved bone products, gold subjects, ceramics, tissues. Motives originating from the arts of migrating peoples, such as grotesque figures, monster images, intertwining geometric patterns, especially in the districts of the north of the Alps, were also important. Large-scale stone sculpted scenery became ordinary in Europe only in the XII century. In the French romance cathedrals of Provence, Burgundy, Aquitaine, many figures were located on the facades, and the statues on the columns emphasized the vertical supporting elements.

Painting. Existing Romanesque painting samples include decorations of architectural monuments, such as columns with abstract ornaments, as well as decorating walls with images of hanging fabrics. Picturesque compositions, in particular narrative scenes on biblical plots and from the life of the saints, were also depicted on the wide surfaces of the walls. In these compositions, which predominantly follow the Byzantine painting and mosaic, the figures are stylized and flat, so that they are perceived more like symbols than as realistic images. Mosaic, just like painting, was mostly by the Byzantine reception and was widely used in the architectural design of Italian Romanesque churches, especially in the Cathedral of St. Mark (Venice) and in the Sicilian churches in Cefalu and Montreal.

Decorative art . Pra-Romanesque artists reached the highest level in illustrating manuscripts. In England, an important school of illustrating manuscripts arose already in the VII century in Holi Island (Lindisfarn). The works of this school, exposed in the British Museum (London), are characterized by the geometric weave of patterns in capital letters, the whole pages that are called carpets are thickly covered. Paints of capital letters are often enlivened by grotesque figures of people, birds, monsters.

Regional schools illustrating manuscripts in South and Eastern Europe developed various specific styles, which is noticeable, for example, by copy of the Apocalypse Beat (Paris, the National Library), manufactured in the middle of the XI century in the San North Monastery in Northern France. At the beginning of the XII century, illustrating manuscripts in the northern countries has gained general features just as the same happened at that time with sculpture. In Italy, the Byzantine influence continued to dominate both in miniature painting and in wall paintings, and in mosaic.

Pra-Romanesque and Romanesque metal processing - A widespread form of art - was used mainly to create church utensils for religious rituals. Many of these works to this day are kept in the treasures of large cathedrals outside of France; The French cathedrals were robbed during the French Revolution. Other metal products of this period - early Celtic filigree jewelry and silver items; Late articles of German grasses and silver things, inspired by bridal mobby metal products, as well as wonderful enamels, especially the partitioned and lavetled, made in the areas of the Moselle and Rhine rivers. Two famous metal masters were Roger from Gelmar-Schausen, Germany, famous for its bronze products and French enamer Godfru de Cler.

The most famous example of the Romanesque Textile Work is the embroidery of the XI century, called "tapestry from Baia". Other samples are preserved, such as church vestments and drapery, but the most valuable fabrics in Romanesque Europe were imported from the Byzantine Empire, Spain and the Middle East and are not products of local masters.

Gothic art and architecture

For a change of Romanesque style, as cities and improving public relations are heard, a new style came - Gothic. In this style, religious and secular buildings, sculpture, stained glass, illustrated manuscripts and other works of fine art have become executed in Europe, which is the second half of the middle ages.

Gothic art arose in France around 1140 spread throughout Europe over the next century and continued to exist in Western Europe during almost the entire XV century, and in some regions of Europe and the XVI century. Initially, the word Gothic was used by the authors of the Italian Renaissance as a derogatory label for all forms of architecture and the art of the Middle Ages, which were considered comparable only with the works of Varvarov-ready. Later, the use of the term "Gothic" was limited by a period of late, high or classic medieval, directly following Romanesque. Currently, the Gothic period is considered one of the issues in the history of European artistic culture.

The main representative and expressive of the Gothic period was architecture. Although the huge number of monuments of Gothic were secular, Gothic style served primarily the church, the most powerful builder in the Middle Ages, which ensured the development of this new architecture for that time and reached its complete implementation.

The aesthetic quality of gothic architecture depends on its structural development: ribbed vaults have become a characteristic feature of the Gothic style. Medieval churches had powerful stone arches that were very heavy. They sought to run out, push out the walls. It could lead to the collapse of the building. Therefore, the walls should be thick enough and heavy to keep such vaults. At the beginning of the XII century, bricklayers have developed ribbed vaults, which included slender stone arches, located diagonally, across and longitudinally. A new arch, which was thinner, is easier and universal (as he could have many sides), made it possible to solve many architectural problems. Although the early-gothic churches allowed wide variation of the forms, when the series of large cathedrals in Northern France, which began in the second half of the XII century, were fully used the advantages of a new Gothic arch. Architects of cathedrals found that now external sawing efforts from the arches are concentrated in narrow areas at the joints of the ribs (ribs), and therefore they can be easily neutralized with the help of counterphorts and external arches-Arkbutans. Consequently, the thick walls of Romanesque architecture could be replaced by more subtle, which included extensive window openings, and the interiors were obtained unparalleled until the lighting. In construction business, therefore a real revolution occurred.

With the arrival of the Gothic arch changed both design, form and layout and interiors of cathedrals. Gothic cathedrals have gained the overall nature of ease, aspiration to swell, have become much more dynamic and expressive. The first of the big cathedrals was the Cathedral of the Paris Mother of God (started in 1163). In 1194, the Cathedral was laid in Chartres, which is considered to be the beginning of a high gothic period. The culmination of this era was the Cathedral in Reims (started in 1210). Rather, cold and all-facing in their exactly balanced proportions, the Reims Cathedral is the moment of classical peace and serenity in the evolution of gothic cathedrals. Openwork partitions, the characteristic feature of the architecture of late Gothic, was the invention of the first architect of the Reims Cathedral. Fundamentally new interior decisions were found by the author of the Cathedral in Bourges (started in 1195). The influence of French Gothic quickly spread to the whole of Europe: Spain, Germany, England. In Italy, it was not so strong.

Sculpture. Following the Romanescent traditions, in numerous niches on the facades of the French gothic cathedrals, it was placed as decorations a huge amount of figures carved from the stone, personified dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church. Gothic sculpture in the XII and early XIII century was mostly architectural in its nature. The largest and most important figures were placed in openings on both sides of the entrance. Since they were attached to the columns, they were known as statues columns. Along with the statues of the columns, freely standing monumental statues were widespread, the form of art, unknown in Western Europe with Roman times. The earliest of the column statues in the western portal of the Chartres Cathedral. They were still in the old pre-Gothic cathedral and date back to about 1155. Slender, cylindrical figures repeat the shape of the columns to which they were attached. They are made in a cold, strict linear romanesque style, which nevertheless gives the figures an impressive character of purposeful spirituality.

Since 1180, Romanesque stylization begins to move to a new one when the statues acquire the feeling of grace, tortuousness and freedom of movement. This is the so-called classic style reaches the culmination in the first decades of the XIII century in large series of sculptures on the portals of the Northern and South Transports of the Chartres Cathedral.

The emergence of naturalism. Since 1210, on the coronational portal of the Cathedral of the Paris's Mother of God and after 1225, on the Western Portal of the Amiens Cathedral, which produces Ryani's impression, the classic features of the designs of the surfaces begin to give place to more stringent volumes. The statues of the Reims Cathedral and in the interior of the Saint-Chapel Cathedral exaggerated smiles, the almond-shaped eyes are emphasized, located beams on the small heads of curls and mannered postures produce a paradoxical impression of the synthesis of naturalistic forms, delicate affecting and thin spirituality.

Medieval music and theater

Medieval music Wears the advantage of spiritual nature and is a necessary component of the Catholic Mass, at the same time, in the early Middle Ages, secular music is being taken.

The first important form of secular music was the bencerbadurov in Provencal. Starting from the XI century, the troubadur songs of more than 200 years retain influence in many other countries, especially in the north of France. The top of the art of Trubadurov was achieved about 1200 g. Bernard de Pentador, Giro de Bournel Folk de Marsela. Bernard is famous for its three texts about undivided love. Some of the poetic forms anticipate the Ballad of the XIV century with its three stans from 7 or 8 lines. Others tell about the Crusaders or discuss any love trifles. Pastorals in numerous stanas are transmitted banal stories about knights and cowrs. Dance songs, such as Rondo and Varelese, are also in their repertoire. All this monophonic music could sometimes have an accompaniment on a string or spiritual instrument. So it was until the XIV century, while secular music did not become polyphonic.

Medieval theater. Ironically, the theater in the form of a liturgical drama was revived in Europe by the Roman Catholic Church. When the church was looking for ways to expand its influence, she often adapts the pagan and folk holidays, many of which contained theatrical elements. In the century, many church holidays provided the possibility of dramatization: generally speaking, the Mesa itself is nothing more than drama.

Certain holidays were famous for their theatricality, such as the procession to the church in Palm Sunday. Anti-pound or question-responding, chants, mass and canonical choralas are dialogues. In the 9th century, antipheral chimes, known as trails, were included in the complex of musical elements Mass. Three-haired trails (dialogue between three Mary and Angels at the grave of Christ) of the Unknown author about 925 are considered a source of liturgical drama. In 970, an instruction or manual for this small drama appeared, including the elements of the costume and gestures.

Religious drama or wonderful plays. Over the next two hundred years, the liturgical drama slowly developed, absorbing various biblical stories that played by priests or boys from the choir. At first, church vestments and existing architectural details of churches were used as costumes and scenery, but more ceremonial details of the design were invented. As the liturgical drama develops, many biblical topics were consistently presented in it, as a rule, depicting scenes from the creation of the world before the crucifixion of Christ. These plays were called differently - Passion (Passion), Miracle (Miracles), Saints Pieces. The appropriate scenery climbed around the church neopa, usually with heaven in the altar and with the hellish mouth - a skillfully made monster's head with a wounded mouth, personified the entrance to hell - at the opposite end of the nef. Therefore, all the scenes of the plays could be represented simultaneously, and the participants of the action moved along the church from one place to another depending on the scenes.

The plays obviously consisted of episodes, covered literally millennial periods, transferred an action to a wide variety of places and represented the situation and spirit of various times, as well as the allegory. Unlike the Greek antique tragedy, which clearly focused on creating prerequisites and conditions for catharsis, the medieval drama did not always show conflicts and tension. Her goal was dramatized the salvation of human race.

Although the church supported the early liturgical drama in its didactic quality, entertainment and entertainment increased and began to prevail, and the church began to express suspicion to the drama. Not wanting to lose beneficial effects of the theater, the church went on a compromise, making dramatic representations from the walls of the church temples themselves. The same real design began to be recreated on the market squares of cities. Keeping your religious content and focus, the drama has become much more secular in its statement.

Medieval secular drama. In the XIV century, theatrical performances were associated with the feast of the Body of Christ and developed in cycles, which included up to 40 pieces. Some scientists believe that these cycles developed independently, although at the same time as a liturgical drama. They appeared for the community for a whole four-five-year period. Each statement could last one or two days and put once a month. The production of each play was financed by any workshop or trading guild, and they usually tried to associate a specialization of the workshop with the subject of the play - for example, the shop of shipbuilders could have placed on it. Since the performers were often illiterate lovers, the anonymous writings of the Pieces sought to write easily memorable primitive verses. In accordance with medieval worldview, historical accuracy was often ignored, and the logic of causal relationships was not always observed.

Realism was used in the formulations selectively. Pieces are full of anachronism, references to purely local and known contemporaries; The realities of time and place were given only to minimal attention. Costumes, furnishings and utensils were completely modern (medieval European). Something could be depicted ultra - preserved reports about how the actors almost died due to too realistic execution of crucifixions or hanging, and about the actors who, playing the devil, literally burned. On the other hand, the episode with the retreat of the Red Sea waters could be denoted by a simple embroider of red fabric on the Egyptian pursuers as a sign that the sea absorbed them.

A free mixture of real and symbolic did not prevent medieval perception. The spectacles and folk plays were raised everywhere, where only possible, and the hellish mouth was usually a favorite object of the application forces for masters of mechanical wonders and pyrotechnics. Despite the religious content of the cycles, they increasingly become entertainment. The three main form of productions were used. In England, the most ordinary were carnival wagons. Former church scenery replaced carefully developed by mobile scenes, such as small modern vessels, which moved in the city from place to place. The audience gathered in every such place: the performers worked on the playgrounds of the carts, or on the stage built on the streets. In Spain, they did also. In France, synchronous productions were used - various scenery climbed one after another on the sides of the long, elevated quarrel in front of the audience. Finally, again in England, the plays was sometimes raised "lying" - on a round pad, with scenery located in the circumference of the arena and the audience, sitting or standing between the scenery.

Pieces morality. At the same period, folk plays appeared, secular farms and pastorals mostly anonymous authors who persistently retained the nature of worldly entertainment. All this influenced the evolution of plays-morality in the XV century. Although written on the topics of Christian theology with the relevant characters, morality were not like cycles, because they did not represented episodes from the Bible. They were allegorical, self-sufficient drama and performed their professionals, such as minstrels or juggles. Pieces, such as "Man" ("Everyman"), usually interpreted the life path of the individual. Among the allegoric characters there were such figures like death, gluttony, good deeds and other vices and virtues.

These plays are difficult and boring for modern perception: the rhymes of the verses are repeated, the character of improvisation, the play is two or three times longer than the dram of Shakespeare, and the morality is declared straight and edify. However, performers, inserting music and action in presentation and using the comic capacity of numerous characters of defects and demons, created the form of a folk drama.

Conclusion

So, the Middle Ages in Western Europe is the time of intense spiritual life, complex and difficult searching for worldview structures that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of the preceding millennia. In this era, people were able to reach a new cultural development road, other than previously knew. Trying to reconcile faith and mind, building a picture of the world on the basis of the knowledge available to him and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban lifestyle, a new economy, prepared the consciousness of people to apply mechanical appliances and equipment. Contrary to the opinion of the thinking of Italian revival, the Middle Ages left us the most important achievements of spiritual culture, including the institutions of scientific knowledge and education. Among them should be called primarily university as a principle. There was, in addition, a new paradigm of thinking, the disciplinary structure of knowledge without which modern science would be impossible, people would have the opportunity to think and know the world much more efficiently than before. Even fantastic recipes of alchemists played their role in this process of improving spiritual means of thinking, the overall level of culture.

As it is impossible, the image proposed by M. K. Petrov is more successful: it compared the medieval culture with construction forests. It is impossible to build a building without them. But when the building is completed, the forests are removed, and you can only guess how they looked and how they were arranged. Medieval culture in relation to our, modern, played exactly the role of such forests:

without it, Western culture would not arise, although the medieval culture itself was mainly not like her. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the historical cause of such a strange name for this long and important era of the development of European culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

· Gurevich A. Ya. Medieval world; Culture of the silent majority. M., 1990.

· Petrov M. K. Socio-cultural grounds for the development of modern science. M., 1992.

· Radugin A.A. Cultural Science: Tutorial. M., 1999.