Communication of values \u200b\u200band cultural norms. Cultural traditions, values, norms

Value is understood as a generally accepted norm formed in a certain culture, which sets samples and standards of behavior and influences the choice between possible behavioral alternatives.

T. Parsons noted that value is an idea of \u200b\u200bdesirable, affecting the choice of behavioral alternative. However, it should be noted that culture does not consist only of positive values, it includes the abnormative aspects of folklore, literature, music, as well as technological and other skills; Secondly, value and recognized behavioral samples may not coincide, for example, prostitution in a number of cultures is a recognized sample of behavior, but is not value.

The problem of values \u200b\u200bis quite deeply designed in philosophy and sociology, anthropology and psychology (E. Durkheim, P. A. Sorokin, T. Parsons, etc.). In Western cultural anthropology, there are two polar theories. One of them is relativistic, which deny the possibility of an objective analysis of the value structures of various societies and considering value systems as relative. Another (opposite) theory is an antireelitivistic positivism, approving the possibility of studying the value structures from the position of objective science.

What is the role of the value component in the life of people? Cultural life without values \u200b\u200bis impossible, as they attach the society the necessary degree of order and predictability. Through the system of values \u200b\u200baccumulated in culture, human activity is carried out.

"Decided by their meaningful aspects, all phenomena of human interaction become simply biophysical phenomena and in such an capacity form the subject of biophysical sciences," said Sorokin Pitirim. And indeed, all these cultural phenomena created by people, all these works, mechanisms and things, deprived of the value components, become simply piles of paper, metal or marble, tons of fenced paint or pieces of matter. And then they can be the subject of physics, chemistry or biology that study their structure, structure or properties, but not social or humanities.

According to P. A. Sorokina, it is the value that serves as the foundation of any culture. Depending on which value dominates, it divides all cultural supersystems for 3 types:

1) ideal;

2) sensual;

3) idealistic.

If an ideological culture prevails, God and faith become the highest value, and sensual worldHis riches, joys and values \u200b\u200bare formed indifferent or negative attitude.

In sensual culture, the value of feelings prevails. The meaning has only what we see, hear, touches. The formation of it begins in the XVI century. And reaches its apogee by the middle of the XX century. Values \u200b\u200bof religion, morality, other values \u200b\u200bof ideal culture acquire relative nature: they are either denied or completely indifferent to them. In such a culture, knowledge becomes equivalent to the empirical knowledge represented by natural sciences; They displacing religion, theology and even philosophy.

The idealistic cultural system, according to P. A. Sorokina, is intermediate between ideal and sensual. Her values \u200b\u200bare the values \u200b\u200bof the mind, rationalizing the objective reality, which is partly suspicious, and partly sensual.

In an ordinary consciousness, the concept of "value" is usually associated with the evaluation of human activity and public relations from the point of view of good and evil, truth and lies, beauty or disgrace, permissible or forbidden, fair or unfair, etc. It occurs from the position of its culture, therefore, its own system of values \u200b\u200band is perceived as "genuine" as the report point for good and bad.

The cultural science comes from an understanding that the value of the whole world of culture is that the value systems of various cultures are equal, that there is no culture with its or someone else, but there is one and other and that the world is more resistant than diverse.

What is the basis of the universal and specific value in nature? There is a huge difference between how values \u200b\u200bare perceived different people Different cultures. This perception depends on their ideas of individual or group installations.

There is no culture, where they would not have a negative murder, lie or theft, although there are differences in ideas about the boundaries of tolerance to lies and theft (in some cultures, the hand is cut off as a punishment, in others - deprive of freedoms).

Values \u200b\u200bcommon everywhere and the same or very similar in content are absorbed by all cultures as a necessary part; They are eternal and mandatory for all societies and individuals. But "dressed" these values \u200b\u200binto specific cultural "clothing", i.e., the configuration of the value system, the ratio and interaction of elements inside it are products of a particular culture.

How do values \u200b\u200bchange? What factors affect this? From time to time, in one or another culture there are concerns that the substitution of "their" values \u200b\u200b"others may occur. So, today, great concern is manifested in connection with the "Americanization" of Russian culture.

Values \u200b\u200bboth at the level of personality and at the level of society are exposed in the crisis situation (individual or group - death, fire, disaster) or conflict (family, military, social, political, etc.). E. Durkheim introduced the concept of "Anomy", denoting the state of the value-regulatory vacuum characteristic of transitional and crisis periods and states in the development of society, when old social norms and values \u200b\u200bcease to act, and the new ones have not yet been established. "The former gods are aging or dying, and the new ones were not born" (E. Durkheim, Sociology). This state describes Johan Hasing in the "Autumn of the Middle Ages", representing the picture of the suffering and conflict of the conflict of the values \u200b\u200bof a leaving culture and occurrence as a result of new forms of socio-cultural reality.

Japan was, may be the only exception in the modern world, where the spirit of a holistic worldview, which formed in a slow medieval and reflected in traditional artistic creativity, did not turn out to be an ousted scientific and technological revolution and mass culture.

Meanwhile, the values \u200b\u200bof any culture cannot be changed neither evidence of their insolvency, nor a demonstration of more attractive values. "Mutation" of values \u200b\u200boccurs relatively slowly even with a targeted powerful effect, and they only disappear along with the disappearance of the culture itself.
2. What is "sign" and "symbol" in culture

As you know, culture, starting with the organization, order, ritual, streamlines (structures) the world around him.

When it comes to symbols, about signs, the question always arises: a sign - what, a symbol - what? This question means that it is possible to reveal the meaning of these concepts only if analyzing their attitude to something third, to the original that may not have (and most often does not have) anything common in physical, chemical and other properties with a carrier reflections.

Human culture begins there and then where and when the ability of consciousness to symbolization appears. Signs and symbols, wrote Ernst Cassier, "belong to two different discursive universes: Signal (E. Cassirer uses this term as a synonym for a sign) physical world Genesis, the symbol is part human World values. The symbol is not only universal, but also changeable. The sign, or signal, relate to the thing to which they refer.

So, the sign is a material subject (phenomenon, event), acting as an objective deputy of some other object, properties or relationships and used to purchase, storing, processing and transmitting messages (information, knowledge).

The symbol is one of the most meaningful concepts in culture. The initial meaning of this word is an identity card that SIMBOLON served - half a shard, formerly a guest tablet. Symbol in culture - universal, multi-valued category, revealing through the comparison of the object image and deep meaning. Turning to the symbol, the image becomes "transparent", the meaning seems to be shifted through it. "I call the symbol of all the structure of the value," wrote Paul Ricker, "where the direct, primary, literal meaning means at the same time, and another, indirect, secondary, allegorical meaning, which can only be understood through the first. This circle of expressions with a double meaning is the actual hermeneutic field. "

The daily life of a person is filled with symbols and signs that regulate his behavior, solving or prohibiting, personifying and filling with meaning.

In symbols and signs manifests itself as an external "I" of a person and an inner "I", the unconscious, given to him from nature. K. Levi-Strauss claimed that he found the way from characters and signs to the unconscious structure of the mind and, consequently, to the structure of the Universe. The unity of man and the universe is one of the most ancient and mysterious those in culture.

Approaching the riddle, however, only increases its mysteriousness. But this is a feeling of mysteriousness and is "the most beautiful and deep experience falling out to the share of a person." This experience, according to A. Einstein, is the basis of religion and all the deepest trends in art and science. The one who has not experienced this feeling seems to him "if not a dead, then in any case blind." Mysterious color, sound, word, number, mysteriously what they reflect the phenomena of nature and human consciousness.
3. MENUES, CODES AND UNIVERSESSIONS CULTURE

The meanings of culture is the content that cannot be expressed directly and definitely. The meaning can be understood as something that provides universal adhesion of the values \u200b\u200bof the signs of this language. The meanings have several levels:

1) The most superficial level of meaning is the so-called common sense. This meaning has already appeared at the level of consciousness, rationalized and generally accepted. It coincides with the value and is expressed by the verbal (verbal) method;

2) the in-depth level of meaning is unmanifested content, a binder of a person with the world of values, laws, samples of the behavior of this culture. If all the cultural phenomena is considered as communications as messages, then they can be understood only in correlation with some intermediary, because the connection of the iconic systems with reality reflected by them is not immediate. Therefore, a system of special senseless signs - codes of culture is necessary.

The very concept of "code" appeared for the first time in communication technology (telegraph code, Morse code), in computing technology, mathematics, cybernetics, genetics ( genetic code). At the same time, the code is understood as a set of signs and a system of certain rules, with which information can be represented as a set of these signs for transmission, processing and storage.

Code - model Rules for the formation of a number of specific messages. All codes can be compared among themselves based on a common code, simpler and comprehensive. Messages, cultural text can be opened with different readings depending on the code used. The code allows you to penetrate the semantic level of culture, without knowledge of the code, the cultural text will be closed, incomprehensible, unprified. A person will see a system of signs, and not a system of values \u200b\u200band meanings.

The main culture code must have the following characteristics:

1) self-sufficiency for production, transmission and saving human culture;

2) openness to changes;

3) versatility.

In doolympic cultures the most important cultural code Provided the name system. For primitive person, the action with objects were equivalent to actions with words, and therefore the name was an essential part of it. In his presentation, personal names must be saved and stored in secret, because the enemy can be magical by influencing it through the name. There was a very common phenomenon when each man, a woman or child of a tribe, except the name that was used in everyday use, also had secret names, famous for elders and dedicated. The same custom has been preserved in later times, for example, in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians had two names: True (or large) and kind (or small). The first was kept in the deepest secret, the second was known to everyone.

This type of taboin in the name is due to the fact that the name really reflected the sociocultural significance and position of the person in this society, since the Names system was a mechanism for coding and renewing culture when the name is the name itself, and not a label; Through a name, it is possible to carry out real manipulations with the subject.

Cultural universals are concepts expressing the features of cultural phenomena, which are found in any cultures: ancient and new, small and large. They express those characteristics of cultural experience that are significant for any culture (fire, water, laughter, tears, work, male \u003d feminine, etc.).
Lecture number 3. Methods of cultural studies

It should be noted that there is no universal method used to solve any tasks in science. Each of the methods has its advantages, but also has its drawbacks and can only be solved by the appropriate scientific issues. Hence the choice of the right method and is one of the important tasks of any science. The complexity of the subject of cultural studies, as well as its rich interpresentation with other sciences, led to a variety of methods used in it to study the phenomenon of culture in all aspects.

It is the difference methodological foundations And determines the presence of different approaches. You can highlight the following main groups of approaches.

Genetic approach. Here, culture is understood from the point of view of its occurrence and development. In other words, this is the principle of scientific historicism, without which an objective analysis of culture is impossible. This approach allows you to trace the development of culture from the moment of emergence and to the present.

Comparative approach. With this approach, a relatively historical analysis of different cultures or any specific areas of culture can be carried out at a certain time interval. At the same time, similar elements of different crops are usually compared, which makes it possible to show the specifics of these cultures.

According to the domestic tradition of the XX century, the study of culture happened within philosophical thoughtwhich sought to develop a systematic approach to the analysis of culture as a social phenomenon. As a result, we have a philosophical substitution of culture when its essence is considered as a universal property of society.

Activity approach. As part of this approach, two directions arose in Russia. Representatives of the first direction (N. V. Zlobin, P. D. Kogan) believe that culture is a process of creative activity. During this process, there is a spiritual enrichment of society and self-consciousness of a person as a subject of the cultural and historical process. His supporters say that culture is the second, creative, man's birth.

Representatives of the second direction (E. S. Markaryan, "Essence of Culture", Yu. A. Zhdanov, V. E. Davydovich, etc.) see in culture special way Activities. "Culture is a process and a result of human activity. It acts as a certain basis for research and local, and historical types of cultures and for the ratio of culture and civilization "(E. S. Markaryan).

The study of the issue "Culture and Values" requires other methodological foundations, and an axiological approach is used here. Culture includes those methods with which a person approves its existence in the world. The purpose of cultural activity is to preserve homo Sapiens.This goal determines the main value of man.

Thus, the person and human race act in this approach with absolute cultural value.

An axiological approach is due to two circumstances:

1) Not all social phenomena are included in the world of culture;

2) the opposite of culture and nature.

Female approach. This approach understands culture as an objective phenomenon associated with the functioning of the social system. It is a culture that gives public association with systemic quality. But precisely thanks to the society, the culture acquires the state of the current existence. There is no society - there is no culture, there is no culture - no society. Culture and society act as identical concepts, as a result of which all subsystems of society act as the cultural subsystems. This is this circumstance and gives the basis for the separation of culture on the material and spiritual. Material culture represents the technological side of being and corresponds to the economic subsystem. Spiritual culture corresponds to the ideological subsystem.

Since society consists of individuals, from large and small groups, the third subsystem of culture is distinguished, which includes the types of individual and collective behavior. This approach is presented in the works of L. White.

Anthropological approach. Its formation began in the works of early evolutionists (Spencer, E. B. Tyllor " Primitive culture"). Evolutionists are characterized by the absolutization of continuity of processes.

As part of the anthropological approach, a cultural and anthropological approach was formed. It is represented by the works of B. K. Malinovsky, K. Levi-Strauss, E. Fromma. As part of the cultural and anthropological approach, a number of areas were formed: structuralism, functionalism and some others. Malinovsky outlined the following positions of functionalism:

1) Each culture is integrity;

2) each society, custom or rite, worship or beliefs perform an important function for culture;

3) To preserve the culture, each element is indispensable.

In modern Western cultural studies, a sociological approach was disseminated (P. A. Sorokin). The purpose of this approach is to use system analysis culture by comparing it with others social phenomena. Here the concept of culture covers not the whole life of society.

Structuralistic approach. His representatives: K. Levi-Strauss, M. Foucault. According to this approach main question Cultural Studies - studying the transition from nature to culture and the use of the theory of structural linguistics.

Gaming approach. Representatives: J. Hasing, S. Lem and many others. According to this approach, culture occurs in the form of the game, the culture is initially played. And even the types of activities that are directly aimed at meeting life needs, such as hunting, in archaic society seek to find a game form for themselves. Community Life is taught in the cover of the surgical forms, which give it the highest value through the game. In these games, society expresses its interpretation of life and peace. All this should not be understood that the game becomes (turning) by culture, but rather so that culture in its original phases has the character of the game, is carried out in the form of the game and is imbued with its mood.

J. Hasing identifies the game and culture in the early stages of history. The gaming nature of culture is manifested in many stages of culture: in poetry, myths, rites. In more developed cultures, archaic representations are preserved longer, by virtue of which the poetic form is not at all perceived as aesthetic need. In this concept, J. Hasing attaches great importance to the game side of culture in a wide variety of civilizations.

The opinion of J. Heising about culture as a game had an impact on culturalology. S. Lem put forward the culture-game model. From his point of view, culture has free space With regard to nature. According to him, the difference between civilizations is due to the fact that the culture and nature "play". In addition, it should be borne in mind that nature acts as "perturbation arena". It is the gaming character of culture that allows a person to develop models of his behavior to survive.

Regulatory approach in the interpretation of culture considers culture as a totality social institutionsbinding value system. At the same time, the approach remains an intractable personality problem. Personality exists within the social system, which absorbs her freedom, regulates the right to choose value orientations.

Semiotic or sign approach. His representatives - E. Kassirer, Yu. M. Lotman ("Culture and Explosion"). Culture is seen as a symbolic system. In the works of representatives of this approach, focus on the iconic interpretation of culture.

Biosphere approach. If we consider our planet as a holistic system, then an attempt to understand culture from a biosphere point of view is legitimate. Conrad Lorenz in his book "On the other side of the mirror" declares that the subject of evolution is a holistic system. More complex systems have properties that are unsecurbed with the properties of systems from which they consist.

Speaking about the approaches to culture and methods of cultural research, it is impossible not to notice two more methods.

Dialog method. This method originates from Socrates. Supporters of him argue the idea of \u200b\u200bnot only the uniqueness of cultures, but also the principle of their interaction. Culture is a form of simultaneous being and communication of people of various (past, present and future) cultures, a form of dialogue and mutual relations of these cultures. V. S. Biblel believed that the time of communication of cultures is a present, the specific form of such communication is a work. "The work is a form of communication of individuals in the horizon of communicating individuals, the form of communication of individuals as various cultures."

"Culture in their works allows us to - the author and reader - as if to re-generate the world, the existence of objects, people, their own being from the plane of the canvas, chaos of paints, rhythms of verse, philosophical began, the moments of moral catharsis."

V. S. Biblel understands the work as a phenomenon of culture and culture as a sphere of the work.

Synergistic approach. The essence of it is able to understand the unity of the modern world. The basic concepts of synergetics are instability, linearity and nonlinearity, chaos and deterministic chaos. These concepts underlie the synergistic paradigm.

"Cultural Science: Lecture Summary"

Value orientations. Culture is a set of values \u200b\u200band value orientations, ways to create and consumption. Therefore, the invaluable role of values \u200b\u200bin culture has no doubt about the culture. In cultural studies it is difficult to do without the concept of "value". Moreover, the most often culture as a social phenomenon is determined precisely through value orientations. The authors of the sociological study "Youth of Germany and Russia" consider: "The value orientations are a relatively sustainable socially determined electoral attitude of the person to the aggregate of material and spiritual public goods, cultural phenomena, which are considered as a subject, goals and means serving to meet the needs of the human life," ("Youth of Germany and Russia." Sociological research. M., 1994). Each person is a carrier of certain values, they form a certain system of which there is a lot of human behavior in one situation or another

The value for a person is everything that has certain significance for him, personal or social character. "The value is a positive or negative value of the objects of the surrounding world for a person, class, group, society as a whole, which are not determined by their properties by themselves, and their involvement in the sphere of human livelihoods, interests and needs, social relationship; Criterion and method for assessing this importance, expression in moral principles and norms, ideals, installations, purposes "

Cultural values \u200b\u200bare objects of material and spiritual activities of a person who have publicly useful properties and characteristics, thanks to which the various needs of people can be satisfied. Value is understood as a generally recognized norm formed in a certain culture, which sets samples and standards and influences the choice between possible behavioral alternatives, allows polarity of solutions, which indicates an ambivalent, dual nature of value. Values \u200b\u200bhelp a person and society to determine the good and bad, beautiful and ugly, substantial and secondary. The priority of certain values \u200b\u200breflects the degree of human spirituality.

Human values \u200b\u200bsuggest, above all, the understanding of the unity of the human race. There are such absolutes that are significant for the whole human kind, without them the unity of humanity would not be so total. Christianity made a tremendous coup in understanding universal connections, Proclaiming the commandment: "Love your neighbor, like yourself." From now on, each person is sorted by another, the universal proximity is strengthened between people, based on a single belonging to the human race.

bescheloval values \u200b\u200bsuggest the preservation of cumulative spiritual experience. The shrines include, for example, Socratic Troubles of Truth, Good and Beauty. This triad is a historically established higher value. These absolutes reflect the wealth of the whole human race.

There is no culture, where they would not be assessed with negatively murder, lie, theft, although there are differences in the submissions about the boundaries of tolerance. Modern cultureuniting humanity is based on universal values: the movement of the protection of personal rights, its respect, recognition of its merits, freedom, conscience, humanities, mutual enrichment of national cultures, scientific knowledge and advanced technologies and environmental attitude to life and environment. Universal culture is also the best forms of creative activity of people.

Material values \u200b\u200bare material benefits designed to meet the vital needs. Material needs, of course, are determining, but they, especially in the age of century scientific and technological progress Can be quite soon satisfied if we talk about reasonable needs. But, as folk wisdom says, "a person is not alive with bread." An important role in human life, society, in culture has spiritual values. They are thoughts, ideas, theories, norms, ideals, images that can take the form of scientific and artistic works, works of architecture, painting, music, movies, movies, television gearwho carry high ideas, Images, feelings and presentations. Guardians and distributors of spiritual values \u200b\u200bare museums, libraries, schools, radio, etc. Caring for multiplication of material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bof society, about cultural growth a person, the consciousness of the necessary conditions for admissions to these values \u200b\u200bis one of the patterns of the development of society.

The concept of cultural norm. The concept of norm is connected with the concept of values. To handle other people, a person must stick to some rules of relationships, have an idea of \u200b\u200bthe right and wrong behavior, how to exercise and restrain itself. In the absence of such representations, it is impossible to achieve concerted actions. Such general representations that regulate behavior of people are produced in one or another culture and are called cultural norms.

There are social norms adopted in any culture in any society, i.e. Communication moral standards: "Do not steal", "do not kill" ... they contribute to morally to improve the public and personal lives of citizens. Live humane. Living in society, a person should strive not to infringe the rights of the other, which means to build his behavior so that it corresponds to the behavior of that social Groupin which he is located, lives, works. In violation of the norms, human behavior becomes an antisocial, anticultural. Living in a particular environment, a person must master her spiritual values, to recognize them, master and use, otherwise he will be torn off from this culture or will come into conflict with it.

Thus, cultural norms - certain rules behavior governing the actions of a person in the most important aspects social Life, providing guarantees of integrity, society sustainability. Therefore, they are more than in values, there is a quasher moment, the requirement to do a certain way. Following the standards is provided by two: by their internalization (transformation of external requirements for the internal need of personality) and at the expense of institutionalization (the inclusion of norms into the structure of society and social control).

The most important elements of human culture include norms, the totality of which is called the regulatory system of culture.

Norma - these are rules governing humanmaintenance. Cultural norms– prescriptions, requirementswishes and expectations of the corresponding (socially appreciated) behavior. With the help of iconic systems, they are transmitted from generation to generation and turn into a "habit" of society, customs, traditions.

Functions of cultural norms: to be responsibilities and indicate the measure of the need for human actions; serve as expectations regarding the future act; control deviating behavior; serve as samples, references of behavior.

The norms are classified on different grounds: on the scope of application - in a small or large social group. Accordingly distinguish 2 types: 1) group habits - norms that arise and exist only in small groups (youth parties, companies of friends, family, work brigades, sports teams); 2) general rules - Norms that arise and exist in large groups or in society as a whole. American Sociologist William Greins Samenera allocated the following types of cultural norms: customs (FOLKWAYS); morals (MORES); Laws (LAWS). Today, the typology of cultural norms takes into account traditions, customs, habits, morals, taboos, laws, fashion, taste and hobbies, beliefs and knowledge, etc.

Habit -the source cell of the social and cultural life of people at the same time. They distinguish one people from the other, one social layer from all others. Manners- The external forms of human behavior (based on habits) receiving a positive or negative assessment of others. Separately manners - elements, or the features of culture, and together - form a special cultural complex - etiquette.Custom - traditionally established behavior order. Customs - Mass samples approved by society, which are recommended to perform, they are inherent in the wide masses of people (unlike the manner and etiquette). Habits and customs moving from one generation to another - traditions(All that is inherited from predecessors) a variety of tradition is rituala combination of actions established by custom or ritual. Ritualcharacterizes non-selective, but mass actions, in which certain religious representations or household traditions are expressed; It covers all segments of the population. Ceremony - Sequence of actions having a symbolic value and dedicated to the celebration of any events or dates. Ritual - Stylized and carefully melted in a set of gestures and words (with a symbolic meaning) executed by persons particularly elected and prepared for this action. Morals- Especially oversized and highly guided by society mass samples of actions. Morals reflect the moral values \u200b\u200bof society; Their violation is punishable more severe than the violation of traditions. Taboo - Absolute ban, superimposed on any action, word, subject.

The variety of morals - laws. norms or the rules of behavior decorated by parliamentary or government document. Reinforced by political authority of the state and requiring strict implementation. Right - the system of mandatory rules of behavior authorized by the state and expressed in certain norms. Right, law, custom and value of society are closely interrelated and constitute the foundation of the regulatory system of culture.Traditions and customs man assumes regardless of his will and desires. There is no freedom of choice. Such elements of culture as tastes, hobbies and mod, indicate the free choice of man. Taste - a tendency or addiction to something, an understanding of elegant. Fashion -rightly transient popularity of something or anyone.

Culture rests on the value system. Value- This is fixed in human consciousness relationsto the object. Values \u200b\u200bjustify the norms and give them the meaning (the human life is value, and its protection - the norm) but the value is not identical to the economic understanding of it as a cost (monetary value). Values \u200b\u200bcan not always be expressed in monetary form, as it is impossible to express inspiration in commodity-money form, the memory, the joy of creativity and other manifestations of the human soul. In other words, value acts as a criterion for which a person assesss the significance of actions, ideas and opinions.

Value should be distinguished from utility. The valuable thing can be useless, and useful - not to be valuable. French philosopher I.GOOs as the main values \u200b\u200ballocated: favor, beauty, truth and good.

Knowledge - Reliable information about anything, scientific information, the result of the knowledge of specialized activities carried out by the prepared people. In contrast to knowledge, in hero- Conviction, emotional commitment to any idea, real or illusory.

All many treated cultural norms are regulatory system of culturein which all elements must be agreed. The pattern of construction of society: the set of values \u200b\u200bmust correspond to the set of norms. The key link of the regulatory culture system is public morality - Prescriptions of what is the right and improper behavior in accordance with the proclaimed standards. Cultural differences can take the form of contradiction or collision (cultural or regulatory conflict). Violation of equilibrium in the regulatory system of culture takes different forms. Anomie - This is the state of society in which a significant part of the inhabitants, knowing about the existence of obliging their norms relates to them negatively or indifferent. Anomie - This is a violation of the cultural unity of society, which arose due to the lack of clearly established cultural norms. Moral norms- These are unwritten requirements that operate in society in the form of principles, concepts, ideas, evaluations. Morale norms are not a product of some specialized institutional activities. Their implementation is not ensured by coercion, but by moral belief (conscience) or means of public opinion through approval or condemnation of certain actions.

Mix three functions of morality:

Motivational- Moral principles act as causes of behavior that encourage action.

Constructive- Moral is the central form of social culture, and its principles are higher in relation to other forms of culture.

Coordination- Morality ensures the unity and consistency of the interaction of people in various circumstances.

"The Gold Rule of Morality" says: Turn to others as you want to treat you.

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Value is fixed in human consciousness relationsto the object. Value for man have items that deliver to him positive emotions: pleasure, joy, pleasure, etc. Therefore, he wishes them and seeks them. Value can possess both material things or processes and spiritual phenomena (knowledge, ideas, ideas). Items may be value, but they themselves are not values. Value is not an object, but special view The meaning that man sees in it.

Each person since childhood is formed personal value orientationthose. Value ideas with which it is focused in the world of values \u200b\u200band determines which of the values \u200b\u200bare more significant for it, and what less. The system of value orientation of the individual is formed on the basis of value representations that dominate in the culture.

The system of valuable orientation of the individual should distinguish the final, instrumental and derivative values.

Finalvalues \u200b\u200bare the highest values \u200b\u200band ideals, more important and significant to which there is nothing. They are the end targets of human aspirations, the main life guidelines; The focus on such values \u200b\u200bdetermines the leading interests of the personality and the meaning of its life. it intrinsicnesswhich are valuable by themselves, and not because they serve as a means to achieve any other values.

Instrumentalvalues \u200b\u200bare funds and conditions necessary to achieve and preserve final values. So, beautiful baubles, elegant

clothes, artistic products that people adorn their accommodation can have a tool value as a means to enjoy beauty; Sport classes may have instrumental value as a condition for preserving and promoting health - final value.

Derivativesvalues \u200b\u200bare a consequence or expression of other values \u200b\u200bthat have significance only as signs and symbols of the latter. For example, a gift is a derivative value, a sign of love, friendship, respect. The derivative value is a medal or a diploma, symbolizing merit, which a person is proud of.

IN intelligent dictionaries Typically indicate two values \u200b\u200bof the word "norm": 1) legalization, recognized obligatory order; Solution of anything (for example, "enter the norm" means to come in order, in the usual state); 2) Measurement installed, average value

something (for example, "Code of Development", "The rate of precipitation"). These values \u200b\u200bare close to each other, and both are meant when it comes to cultural norms. Cultural norms are legal and recognized primarily in the sense that they are supported by the force of traditions, customs, public opinion. In many cases, they are "unwritten".

Cultural norms surround us from all sides, and we often follow them, not aware of this. The performance of sociocultural norms is based on intuitive, found or consciously

developed a person's ideas about what can and what can not be done. At the same time, society carries out social controlabove the behavior of people, stimulating the regulatory and premises deviant behavior.

Normal functions:

Following cultural standards prerequisite To organize joint activities and maintain public order. This is consisting social

the function of cultural norms.

On the other hand, cultural norms are procedural rules, methods and programs aimed at obtaining the desired result. This is their technologicalfunction. They determine the technology of human activity, i.e. then what and how to do,to achieve success in any matter, get a specific "technical result".

A huge role in the formation of the rules of culture plays approval and condemnation. Expressed by others, as well as visual samples of behavior. Already small child According to the adult reaction, it determines the boundaries of what can, and what is impossible. So the norms of morality and morality are formed. The culture regulation is also supported as a result of the functioning of various social institutions. A huge role in the transfer of spiritual experience from generation to generation is played by the education system. Culture norms change, like culture itself. They reflect those changes that society undergoes. Bright example Fundamental shifts that occurred in the 20th century in relation to a person to the family.

2) Cultural values.

Values - meaningful material or spiritual objects for humans. Values \u200b\u200bare largely determined by human aspirations and its actions. Each sphere of human cultural activity has its value dimension. All variety of values \u200b\u200bcan be classified to the following:

· Vital - life, health, safety, quality of life.

· Economic - the presence of equal favorable conditions for the development of production, economic activity, guarantees of private property, etc.

· Social - position in society, respect, personal independence, gender equality, etc.

· Political values \u200b\u200b- civil liberties, civil world, etc.

· Moral values \u200b\u200b- good, benefit, love, friendship, debt, honor.

· Religious - faith, salvation, God.

· Aesthetic - beauty, harmony, etc.

In each type of culture, this hierarchy of values \u200b\u200bcan undergo a change. For example: Antiquity - the highest value - beauty. Middle Ages - Religion. New time - science. The process of cultural development is always accompanied by reassessment of values.

4) Cultural picture of the world - the result of a specific vision of the world in which a person lives. The system of images, ideas, knowledge of the device of the world and the place of man in it. The cultural picture of the world includes rational knowledge reflected in the language, as well as emotions and feelings that people experience in relation to the subjects and the phenomenon of the world. The cultural picture is formed in the course of diverse, life impressions of a person and reflects the peculiarities of the vital activity of various cultures. The development of ties between cultures leads to lubrication of unique features of each of them. In the 20th century, nations and countries begin to be unified in everyday life and thinking. This is clearly indicated by the processes of computerization, submitting a unified algorithm for the logic of thinking those who work with a computer. Those in the culture in the culture remains that it was imposed under the influence of the nature of the country, its climate, language, memory of its history and culture. Thus, the cultural picture of the world retains its uniqueness, despite the processes of globalization.

Topic 6: Intercultural Communication

1) the concept and types of intercultural communication.

On our planet, there are many representatives of a variety of crops are not similar to each other. The dialogue process between them is commonly denoted by the concept of intercultural communication. A common feature of intercultural communication is the emergencyness of cultural differences by its participants. Most people believe that their style and lifestyle is the only possible and correct, understandable and accessible to everyone. When representatives of different cultures come into communication, each party does not question his views on the world, and more willingly think about the ignition of his partner. Only aware of the mentioned features of a person may come to understand the reasons for the inadequacy of the situation of intercultural communications.

2) Levels and types of intercultural communication.

Intercultural communication can take place both on the macro level and micro level. Macro level includes communications between large-scale cultural formations that exist in large areas. For example: between European and american cultures. At the same time, the macro cultures include public groups with their cultural characteristics, that is, micro culture. At the micro culture level, several types of intercultural communication can be distinguished:

· Inter-ethnic communications - communication between representatives of various nations.

· Communication among various social classes and groups. For example: between rich and poor. Between the intelligentsia and the working class.

· Communication between representatives of various demographic groups (age-related, on the floor, etc.).

· Communication between urban and rural residents. Based on the difference in style and pace of life, the type of interpersonal relationship, etc.

· Regional communication arises between residents of various areas. Behavior that in the same situation can differ significantly.

· Communication in business culture arises due to the fact that each organization has a number of specific customs and rules of behavior associated with corporate culture.

· Interreligious. It arises between representatives of various religions or branches in cancers of one religion.

3) Cultural Distance

To determine how difficult it will be a contact of one culture on the other in cultural studies, the concept was introduced cultural distance - The degree of proximity or compatibility of cultures with each other. The concept of cultural distance records the differences between the same elements in different cultures. For example, for macro cultures: climate, language, religion, clothing, food, etc. Representatives of cultures distance, between which less in this relationship is easier to adapt to a new culture. The subjective perception of the cultural distance affects many factors:

· Availability or absence of wars or conflicts in the present and past.

· The degree of competence of a person in someone else's language and culture.

· Equality of partner status and the presence of common goals in intercultural communication.

· Subjectively cultural distance can be perceived as more distant than it really is. For example: Jews from the USSR feel more comfortable in Germany than in Israel, as the climate and the nature of Germany looks more like the usual conditions of their lives.

Also behind the frequent culture is perceived closer than it really is. For example: Americans in the UK often fall into this trap. Representatives of collectivist cultures are more difficult to take other people's representatives than individualist representatives. For example: Americans have less experienced difficulties in communicating with foreigners than the Japanese or Russians.

4) uncertainty in intercultural communication.

In case of intercultural communication, it is often not an understanding between partners, as they belong to different cultures. This causes negative emotions in relation to the partner and the entire culture that it represents. The scientific decision of this problem was undertaken with the help of the theory of the reduction of uncertainty-based Bergen. It allocates three strategies for the reduction of uncertainty.

Passive - observation of representatives of other cultures without interference in the process of communication.

Active - a person sets questions to other people about the object of its interest, thus obtaining the necessary information for communication.

Interactive - direct interaction with intercultural communication partner. The most optimal strategy of behavior. The more the person gives other information about himself, reveals itself, the more uncertainty decreases.

As a result, the use of these strategies is necessary adaptation, and intercultural communication becomes effective.

Topic 7: Psychological and anthropological approaches of cultural studies .

1) Culture in the context of Freud's psychoanalysis.

The founder of psychoanalysis was the Vienna Psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. (1856-1939). The initial point of its doctrine is a hypothesis about the existence of an unconscious, as a special level of human psyche, different from consciousness and has a powerful impact on it. According to Freud, the psyche of a person consists of 3 layers: it, I, beyond - Ya. The unconscious (it) is a set of instincts, pleasures and human desires. Key of them are sexual desires, as well as the desire of a person to create and destruction. Dissatisfied desires show themselves through dreams, as well as found in errors, reservations, etc. Consciousness of man (I) - trying to subordinate the unconscious (it). (I) displaces not acceptable desire and ideas: sexual, aggressive, antisocial; Resisted their attempts to penetrate consciousness. However, it continues to persist in the human psyche. Over - I am prohibitions and norms of a sociocultural nature, which also seek to subjugate to themselves. Speaking in the role of conscience or feelings of Vienna. Over - I control consciousness, not allowing him to implement secret desires. Freud came to the conclusion that I am a person under constant blows from the side of it and above - I. If pressure on the outside it is over - I will be too strong, then I (human consciousness) may not withstand. This leads to severe clinical cases of a human psyche violation:

As a result of the interaction, I, it is over - I, unsatisfied desires especially sexual (libido) are transformed under the means of sublimation into the creative activity of the individual. As a result, the libido instinctive impulse moves to publicly appropriate and receiving goals. Back side This Freud process saw the fact that the development of culture leads to a decrease in human happiness and strengthening the feeling of guilt and dissatisfaction due to the suppression of desires.

2) the doctrine of the cultural archetypes of Jung.

One of Freud's followers - Karl Jung focused on learning a collective unconscious. That is, an objective reality in which a person is immersed. Collective unconscious, according to Jung - Associations and images having historical nature. It is fixed in archetypes representing outside temporary schemes that are stored collective, historical experience, expressed in the myths of symbolic images and thanks to which the thoughts and feelings of people are formed. The collective unconscious can direct the behavior of people, determine the history of society, thanks to him, it is also possible creativity, which consists of the spiritualization of archetypes. The archaic prototype is always translated into the language of modernity.

3) Philosophy of Culture Nietzsche.

Philosophy of culture of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) had a powerful impact on modern theory of culture. His philosophy was considered the harbinger of shocks of the 20th century. A man in Nietzsche is a biological obequincing unconscious and irrational creature. Main value Man is life. The desire to preserve and develop life leads to the development of will to power. That is, the instinctive, unconscious and irrational power subordinating the feelings and thoughts of people. the main objective The developed mankind is the creation of a superman. Superman - the personality is capable of leading the masses of ordinary people. To achieve this goal, superholesale should become a carrier of a new morality in the substitution of the existing morality of slaves as accepted in Christianity. According to Nietzsche, the new morality will be approved by the generation new race, Races of the Lords, the new aristocracy, superchaddes, which will be challenged to the mobile and the concept of good and justice inherent in the morals of slaves. Superflows as a new caste Lord will not know pity and justice. Nietzsche appears not just from the position of immoralism, but also anti humanism. He considers man a predatory beast, because the latter best feels like a tragedy, on bulls, for crucifix. So, morality is only hypocrisy and deception. To create a superman and race, the Lords can be sacrificed. The essence and the main content of philosophy Nietzsche have no harmless character. At the beginning of the 20th century in Germany, the Fanatikov group used the ideas of Nietzsche to create the ideology of the German national nationalism. This led to the death of more than 50 million people during the VMW (1939-1945). The philosophy of Nietzsche is trying to rely on modern neophascists.

The history of the 20th century with all his tragedies showed the degradation of the views of Nietzsche. Requirmed the value of universal values \u200b\u200band moral principles.

Topic 8: Structurally semiotic approach to cultural studies.

1) Culture as a sign system.

Semiotics - the youngest and most influential modern School in cultural studies. It unites linguists and computer science specialists. All processes occurring in culture are considered by them communicative. Culture is understood as a kind of sign system created by man. One of the founder of this area is Ernet Castierrev its concept He considers the ability of humanity to mass systematic symbolization. In his opinion, signs - required tool thoughts. Language and other signs not only transmit information, but preserve it for a century forming a culture. Compared to other living creatures, a person is in a different measurement of reality. It exists not in real world, and the world of characters. Progress makes this world increasingly permeable. Therefore, the difference in the perception of the world between the European and, for example, a savage south America. Since a civilized person does not deal with real thingsAnd with their characters, then the Cassier calls a person who does not think Homo Sapiense, but the symbolic Homo Simbolicum. Thus, a person from Cassirera from the substance of naturally living by instincts and feelings is gradually turning into an artificial, constrained structure of the subordinate contradictated thinking cut-off from reality.

2) Structural Anthropology Levi-Stros

The creator of the structural anthropology of CLOD Levi is dedicated to understanding the problem of the conclusion of a person from reality. Analyzing the culture of primitive tribes he tried to identify the originality of thinking primitive man Loaded in the era of neolithic the foundations of technical progress. He proves the need to restore the unity of sensual and rational start in man. Lost as a result of the development of civilization. A modern man lives conventions and myths, increasingly distinguishables from real life. Man should return to reality. Levi culture is becoming an increasing barrier separating some people from others. For example, it is used to justify its firing, which is not justified by the power of its egoism.

3) Structurally semiotic approach in Russian cultural studies

In Russia, the ideas of structurally semiotic school were developed in the works of Lotman (1822-1903). He considers culture as an open sign system, including in addition to natural language, many other iconic systems, in particular all types of art. The lotman has a culture - at the same time a sign text, always existing in a certain context and long-term collective memory selective transmitting in time and space intellectual and emotional information.

In the work "Culture and Explosion" (1992), Lotman tried from the position of Semiotics to study the features of explosive sociocultural processes in Russia and noted its contradictory dichochlorinear culture. One of its manifestations, that is, the ideological torn of Russian culture has already become the confrontation of Slavophilism and Westernity, Europeanism and Eurasianism for about 2 centuries. Lotman also also noted the difference between Russia and Western civilization with a smoother and less destructive development.

Topic 9: Man as a subject of culture.

1) characteristics of a person as a subject of culture.

A person becomes a man at the moment when a subject of culture is manifested in it.

Subject of culture - its active creator, converter of cultural reality. There are a number of human qualities as a subject of culture:

1. Consciousness - The ability and need to be guided in their actions and actions by a conscious choice. A person is a man, since he is not just immersed in culture, but has a conscious need of cultural activity.

2. Pupil - The ability to be guided in their actions spiritual urges, not by the call of nature. The dependence of people from nature with every century weakens. Moreover, in the modern world, the natural qualities of a person becomes in demand only in the conditions of cultural necessity. This is manifested by the progress of mankind.

3. Creativity- The ability to creatively convert reality. Create non-analogous cultural samples. This quality distinguishes a person from animals. However, in real life, it may not be achieved due to the desire of people to simplify own Lifeimitation mass.

2) Personal types as a subject of culture.

Each person contributes to the culture. There are various types of man as a culture creator:

1. The material person is his goal possessing things. His attitude to culture can be called disgracelessly indifferent. He implements its role in the increase in material values \u200b\u200b(a person who seeks only to wealth).

2. The political person is an important type of personality necessary for regulating public relations. He is the Creator of Wise Law, seeks the creation of social development conditions, etc. However, its extreme manifestation becomes Nietzshean superhumans, which seems in people only a mass and striving to manipulate it.

3. Communicative person - it prevails the need for communicating with people. The essence of this type is different, as communication can be a manifestation of the inner wealth of personality, and the desire to fill it with emptiness.

4. Spiritual man - He does not strive for material wealth, power and communication. For him, it is not possible to position outside of good and evil. From such people they are born, the great scientists, monks and revolutionaries are born. Their spiritual wealth and creative potential, delivered to the service of mankind, are extremely necessary for the development of culture (they are without a difference who thinks about them, they think they think differently).

3) intelligentsia and its role in the development of culture.

The intelligentsia is an educated part of society, which includes those who, anyway embody and ensures the spiritual and mental life of the country. Not every person engaged in mental labor is an intelligent. Intelligence assumes faith in some higher ideals of spirituality, morality and responsibility, for the fate of all mankind. The intelligentsia does not depend on class or professional affiliation. She acts as an expressant of a nationwide creative genius. Without it, the development of culture and civilization is not possible. It is the character and level of intelligentsia that the cultural person of society, its sympathy, tastes and moods, developing in sustainable norms of national life are determined. Being a very important social layer, the intelligentsia is steadily, increases its proportion in modern society. If in the 70s of the 20th century, the number of intelligentsia was in developed countries up to 20% of the population, then in the 21st century in the era of the information boom, this figure increased at times and grows every year.

Topic 10: Problems cultural Development Russia.

1) Features of Russian Culture

Considering the features of Russian culture, two circumstances must be taken into account:

1. Russian culture is historically connected with Russian culture Kievan Rus and more actually russian period The stories of the Russian people. It is the Russian people that constitute most of the population of Russia and is the founder of the Russian state.

2. The culture of Russia historically combines a combination of many different national cultures inhabiting her peoples. Identity Russian nation Determine all nations inhabiting our country.

Key issues in the consideration of Russian culture is its place in world History. Russia is considered either belonging to the West or East or having their own specifics. In the latter case, she is attributed to the role of the union of the East and the West, or the role of a special world, quite comparable to the first two. The future of Russia depends on which of these options will be generally recognized. Most recent dammes Russian culture are:

1. The wealth of its internal content.

2. Despotic form state power. Subordination of society by the state.

3. Collectivist mentality.

4. Minor amount of economic freedom. Low lifetime of the population.

2) the specificity of modern, cultural transformation in Russia.

Modern Russia is experiencing a period of crisis condition of culture. At the same time, it coincides with the global crisis of culture, which is felt in Russia the most acute. The main negative trends are the development of Russian culture:

1. The widespread implementation of the achievements of science and technology entailed fundamental changes in the forms of consumption of spiritual values. A special type of "home culture" is created by composite elements of which are radio, TV, computer. The negative side of this process is increasingly increasing spiritual insulation of the individual (Suragati film).

2. Culture commercialization occurs. At which many masterpieces remain not seen. The ability to master the classic heritage. With huge cultural potential Russia accumulated by the preceding generations occurs spiritual impoverishment Russian people.

3. Increasing mass blessing. In the soil without spirituality in Russia, crime and violence are growing. The morality decline occurs. This represents the immediate danger to Russia's development.

4. The material base of Russian culture is currently in a deplorable state and the state does not try to change it. The lack of financial injections aimed in support of the value of folk and classical culture deeply contrasts with the explosion of interest in cultural values \u200b\u200bthat is characteristic of many countries in the 21st century.

5. The system of basic values \u200b\u200bof society in modern Russia Located in an extremely amorphous state. There are practically no generally accepted public and national ideals. IN domestic culture They are trying to connect non-connecting values \u200b\u200band orientations. Such as collectivism and individualism, statehood and anarchy, etc. This leads to serious deviations in the development of the country.

Russian culture may well give an answer to the challenges of the modern world, but for this it is necessary to find those centrist principles that can neutralize destructive trends in it.

Topic11: Primitive culture. Culture of the Ancient East.

1) Culture of primitive society.

Primitive culture has become the first historical type of culture. As part of her, humanity, having passed a number of complex stages of evolution, for the first time created the forms of organization of living beings other than animals. Ancient Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, India and China, became the cradle of the human civilization. Already in 4 millennia BC, they gave a powerful impetus to the development of a new human culture. It was here that the first states have developed, writing, literature, art, technique. Elements of various sciences were laid, including the primitive philosophy. A special contribution to the development of mankind made a culture of two-frets (Valley of the Tiger River and Euphrates). It developed from 4 millennia to 6 V. BC. The greatest flourishing and influence among coupling civilizations reached Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian. Many cities were built in the two states. A trade with India, Egypt, Malaya Asia and the Caucasus received widespread development. It was in two-frequenses that a legend was born about world Flood. The first schools and teachers arose in the ancient Babylon.

2) Culture of ancient Egypt.

The First Empire claimed the world domination was an ancient Egypt. This Great Civilization made a huge contribution to the history of mankind and left behind the many not surpassed masterpieces of culture (cultural monuments, the seizure of huge territories). The most famous result of the existence of ancient Egypt was the creation of a pyramid. Their appearance was associated with the peculiarities of the religious cult of the Egyptians. The basis of the spiritual life of Egypt was faith in the possibility of an eternal afterlife. However, for this it was necessary to observe a strict funeral ritual. His task: to protect the fragile soul of the deprived of the protection of the body after the death of a person and until the moment she proceeds to the world of dead. If this is not done, then the soul will die. Within the framework of this religious idea there was an opinion on the need to protect the soul of the deceased Pharaoh. At the same time, the deification of Pharaohs occupied a central place in Egypt's religious cult. To protect the soul of Pharaoh already in 4 thousand BC. The first grazers of Pharaoh appeared, in 3 thousand BC. On the orders of Pharaoh Joster, the first pyramid was built. The most famous and most significant in size from all Egyptian is the pyramid of Heops. Its height is 147 meters. It is composed of gigantic limestone stones. Each stone block weighs 2-3 tons. IN ancient Egypt There were also many works of writing. Classic sculptural forms have been developed, astronomy developed. The role of the brain in the human body was established, the papyrus for writing was invented, mathematics developed, the first water and sundials were invented.

3) Unity in the manifold as the principle of culture of India.

An India has become one of the oldest foci of human civilization with a high level of culture. Excavations in the Indus valley made it possible to conclude, about the existence of more than 5 thousand years ago, the ancient world civilization, which was called Harapp or Proto-Indian. Residents of Harappa were the first in the world to have learned to spin and taking cotton. Pretty high level development of skill reached the ancient Indian potters and jewelers. There was a perfect system of sewers and water supply, 2 and 3-storey buildings were built. Harappa civilization fell into the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. During this period, it was supplanted to the south of the tribes of Arii, who brought with them their tongue, mythological performances and life lifestyle. For example, the system var and caste. Many regional, religious, caste and ethnic differences form the impression of the fragmentation of ancient Indian civilization. However, its structure is based on the interaction between different groups that have formed a non-interrupted link between them. This connection was created by the religions of India, which consistently replaced each other. The ancient Indian religions relied on the law of Sansary, who stated that the soul of man is immortal. After graduating from life, it moves into the body of another living being (not necessarily a person) and life begins first. There was also the law of karma. On him, the life of a person depended on how he lived last life. Indians also sought to take into account the main provisions of the Vedas. Collectors of religious hymns. In the Vedas, for example, it was said that a person was doomed to suffering. It is impossible to live sinlessly, and every sin one will be forced to suffer in next life. All Ancient Indian religious concepts sought to get rid of suffering. The main religions of India were:

· Brahmanism (1 Millennium BC) His representatives honed hardworking, no envy. There was a developed cult of ancestors. Sin, they only have an illusion, suffering are not significant (Brahman is an ancient Indian priest).

· Hinduism (1 Millennium BC) - It is based on the doctrine of the shower reincarnation (reincarnation), as well as the law of rewarding karma, for good or evil behavior.

· Buddhism (6th century BC) - for them, life - suffering, and its source - the desires of material and spiritual benefits. Salvation from suffering is possible by refusing temptations. Buddhism still remains one of the world religions (they confess more in China than in India).

4) Culture ancient China

China is one of the first states on Earth. His inhabitants created an original, material and spiritual culture. Already in the 15th century before our era, a developed system of hieroglyphic writing existed in China, which has more than 2 thousand hieroglyphs. The book of Changes is a great cultural monument in China. The Chinese at the turn of our era invented mascara and paper. At this time, a letter was introduced uniform for all. The first dictionaries appeared. Under the imperial palaces, extensive libraries were created. During the union into a single centralized state (221-207 BC), the Great Wall of China was built. The Chinese believed that life was the creation of divine, supernatural power, that everything in the world is in motion and constantly changes as a result of a collision of the opposite forces of light and darkness (Yang and Yin). The Chinese also believed that the soul of a man after death continues to live and interfere in the affairs of living. At the same time, the soul of the deceased retains all the former habits, so together with the departed, His servants and slaves buried, and put weapons, jewels and objects of utensils in the grave. In the middle of the 1st century BC. In China, 3 main philosophical and religious systems are issued:

· Taoism

· Confucius teachings

· Buddhism

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