European revival as a historical era. Culture of Western Europe in the Renaissance Epoch

Revival is a period in the cultural and ideological development of countries in Western and Central Europe. The most bright revival manifested itself in Italy, because In Italy, there was no single state (with the exception of the south). The main form of political existence is small city-states with the republican form of government, feudalles merged with bankers rich in merchants and industrialists. Therefore, in Italy, feudalism in his full forms did not work out. The atmosphere of rivalry between cities, put on the first place is not the origin, but personal abilities and wealth. There was a need not only to energetic and enterprising people, but also formed.

Therefore, the humanistic direction appears in education and worldview. Revival is customary to share for early (beginning 14 - end 15) and high (end 15 - first quarter 16.). This era includes the greatest artists of Italy - Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarot (1475 -1564) and Rafael Santi (1483 - 1520). This division applies directly to Italy and, although the highest heyday rebirth reached on the Apenninsky Peninsula, his phenomenon spread to other parts of Europe.

Similar processes north of the Alps were called "Northern Renaissance". Similar processes occurred in France, and in the cities of Germany. Medieval man, and people of the new time have been looking for their ideals in the past. In the Epoch of the Middle Ages, people believed that they continue to live in. The Roman Empire continued, and the cultural tradition: Latin, the study of Roman literature, the difference was felt only in the religious sphere. Feudalism Renaissance Humanism Church

But in the era of Renaissance, a look at the antiquity was changed from which something was seen, the lack of a comprehensive authority of the Church, spiritual freedom, attitude towards man as the center of the Universe. It was these ideas that became central in the worldview of humanists. Ideals, so consonant with new development trends, gave rise to the desire to resurrect antiquity in full, and it was Italy with its huge number of Roman antiquities that became fertile soil for this. Revival was manifested and entered in history as a period of extraordinary takeoff of art. If earlier the works of art served church interests, that is, there were religious objects, then works are created to satisfy the aesthetic needs. Humanists believed that life should bring pleasure and medieval monastic asceticism they were rejected. Such Italian writers and poets like Dante Aligiery (1265 - 1321), Francesco Petrack (1304 - 1374), Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 - 1375) played a huge role in the formation of the ideology of humanism. Actually, they, especially Petrarch, were the founders and renaissance literature, and the very humanism. His era of humanists perceived as a heyday, happiness and beauty. But this does not mean that she was deprived of contradictions. The main one was that she remained the ideology of the elite, in the masses of new ideas, did not penetrate. Yes, and the humanists themselves were sometimes a pessimistic mood. Fear of future, disappointment in human nature, the impossibility of achieving an ideal in a social device permeate the mood of many rebirth figures. Perhaps the most significant in this sense was the intense waiting for the end of the world in 1500. The rebirth was laid out the foundations of new European culture, a new European worldview, a new European independent personality.

Francesco Petrack (1304-1374) - the hedge of the Italian Renaissance, the Great Poet and the thinker, politician. The leaving from the Popolan family of Florence, he spent many years in Avignon with papal currics, and the residue of life in Italy. Petrairka traveled a lot in Europe, was close to dads, sovereigns. His political goals: the reform of the Church, the cessation of wars, the unity of Italy. Petraka was an expert of ancient philosophy, he owns the merit of collecting manuscripts of antique authors, textological processing.

Petrarch's humanistic ideas developed not only in his ingenious, innovative poetry, but also in Latin prosaic writings - treatises, numerous letters, including in its main epistolary "book about the affairs of everyday."

About Francesco Petrarke It is customary to argue that he is stronger than anyone - in any case, in its times - focuses on himself. That but was not only the first "individualist" of the new time, but also a much more than that - strikingly finished egocentric.

In the works of the thinker, anthropocentricism of Renaissance humanism came to the change of the centers of the Middle Ages. Petrarkovskoye "Opening of a Man" made it possible for a deeper knowledge of a person in science, literature, art.

Leonardo da Vinci (1454-1519) is a brilliant Italian artist, sculptor, scientist, engineer. Born in Ankiano, near the village of Vinci; His father was a notary, who collapsed in 1469 in Florence. The first teacher Leonardo was Andrea Vokkio.

The interest of Leonardo to man and nature speaks of his close connection with the humanistic culture. The creative abilities of man he considered infinite. Leonardo One of the first to substantiate the idea of \u200b\u200bthe cognition of the world through reason and sensations, which firmly entered into the representation of thinkers of the XVI century. He himself spoke of himself: "I would comprehend all the secrets, having come to the essence!"

Leonardo research concerned a wide range of problems of mathematics, physics, astronomy, botany, other sciences. Its numerous inventions were based on a deep study of nature, the laws of its development. He was an innovator and in the theory of painting. The highest manifestation of Leonardo's creativity saw in the artist's activities, a scientificly comprehensive world and reproducing on the canvas. On the contribution of the thinker in Renaissance aesthetics allows him to judge his "Book of Painting". He was the embodiment of the "universal person created by the revival.

Nikcolo Makiavelli (1469-1527) - Italian thinker, diplomat, historian.

Florentian, took place from ancient, but impoverished Patrician family. For 14 years, he served as secretary of the Council of the Ten, who made military and foreign affairs of the Florentine Republic. After restoration in Florence, the Medici authorities were removed from state activities. B1513-1520 was in exile. By this period, the creation of the most significant works of Machiavelli - "Sovereign", "reasoning about the first decade of Tita Libya", "The History of Florence", which have discouraged him European glory. The political ideal of Machiavelli is the Roman Republic, in which he saw the embodiment of the idea of \u200b\u200ba strong state, the people of which "surpasses a lot of sovereigns and in virtue, and in glory." ("The arguments on the first decade of Tita Libya").

The ideas of N. Makiavelli had a very significant impact on the development of political teachings.

Thomas Mop (1478-1535) - English Humanist, Writer, State Affairs.

Born in the family of the London Lawyer, he was educated in Oxford University, where he was adjacent to the circle of Oxford Humanists. In Henrich VIII held a number of high state posts. Very important for the formation and development of Mora as a Humanist had his meeting and friendship with Erasmus Rotterdam. Was accused of state treason and executed on July 6, 1535.

The most famous work of Thomas Mora - "Utopia", which reflected and the fascination of the author of the ancient Greek literature and philosophy, and the influence of Christian thought, in particular the TRAIST OF AUGUSTIN "ORDER THE GRAY", and also traced a ideological connection with the erosion of Rotterdam, the humanistic ideal of which was Much close to Mora. His ideas had a strong impact on public thought.

Erasmus Rotterdam (1469-1536) is one of the most prominent representatives of European humanism and the most multilateral of the then scientists.

Erasmus, illegitimate son of a poor parish priest, spent his young years in Augustinte monastery, which he managed to leave in 1493. He studied the works of Italian humanists and scientific literature with great passion, became the largest connoisseur of Greek and Latin languages.

The most famous work of Erasma - Satyr's "praise nonsense" (1509), created by him for Lukian Satyr, which was written in Tomas Mora in just one week. Erasmus Rotterdam tried to synthesize the cultural traditions of antiquity and early Christianity. He believed in the natural kindness of man, wanted people to be guided by the requirements of the mind; Among the spiritual values \u200b\u200bof Erasma - freedom of spirit, abstibility, education, simplicity.

Thomas Münsser (about 1490-1525) is a German theologian and an ideologist of early Reformation and the Peasant War of 1524-1526 in Germany.

The Son of the artisan, Munser was educated at Leipzig Universities and Frankfurt-on-Oder, from where he was with the degree of bachelor of theology, and became a preacher. Tested the influence of mystics, anabaptists and gusites. In the first years, the Reformation, Munser performed a supporter and a supporter of Luther. He then developed his doctrine of popular reformation.

In the understanding of Münzer, the main objectives of the Reformation were not to establish a new church dogma or a new form of religiosity, but in the proclamation of a close socio-political coup, which should be produced by a mass of peasants and urban poor. Thomas Müntzer sought to the republic of equal citizens in which people will take care of dominated justice and right.

For Munzer, the Holy Scripture was subject to free interpretation in the context of modern events, - interpretation directly addressed to the spiritual experience of the reader.

Thomas Münsser was captured after the defeat of the rebels in unequal battle on May 15, 1525 and, after cruel torture, executed.

Conclusion

Based on the first chapter, it can be concluded that the main features of the revival culture are:

Anteopocentrism,

Humanism,

Modification of the medieval Christian tradition,

Special attitude to antiquity - the revival of the ancient monuments and ancient philosophy,

New attitude to the world.

As for humanism, his figures emphasized the value of the human person, the independence of the identity of the personality from the origin and the birth, the ability of a person to continuously improving and confidence in its limitless opportunities.

The reformation played an extremely important role in the formation of world civilization and culture in general. She contributed to the process of the appearance of a man of bourgeois society - an autonomous individual with freedom of moral choice, independent and responsible in his beliefs and actions, preparing the soil for the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman rights. In the carriers of Protestant ideas, a new, bourgeois, type of personality with a new attitude towards the world was expressed.

The Renaissance Epochs left us an extensive creative heritage, which covers philosophy, art, political science, history, literature, natural sciences and many other areas. They made numerous discoveries that are a huge contribution to the development of world culture.

Thus, the Renaissance Epoch is local on scale, but the global phenomenon on the consequences, which had a strongest impact on the development of modern Western civilization and culture with its achievements: an effective market economy, civil society, a democratic legal state, a civilized lifestyle, a high spiritual culture.

[Teaching Francis Backone about "idols"

Idols and false concepts that have already captivated the human mind and deeply in it strengthened, so they own the mind of people, what makes it difficult to enter the truth, but, even if it is allowed to be allowed and granted, they will break the way with the renewal of the sciences and will interfere with If only people, warned, will not arrange against them as far as possible.

There are four types of idols that are deposited by the minds of people. In order to study them, give them names. Let's call the first type of idols of the genus, the second - idols of the cave, the third - idols of the square and the fourth - idols of the theater.

Construction of concepts and axioms through true induction is undoubtedly a genuine means to suppress and drive an idol. But the indication of idols is very useful. The idolism is the same for interpretation of nature as the doctrine of refutation of soffisms - for generally accepted dialectics.

Idols Roda Find the foundation in the very nature of a person, in a tribe or caused people, for it is false to argue that a person's feelings are a measure of things. On the contrary, all perceptions like feelings, so and the mind rests on the analogies of a person, and not on the analogies of the world. The mind of a person is likened to an uneven mirror, which, having mixed up its nature, reflects things in a curved and disfigured form.

Idols Cave The essence of the delusion of a separate person. After all, everyone, in addition to mistakes, characteristic of human genus, has its own special cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature. This is happening or from the special inborn properties of each, or from education and conversations with others, or from reading books and from authorities, in front of which thirsty, or due to the difference in impressions depending on whether their souls get biased and predisposed or souls Cool and calm, or for other reasons. So the spirit of man, depending on how it is located in individuals, there is a thing changeable, unstable and as if random. That is why Heraclitus correctly said that people are looking for knowledge in small worlds, and not in a large, or general, the world.

There are still idols that occur in the power of mutual connectivity and community of people. We call these idols, having in mind that generates their communication and social advice, idolas Square. People are combined by speech. The words are established according to the intelligence of the crowd. Therefore, the bad and ridiculous establishment of words amazingly precipitates the mind. Definitions and clarifications, which are used to arm and protect themselves, scientists people do not help in any way help. Words straight rape mind, mix everything and lead people to empty and countless disputes and interpretations.

There are finally idols who settled in the soul of people from different dogmas philosophy, as well as from the reporting laws of evidence. We call them idols of theaterFor we believe that how many or invented philosophical systems are made or invented and played and played comedies representing fictional and artificial worlds. We are talking not only about philosophical systems that exist now or have no time, since the fairy tales of this kind could be folded and drawn up in a set; Indeed, in general, very different mistakes are almost the same causes. At the same time, we mean here not only the common philosophical teachings, but also numerous principles and axioms of sciences, which were obtained due to legend, faith and carelessness. However, every of these generics of idols should be more detailed and definitely say separately in order to warn the human mind.

The human mind, due to its tendency, it easily implies more order and uniformity in things than they find them. And while much in nature is a single and completely out of self-likeness, OP comes up with parallels, compliance and relationships that are not. Hence the sense that everything is moving in heaven for perfect circles \\ ... \\

The human mind attracts everything to support and consent with what he once accepted, - because it is the subject of a common faith, or because he likes it. Whatever the power and the number of facts testifying to the opposite, mind or does not notice them, or neglect them, or takes and rejects them by distinguishing them with great and harmful prejudice, so that the reliability of those former conclusions remains undisturbed. And so the one who, when he was shown to be put in the temple, the image of the warehousing of the victor, and at the same time, have sought a response, whether he recognizes the power of the gods, asked in turn: "And where are the images of those who died after Brought vow? " This is the foundation "of almost all superstitions-in astrology, in dreams, in the beliefs, in predictions and the like. People who enjoy themselves like a fuss, mark the event that was fulfilled, and without attention passing by the one that deceived, although the latter is much more often. Even deeper, it penetrates this evil to philosophy and in science. In them, what time is recognized, infects and subordinates the rest, at least the latter was significantly better and harder. In addition, if they did not even have places that we specified bias and fumes, I still, the mind of the human constantly peculiar to the misconception that he is more amenable to positive arguments than negative, whereas in justice it would have to be equally related to the other; Even more, in the construction of all true axioms a lot of force at the negative argument.

The human mind acts most of all what immediately and suddenly can hit him; This is exactly what it excites and fills the imagination. The rest of it will imperceptibly converts, presenting it to himself the same as that little, which owns his mind. To contact the distant and heterogeneous arguments by which axioms are tested, as if on fire, the mind is not inclined at all and is not capableSo far, no harsh laws and strong power will offer him.

Zhadala Mind is human. He can neither stop, nor to stay alone, but is rummaged farther. But in vain! Therefore, the thought is not able to cover the limit and end of the world, but always, as if necessary, represents something existing further. \\ ... \\ This impotence of mind leads to much more harmful results in the disclosure of the reasons, for, although the most common principles in nature should exist as they were found, and in reality they do not have the cause, still the mind is human, not knowing peace And here is looking for a better one. And here, striving for the fact that, he returns to the fact that he is closer to him, namely, to end reasons that have their source rather than the nature of the person, rather than the nature of the universe, and, based on this source, they surprisingly distorted philosophy. But the one who seeks causes for universal, as well as the one who does not seek the reasons for the lower and subordinates is lightly and ignorantly philosophically.

The human mind is not a dry light, the will of the will and passion are sprinkled, and this creates in science desired to everyone. The man more likely believes in the trueness of what prefers. He rejects difficult - because there is no patience to continue the study; sober - for it will not be hopeless; Higher in nature - due to superstition; The light of experience is due to the arrogance and contempt for it, so that it does not turn out that the mind is immersed in lowland and fragile; Paradoxes - due to generally accepted opinion. The infinite number of ways, sometimes inconspicuous, passion is spotted and spoil the mind.

But to the greatest degree of confusion and delusion of the human mind, they occur from ocossiness, inconsistencies and deception of feelings, because what he excites feelings is preferred that he does not excite feelings at least, at least this is the last and it was better. Therefore, contemplation stops when the look stops, so the observation of invisible things is insufficient or absent at all. Therefore, all the movement of spirits concluded in tangible bodies remains hidden and inaccessible to people. Similarly, it remains hidden, more subtle transformations in parts of solids - what is customary to be called a change, whereas it is actually moving the smallest particles. Meanwhile, without research and clarify these two things that we said about, we cannot achieve anything significant in nature in practical terms. Further, the nature itself itself and all bodies that exceed the air with the subtlety (and there are many), almost unknown. The feeling itself is weakly and mistaken, and there are a few guns intended for strengthening and exacerbating feelings. Total Rather, the interpretation of nature is achieved through observations in the relevant, expedient experiments. Here the feeling judges only about the experience, the experience is about nature and about the very thing.

The human mind by nature is directed on the abstract and fluid thinks as permanent. But it is better to disseminate nature on the part than abstract. This was done by the School of Democritus, which deeper than others penetrated in nature. It should be more studied by matter, its inner state and change of state, clean action and the law of action or movement, because the form of the fiction of the human soul, unless not to call these laws of action.

Such are those idols that we call idolas of Roda. They occur or from the uniformity of the substance of the human spirit, or from its bias, or from its limitations, or from the tireless movement, or from the suggestion of passions, or from the inability of feelings, or from the way of perception.

Idols Cave There are from the inherent in each properties of both the soul and the bodies, as well as from education, from habits and accidents. Although this genus of idols is diverse and numerous, yet we indicate on those that require most caution and most of all are able to seduce and pollute the mind.

People love or those private sciences and theories, the authors and inventors of whom they consider themselves, or those in which they have invested most and to which they are more accustomed to. If people of this kind are dedicated to philosophy and general theories, then under the influence of their preceding designs, they distort and spoil them. \\ ... \\

The biggest and as it were, the fundamental difference of the minds regarding philosophy and sciences is as follows. Some minds are stronger and suitable in order to notice differences in things, others - in order to notice the similarity of things. Solid and sharp minds can focus their reflections, lingering and stopping the path of each subtlety. And the minds are sublime and movable recognize and compare the thinners of things inherent thinner everywhere. But those and other minds easily come too far in pursuit or for divisions of things or by shadows.

Contemplation of nature and bodies in their simplicity grind and relax the mind; Contemplation of nature and bodies in their complexity and configurations are stunned and paralyzed by the mind. \\ ... \\ Therefore, these contemplations should alternate and replace each other so that the mind is used simultaneously insightful and susceptible and to avoid our dangers and those idols that arise.

Carefulness in contemplations should be as follows to prevent and drive out the cave idols, which is mainly occurring either from the domination of past experience, or from an excess of comparison and separation, or from a tendency to temporarily or from the extensity and insignificance of objects. In general, let every contemplating nature of things consider it doubtful what he particularly captured and captured his mind. A lot of precautions are needed in cases of such preference so that the mind remains balanced and clean.

But everyone is idols Squarewhich penetrate the mind along with words and names. People believe that their mind commands words. But it happens that the words turn their strength against the mind. It made science and philosophy with sophistic and inactive. The larger part of the words has its own source an ordinary opinion and shares things within the boundaries most obvious to the mind of the crowd. When more acute mind and more diligent observation want to revise these borders, so that they are more matched nature, the words become a hindrance. From here it turns out that the loud and solemn dispute disputes often turn into disputes regarding words and names, and it would be more prudent (according to customs and wisdom of mathematicians) with them and start in order to bring them in order by definitions. However, such definitions of things, natural and material, cannot heal this disease, because the definitions themselves consist of words, and the words give birth to words, so it would be necessary to reach private examples, their ranks and order, as I will soon and say, When I proceed to the method and ways to establish concepts and axioms.

Idols Theater. It is not condensed and not penetrated into the mind secretly, and openly transmitted and perceived from fictional theories and from the votes of evidence. However, an attempt to refute them strongly would not correspond to what we say. After all, if we do not agree with regarding the grounds or relative to evidence, no arguments for the better are impossible. The honor of the ancients remains unaffected, they have nothing taken away because the question concerns only the path. As they say, a lame that goes on the road is ahead of who runs without a road. Obviously, the more deft and fast running off-road, the greater will be his wandering.

Our way of discovering the sciences is that he leaves the sharpness and strength of the validation, but almost equifies them. Just as for a straight line or description of the perfect circle, a lot of hardness, skillfulness and troughting of a hand, if you act only with your hand, is not much or nothing to do if you use a circulation and a ruler. This is the case with our method. However, although individual refutations are not needed here, we must say something about the types and classes of this kind of theories. Then also on the external signs of their weakness and, finally, the reasons for such a glood long and universal consent is in delusion, so that the approach to the truth is less difficult and that the human mind is swept away and rejected the idol.

Theater idols or theories are numerous, and they can be even more, and someday they may be more. If during many centuries, the minds of people were not occupied by religion and theology and if civil authorities, especially monarchical, did not oppose this kind of innovations, albeit even speculative, and, referring to these innovations, people did not bring danger on themselves and did not bother In his welfare, not only without receiving the awards, but also undergoing contempt and unfriendly, then, without a doubt, many philosophical and theoretical schools would be introduced, similar to those who once in a wide variety flourished in the Greeks. Just as many assumptions regarding the phenomena of heavenly ether can be made, in the same way and a variety of dogmas relative to philosophy phenomena can be formed. The fiction of this theater is typical of the same, which is also in the theaters of poets, where stories invented for the scene are more famous and beautiful and rather can satisfy everyone's desires than truthful stories from history.

The content of philosophy is generally formed by eliminating a lot from a few or more of a lot, so that in both cases the philosophy is approved at a very narrow basis of experience and natural history and makes decisions from a smaller than. Thus, the philosophers of a rationalistic stroller snatch from the experience of various and trivial facts, without moving them exactly, but after studying and without weighing diligently. All the rest they lay the PA reflections and the activity of the mind.

There are a number of other philosophers, which, diligently and thoroughly bothering the few experiments, ventured to fiction and withdraw their philosophy from them, amazingly perverting and interpreting everything else in relation to it.

There is also a third sense of philosophers who are influenced by faith and reverence to the philosophy of theology and legend. Some of some of them reached the fact that they bring science from spirits and geniuses. Thus, the root of delusions of false philosophy Trojaki: Sophistic, Empirik and Superstition.

\\ [ . This evil we must warn already now. So, about individual types of idols and about their manifestations we have already been told. All of them must be rejected and discarded solid and solemn decision, and the mind must be completely freed and cleared of them. Let the entrance to the kingdom of a person, based on the sciences, will be almost the same as the entrance to the kingdom of heaven, "where it is not possible to enter the children who do not like to choose."

Renaissance in Western Europe

The XV and XVI century were the time of large changes in the economy, political and cultural life of European countries. The rapid growth of cities and the development of crafts,and later and the birth of manufactory production, the rise of world trade,inby in its orbit, all the more distant areas gradually accommodating the main trade routes from the Mediterranean to the north, which ended after the fall of Byzantium and the Great Geographical DiscoveriesendXVandthe beginning of the XVI century, transformed the appearance of medieval Europe.Almost everywhere now put forward onthe first plan of the city.
All changes in the life of society were accompanied by a widerenovation of culture - bloom of natural and accurate sciences,literature in national languages \u200b\u200band, in particular, visual art. Burning B.citiesItalythis update also captured other European countries. The appearance of typography has opened unprecedented opportunities fordistributionliterary and scientific works,and more regular and tight communication between countries contributed to the widespread penetration of new artistic flows.

The term "revival" (Renaissance) appeared in the XVI century of antiquity

This concept arose on the basis of widespread intimehistorical conceptaccording towhichThe Middle Age of the Middle Ages was a period of hopeless barbarism and ignorance that followed the death of brilliantcivilizationclassical culture,historians of the timebelievedthat art that once flourished in the ancient world was first revived at their time to a new life.The term "revival" meant initially not so much the name of the whole era, how much the very moment of the occurrence of new art, which was usually timed to the beginning of the XVI century.Only later the concept of it got a wider sense and began to designate the era

The connection of art and science is one of the most characteristic features of the Renaissance.Truthful imagemiraandman should have beenrely onon their knowledgetherefore, the cognitive principle played in the art of this pore, especially importantrole.Naturally, the artists were looking for support in sciences, often stimulating their development. The era of the revival was noted by the appearance of the whole Pleiads of scientists,among which the first place belongsLeonardo da Vinci.

Art of antiquitymake uponeofthe foundations of the Renaissance Art Culture.

The works of artists become subscribedthat is, emphasized by the author. Everythingmore appears self portrait.The undoubted sign of the new self-consciousness iswhat artists are increasinglythey shy away from direct orders, given the work on internal motivation. By the end of the XIV century, the external position of the artist in society changes significantly.

Artists startcreate all sorts of social confessions, posts, honorary and monetary. A.Mikeellands, for example, ascendedin such a heightwith no fear of offend the crowdents, he refuses to him offered by High honors.He is enough for the nickname "Divine".He insists that all sorts of titles give to him in the letters.and they wrote simply "Michelangelo Buonotti.

In architecture, the appeal was especially importanttoclassical tradition.It manifested not only in the refusal of gothic forms and reviving an ancient order, but also in the classical proportion proportionality,in the development of the central type of buildings in the temple architecture with easily visible interior space. Especially a lot of new was created in the field of civil architecture.In the Renaissance Epoch, more elegantthe appearance of multi-storey urban building (Town Hall, houses of merchant guilds, universities, warehouses, markets, etc.), the type of urban palace (Palazzo) - the dwelling of a rich budger, as well as the type of country villa. A new issues related to layout are allowed Cities are reconstructed city centers.

ABOUT trait - the desire to truthfulreality reflections.

1. The era of the Renaissance and its socio-economic prerequisites
Revival: Translated from ItalianlanguageRinascimento.or from FrenchRenaissance.

In the history of the revival culture, three stages can be distinguished:

1. Early rebirth - XV century.

2. High revival - the first third of the XVI century.

3. Later revival - the middle and end of the XVI century.

Revival begins with the criticism of the former medieval culture, like barbaric. Revival gradually begins to criticize the entire culture preceding him as "Dark", decadent

The second stage is characterized by the appearance of great cultural figures, "Titans" Renaissance: Raphael Santa, Michelangelo Buonotti, Leonardo da Vinci, etc. And indeed, who could from our contemporaries, like Leonardo da Vinci, be an inventor engineer, writer, artist, sculptor , anatom, architect, fortifier? And in each form of activity, Leonardo leaves the greatest creations of his genius: underwater apparatus, helicopter drawings, anatomical satin, sculptures, paintings, diaries. But the time when a person could do freely by virtue of his talent, calling, quickly ends.

The tragic period comes in the history of Renaissance: Dictate of the Church is reaffirmed, the incinerated books are burning, the Inquisition is fierce, the artists prefer to create forms for the sake of forms, avoiding social, ideological topics, restoring a shamelessly dogma, authority, tradition. Restricted starts in culture freeze, but life does not stand still. Another trend takes the top, which determines the face of the new cultural era - absolutism and enlightenment.

Characteristic features and features of the culture of revival.

Usually, characterizing the culture of the Renaissance, still the following features: humanism, culture of antiquity, anthropocentrism, individualism, appeal to the earthly, carnal start, and human heroization. Other researchers add another number of characteristic features: artistic realism, the origin of science, the passion for magic, the development of grotesca, etc.

Achievements and values \u200b\u200bof the culture of revival.

Terrible interest, which manifests the rebirth to the past, to antiquity, led to the value of the cultural monuments themselves. It is the revival that opens collecting, gathering, preservation of cultural monuments, especially artistic.

But in the culture of the Renaissance, the world's perception center has shifted. Now a person is the source point. So, its illusions, error - reality, dality. So, it is necessary to portray the world as it seems to be a person. There is a familiar "natural" "direct" perspective for us, "promising" painting. Italian artist XV century.Piero della Francescain the "Treatise on the picturesque perspective" wrote: "Painting is nothing more than the showing of surfaces and bodies, abbreviated or enlarged on the border plane so that the actual things visible to the eye at various angles are presented at the title border as if real, and so as each value is always one of the part closer to the eye than the other, and the closer looks always appears on the outlined borders at a large angle, the more remote and since the intelligence itself cannot judge their size, that is, what From them closer, and what is further, then I argue that the prospect is necessary. " The Renaissance culture, thus, returns the value of the sensual knowledge of a person, puts in the center of the world of a person, and not an idea, God, like the Middle Ages.

The symbolism of the Middle Ages is inferior to his place of open interpretation of images: Virgo Maria is both the Virgin, and just the earthly mother, nursing child. Although the duality persists, but the secular meaning of its existence, human, and not sacral one comes to the fore. The viewer sees the earthly woman, not a divine character. Although symbolism is preserved in colors, the robe of the Virgin Mary by Canon is painted in red with blue. Color gamma increases: restrained, dark paints - bordees, purple, brown were present in the Middle Ages and dominated. Jotto - bright paints, juicy, clean. Individualization appears. In medieval painting, the main thing is to portray the Divine essence of the characters, and it is all one. From here - the typicity, similar to the images to each other. Jotto has each figure is endowed with its character, it is unique, not like another. There is a "reduction" of biblical content, the wonderful phenomena are reduced to ordinary, to household details, to the house, economy. So, the angel is in the usual room. In the medieval detail of the landscape, the figures of a person are not dependent on the perspective - on or closer to us they are located, not from the physical space, and from the sacred, divine weight of figures. Jotto is still preserved - the larger size is attached to more significant figures, and it brings him closer with the medieval.

Reborn culture is rich in names, the names of the artists are especially known.Michelangelo Buonotti (1475-1564), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Tizian Veselio (1488-1576), El Greco (1541-1614) and others. Artists seek to generalize ideological content, Synthesis, their embodiment in images. At the same time, they are distinguished by the desire to allocate the main, the main thing in the image, and not the details, in particular. In the center there is an image of a person - a hero, and not the Divine dogma, who accepted the human appearance. The idealized person is increasingly interpreted as a citizen, titanium, hero, that is, as a modern, cultural person. We do not have the opportunity to consider the features of the activities of the Renaissance, but to say a few words about the work of Leonardo da Vinci are simply necessary. The greatest fame received such pictures like "Annunciation", "Madonna with a flower" (Madonna Beno'a), "Whale worship", "Madonna in Grote". Before Leonardo, Da Vinci, artists usually portrayed large groups of people, while faces of the first and second plans were distinguished. In the picture "Madonna in the grotto" for the first time four characters are depicted: Madonna, Angel, Little Christ and John the Baptist. But then each figure is a generalized symbol. "Revival" knew two types of images. These were either a static image of a solemn upcoming, or a story, narration on any topic. In "Madonna ..." there is no one, nor the other: this is not a story, and not the upcoming, this is life itself, her particle, and here everything is natural. Usually artists portrayed shapes on the background of the landscape, in front of nature. Leonardo has in nature, nature surrounds the characters, they live in nature. Yes Vinci moves away from lighting techniques, modeling images with light. He does not have a sharp boundary of light and shadow, the boundary as it would be blurred. This is his famous, unique "swelling", haze.

When in 1579, Jordano Bruno, fleeing from the Inquisition, arrived in Geneva, he met here the same neglence, as in his homeland, in Italy. Bruno was accused of Calvinists in the fact that he tried to challenge the Doctor of theology of Defer, a friend of the Dictator of Theodore Meringue, who inherited the post of Jean Calvin. J. Bruno was removed from the church. Under the threat of a fire, he was forced to bring repentance. In neighboring Braunschweig (Germany), he was also excavated from the church. At the same time, they did not take into account that he was neither Calvinist nor Lutheranin. After many wanderings in Europe, J. Bruno fell into the paws of the Inquisition and on February 17, 1600, he was burned on a fire on the square of flowers in Rome. So the revival ended. But the new, the upcoming era continued to fill the most gloomy pages of history: in 1633 Galileo Galileo was convicted. In the accusation of the Inquisition it was said: "It is not the center of the Universe, to consider land, and I will not have an opinion that is ridiculous, philosophically false and, from theological point of view, also the opposite spirit of time."

These are the features of the era, which is customary to be called "revival".

Interesting and music of the days of the Northern Renaissance. For the XVI century. There was a rich folklore, first of all vocal. Music sounded in Germany everywhere: on festivities, in the church, in secular events and in a military camp. The peasant war and the reformation caused a new rise of song folk art. There are many expressive luteran hymns whose authorship is unknown.Choral singing has become an integral form of Lutheran worship service. Protestant Choral influenced the late development of all European music. But first of all, the musicality of the Germans themselves, who, and today, music education is considered no less important than naturally scientific, - and otherwise how to participate in the multi-chain chore?

Introduction

Revival - a qualitatively new stage in the history of Western European culture. Its essence is the transition from the era of the medieval vision of the world to the culture of the new time. This transition was performed in all areas of the worldview and the worldview of a person - in science, religion, art.

Renaissance, Epoch in the history of European culture of the XIII-XIV centuries, marked by the onset of the new time. The revival was determined, first of all, in the field of artistic creativity. As the era of European history, it is noted by many significant landmarks - including the strengthening of the economic and social libations of cities, spiritual quest, resulting in the reformation and the peasant war in Germany, the formation of the absolutist monarchy (the most ambitious in France), the beginning of the era of the great geographical discoveries In the invention of the European typography, the opening of the heliocentric system in cosmology, etc. However, his first sign, as it seemed to contemporaries, was the "flowering of the arts" after the long centuries of the medieval "decline", the flourishing, "reviving" antique artistic wisdom, it is in this sense who first uses the word Rinascita (from which French Renaissance and all its European analogues occurs ) J. Vazari. Periodization of the Renaissance Development Stages in Italy and in countries north of the Alps, as a rule, does not coincide. The generally accepted, but conditional concept of "Northern Revival" is applied by analogy with Italian revival to the culture and art of Germany, the Netherlands, France. One of the main features of the artistic culture of these countries is its genetic connection with the art of late Gothic. The origins of the "Northern Renaiss" should be sought at the turn of the XIV and XV centuries. in Burgundy.

In the XV century The dominant place among the Northern European Art Schools occupied the Netherlands painting. The painting of the Northern Renaissance is interesting in the detailed description of the surfaces of objects, plasticity achieved due to precisely fitted and well-applied light effects and naturalness not visited from ancient times. Brighter than this "cultural revolution" was expressed in changing the goals and methods of creative activity. New methods of acquiring scientific knowledge and education, a new visual system in painting, new genres in literature, new forms of social behavior. The dialogue of antique philosophy and aesthetics, Christian worldview and realistic consciousness of the bourgeois society was arranged. In this dialog, the harmony of the real and perfect, material and natural and spiritual and divine was born, a new type of aesthetic consciousness was born.

It is well known even to the uninitudinal that the phenomenon of the Renaissance had previously arose, took shape and reached the unprecedented brilliance (brighter it was manifested) in Italy. Although it should be remembered that, according to the general recognition of the majority of modern researchers, the term "Renaissance Culture" is not identical, is not equivalent to the concept of "culture of the Renaissance", since the first of these concepts refers to new, actually renaissance phenomena. And the second is much wider, and includes (along with the culture of the Renaissance) and other cultural phenomena of their time (including those who continued to exist medieval, unnecessary cultural processes in their nature. We should not forget that the chronological framework of the Renaissance of unequal for different regions of Western Europe and even cultural spheres).

Italy is the birthplace of classic revival. The chronological framework of the Italian Renaissance - 30-40s. Xiv c. (or from the middle of the X1U century) - the end of the XVI century. (either the first decades of the XVII century). Renaissance in the rest of Western Europe - like French, German, Netherlands or, the so-called, Northern Renaissance (in foreign science under Northern Europe, traditionally imply countries and territories to north of the Alps, that is, north of Italy, - Netherlands, France, Germany, etc.). Hence the concept of "Northern Revival", applied to the culture and art of these countries and is not so much geographical as historical and artistic definition.

The purpose of this course work is to analyze the peculiarities of the Renaissance, most fully expressed in Italy XII-XVI centuries. In the course of the study, it is necessary to identify innovative features in the field of architecture, sculptures and painting the most vivid representatives.

explore the literature on the research topic;

describe the features of the Renaissance Age;

analyze the creativity of Filippo Brunneles, Donatello, Mazaccho, Yang Wang Eyka, Jerome Bosch, Peter Breygel, Albrecht Dürer.

Structure of work - term paper consists of introduction, 2 chapters, conclusions and applications. In the introduction, the main aspects of the entire study are briefly described, and objectives are also set. The I Chapter describes the general importance of the Renaissance, problems in the art of this era, also innovation entered into the art of artists. The II chapter examines the culture of the Northern Renaissance, "traditionalism" and "novelism" in the painting of the Netherlands, as well as the manifestation of the Renaissance in Germany and France.

1. Renaissance - a new image of the world in culture

.1 Common European Renaissance

In the European culture of that time, asceticism and dogmatism of the Middle Ages are replaced by the new sensations of the meaning of life, the wide possibilities of human mind and experience. The forms of the ancient world are first manifested in the architecture of Italian cities, in the interiors of buildings. The Wizard of the Italian Renaissance creates beautiful temples, theaters, palaces in Florence, Venice, Siena, Mantua and other Italian cities. Under the influence of local conditions, clearly distinguishable Italian, French, Netherlands, German, English and Spanish varieties of a new style are concluded.

The formal language of ancient art was put to the service of the ideals of the new era. A folding new architectural style was obtained, like ancient Roman, very eclectic, and its formal elements were clearly borrowed from the arsenal of the forms of Greco-Roman orders. Calm horizontal members of the forms of buildings of the new architecture are contrasted now as limped to the gothic lines. The roofs become flat; Instead of towers and spiers, dome, drums, sails, dual orders, etc. often appear.

The problem of the Renaissance is that the installation on the individuality, implemented so powerfully and superb in the field of art, was subsequently destructive to society's social and political life. The spontaneous self-affirmation of individuality was often very far from noble revival humanism. Here, the individuality turns into obviously pronounced individualism, the zoological statement of only its needs and desires, the gradual degradation of humanistic morality in various forms of situational ethics. Also, the problems of civil debt, high moral qualities, the feat, the image of the harmoniously developed, strong spirit and body of a Hero man who managed to rise above the level of everyday life were advanced. The art of High Renaissance is replete from minor details in the name of the general image, the desire for the harmony of the beautiful parties to life. Portrait painting develops and becomes one of the important achievements of the Renaissance.

A person has a reflection mirror only if the outer limit is carried out, the limit due to which the adherence force begins. The revived individual is, first of all, a natural, spontaneously self-expression creature.

It is not difficult to carry out a similar parallel with our modern society. The sublime ideal of a person who has not only a sense of patriotism, but also a debt, conscience, morality, so long brought up by the Soviet ideology, gave way to a person striving for material benefits, thirsting for light and fast profitable, carnal pleasures. Liberation and peculiarity, satiety and individualism (when everyone for himself) - Here is a far incomplete list of the features inherent in the modern man and the man of the Renaissance.

1.2 Innovative features in architecture, painting and sculpture of Italy

Revival originated in Italy and several stages passed, while having a huge impact on the art and culture of other Western European countries. In the history of art, we can talk about the development of visual art and sculpture as part of the direction of the early Renaissance in the XIV century. In the history of architecture, the situation is different. Due to the economic crisis of the XIV century, the Renaissance period in architecture began only with the beginning of the XV century and lasted until the beginning of the XVII century in Italy and longer beyond.

According to the abundance of talented masters, the wise art of artistic creativity Italy was ahead of all other European countries in the XV century. The ideas of Renaissance were not just a change of style directions and artistic tastes, but also led deep changes in all areas of the life of that society.

Filippo Bruneland. (1337-1446) - one of the greatest Italian architects XV century. He opens a new chapter in architecture history -

the formation of the style of revival. The innovative role of the master was marked by his contemporaries. When, in 1434, Leon Battist Alberti came to Florence, he was amazed by the appearance of artists who were not inferior to "to anyone from the ancient and glorified art craftsmen." The first among these artists he called Bruneland. According to the earliest biograph of the master Antonio Manetti, Bruneland "updated and introduced into appeal that the style of architecture, which is called Roman or Classic," whereas it was built only in the "German" or "modern" (that is Gothic) manner. A hundred years later, Vazari would argue that the Great Florentine architect appeared in the world, "to give a new form of architecture."

Given with the Gothic, Brunelands relied not so much on the ancient classic, how much to the architecture of the PRATINESSAN and the national tradition of Italian architecture, which preserved the elements of the classics throughout the Middle Ages. Creativity Bruneland stands at the turn of two eras: at the same time it completes the tradition of the PRATINESSAN and puts the beginning of the new way of development of architecture.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Florentine rulers, workshop organizations and merchant guilds paid great attention to the completion of the construction and decoration of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Basically, the building was already erected, but the huge dome conceived in the XIV century was not implemented. Since 1404, Brunelands participate in the preparation of dome projects. In the end, he received an order for the performance of work and becomes his leader. The main difficulty that stood before the master was caused by the giant size of the span of the Midrodesta (over 48 meters), which demanded special efforts to facilitate retire. By applying a witty design, Bruntelleski allowed the problem by creating, by expressing Leon, Alberta Battists, "the scene invention, which, truly, as incredibly in our time, however may be, it was unseen and not available to the ancient." The dome was started in 1420 and completed in 1436 without a flashlight, completed according to Bruneland drawings after the death of the wizard. This work of Florentine architecto laid the beginning of the construction of the Churches of the Italian Renaissance, right up to the Cathedral of St. Peter, who was crowned with Michelangelo dome.

One of the main works of Bruneland is the church of San Lorenzo rebuilt in Florence. He began her from the side of the side

capella, who was subsequently named the name of the old barn in it, he created the type of Renaissant central construction, square in terms of and blocked by a dome, resting on the sail. The church building itself is a three-day basilica.

The ideas of the dome facilities laid down in the old panic San Lorenzo received further development in one of the most famous and perfect creations of Bruneland - Chapel of Pazzi (1430-1443). It has the clarity of the spatial composition, the cleanliness of the lines, the grace of proportions and decorations. The centric character of the building, all the volumes of which are grouped around the bribing space, simplicity and clarity of architectural forms, harmonic equilibrium of parts make the Capel Pazzi focusing the new principles of the Renaissance architecture. Bruneland works - Oratorius of the Church of Santa Maria Deli Angeli, Church of San Spirito and some others - remained unfinished.

New trends in visual arts used to appear in sculpture. At the beginning of the 15th century, large orders for the decoration of the largest buildings of the city - the Cathedral, Baptistery, Church of the OR San Mekele, which came from the richest and most influential in the city of shops and merchant guilds, attract many young artists, from whose environment a number of outstanding masters will soon be put forward.

Donatello (1386-1466) - The Great Florentine Sculptor, who stood at the head of the masters, put the beginning of the Renaissance. In

he made a piece of time as an authentic innovator.

Based on a thorough study of nature and skillfully using an antique heritage, Donatello was the first of the Masters of Renaissance, it was able to solve the problem of sustainable formulation of the figure, convey the organic integrity of the body, his gravity, mass. His creativity strikes the variety of new beginnings. He revived the image of nudity in the statue plastic, laid the beginning of a sculpture portrait, cast the first bronze monument, created a new type of tombstone, tried to solve the problem of a free standing group. One of the first, he began to use the linear perspective theory in his works. The problems scheduled in the work of Dontello for a long time determined the development of European sculpture.

Already in 1406, Donatello fulfilled for the cathedral of Marble "David" (1408-1409. Florence, National Museum).

Refusing the traditional image of the king of David in the form of an elder with a lyrué or a sweat of Islam in his hands, Donatello presented David Junior at the time of the celebration above the defeated Goliath. The proud consciousness of his victory, David stands to occupy, trampled the enemy head chopped head. By creating this image of the biblical hero, Donatello sought to rely on the ancient traditions, the effect of antique prototypes in the face and hair interpretation was especially noticeably affected: the face of David in the frame of long hair, covered by the shepherd's caps, is almost not visible due to the easy head slope. There is in this statue - formulation of the figure, bending of the torsa, the movement of the hands - and the essay of Gothic. However, a bold impulse, movement, spirituality already allow you to feel the temperament of Donatello.

In his works, Donatello sought not only to the objective correctness of proportions and the construction of the figure, but always took into account the impression that will produce a statue set on the place intended.

Statue George is one of Donatello's vertices. Here he creates a deeply individual image and at the same time embodies that ideal of a strong person, a mighty and beautiful man who was highly consonant with an era and later found a reflection in many works of the Masters of the Italian Renaissance. This is a typical feature of the art of the early rebirth, due to the desire of the artist to free themselves from the medieval canon, leveled the human person.

In the middle of a century, the sculpture of Florence loses the monumental character and features of dramatic expression. Extra widespread use of secular and household motifs, the sculptural portrait occurs and quickly spreads.

Florence painting the first third of the XV century is rich in contrasts. As in the sculpture, it takes a decisive fracture from the marked influence of the Late Art of the Late Art of the Renaissance Art. The head of the new direction was Mazacho, whose activity falls on the third decade of the XV century. Its radical and bold innovations made a huge impression on artists, but were only partially perceived.

Mazacho (1401-1428) - a man who is obsessed with art, indifferent to everything that lay outside of him, careless and scattered, and for this scatleton, and called Mazacho, that translated from Italian means Mazila.

A huge impact on the young artist was the art of Jotto, as well as creative contact with the sculptor Donatello and the architect of Bruneland. Mazacho, together with Brunelles and Donatello, headed the realistic direction in the Florentine Renaissance art.

The earliest of the preserved work is considered "Madonna with a baby, St. Anna and Angels" (about 1420).

In 1426, Mazacho wrote a large altar polyptype for the Church of Del Carlin in Pisa. Written at about the same time (1426-1427) in the old Gothic Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence the fresco "Trinity" reflects the new stage in the work of Mazacho. In the composition of the frescoes, the system of a linear perspective was used for the first time, brunalelles workers worked at that time. The first plans for her occupy a cross with a crucified Christ and the upcoming Maria and John, in the second plan at the top of Christ, the figure of the God of God is visible.

The novelty of the mazachcho fresco is due not only to the skillful application of the linear perspective and the majestic renaissance forms of the architecture written by it. The new ones were conciseness of the composition, and almost the sculptural reality of forms, and expressiveness of persons.

One of the most famous works of Mazacho in Chapel of Brakachchi is "Exile from Paradise". Against the background of Skapor's planned landscape, figures of the gates of Paradam Adam and Eve, over which the angel with a sword is wrapped over. For the first time in the history of painting, the Renaissance Mazacho managed to convincingly perform a naked body, give it natural proportions, firmly and steadily put on the ground. According to expression, this fresco has no analogies in the art of its time.

Mazacho's frescoes in Kapella Bracchchi are snewed with sober realism. Talking about miracles, mazacho deprives them the scenes of all scene of mysticism. His Christ, Peter and Apostles are earthly people, their faces are individualized and marked with the seal of human feelings, their actions are dictated by natural humaniments.

Mazacho does not pinch the figures in rows, as his predecessors did, and he grows them according to the intention of their narration and freely accommodates in the landscape. With the help of light and color, he confidently sculpts the shape of the objects. Moreover, the light, as in the "exile from Paradise," falls, respectively, the direction of natural lighting, the source of which are chapel windows located high to the right.

What has been created by him has become a turn in the history of Italian painting. For more than a century, after his death, Kapella Brakachchi was the place of pilgrimage and school of painters.

2. National originality of the culture of the Northern Renaissance

.1 "Traditionalism" and "Romanism" in the Netherlands Painting

A small country, which includes the territory of the current Belgium and Holland, was destined to become in the XV century the most bright Italy in the hearth of European art. Netherlands, although they were not politically independent, have long been rich and strengthened, leading extensive trading, and then developing manufactory of fabrics, carpets, glass. The major center of international trade was ancient Bruges, the poetic city of the channels; By the end of the 15th century, he rangy, lifting the championship of lively Antwerp.

Gothic architecture of the Netherlands - these are not only temples, but even more Town Hall, city walls and towers, coupe houses

And craft guilds, trading rows, warehouses and, finally, residential buildings of the characteristic long-standing type: with narrow facades and high triangular or stepped front.

Since the churches were erected more of the brick than from the stone, the church sculpture did not receive a large development. Claus Sleuer and his students remained brilliant exception in the culture of the Netherlands. Her main artistic force in the Middle Ages manifested itself in another - in miniature painting. In the XV century, miniature has reached a high degree of perfection, as can be seen according to the famous "Herzog Berry" part-class "illustrated by the Limburg brothers.

Love, diligent, poetic look at the world view was inherited from miniatures of a large painting of the XV century, started by Jan Eyk. Little pictures adorning manuscripts have grown into large paintings that decorate the flaps of the altars. At the same time, new artistic qualities arose. It appeared what the miniature could not be: the same gaze, a focused opinion on a person, on his face, in the depths of his eyes.

In the Hermitage there is a picture of a large Netherlands Master Rogyr Van der Vagen "St. Luka writes Madonna "(Luca's evangelist was considered an artist and a patron saint of the shopkeepers). In it, many typically for the compositions of the Netherlands: the panorama of the city and the canal, written so finely, gently and carefully, with two thoughtful human figures on the bridge. But the most remarkable is the face and arms of Luke, writing Madonna "from nature." He has a special expression - carefully and loosely inconsistent expression of a person who has passed in contemplation. So looked at the old Netherlands masters.

Let's go back to Jan Van Eyka. He started like a miniature, working with his elder brother Governor. Van Eyk brothers tradition attributed the invention of oil painting techniques; This is inaccurate - the method of using vegetable oils as a binder was known and before, but Van Eyki has improved him and gave the impetus to its spread. Soon the oil turned to the Teperu

Oil paints are darked over the years. Old pictures that we see in museums, with their appearance looked differently, much lighter and brighter. But Painting Wang Eykov has really unusual technical qualities: paints are not burying and centuries retain their freshness. They are almost glow, recalling the radiance of stained glass windows.

The most famous work of Wang Eykov is a large Genta altar - was started by the province, and after his death continued and in 1432 she was finished with Jan. The sash of the Grand Altar is painted in two tiers and inside and outside. On the outdoor sides - the Annunciation and the Crankshadeless figures of Donators (customers): the altar looked closed, on everyday days. On holidays, the sash swallowed, in the disclosed form of the altar became a guy more, and in front of parishioners arose, in all the radiantness of Wang Eikovsky paints, the spectacle, which should have established their scenes to embody the idea of \u200b\u200bthe atonement of human sins and the coming enlightenment. Upstairs in the center of Deesus - God-Father on the throne with Maria and John the Baptist on the sides. These figures are more human growth. Then naked Adam and Eve into human growth and groups of musitizing and singing angels. In the lower tier - a crowded Scene of worshiping Lamb, solved in a much smaller scale, very spatially, among the wide blooming landscape, and on the side sash - the scenes of the pilgrims. The plot of worship Lamb is taken from the "Revelation of John", which says that after the end of the sinful world, the Grad of God will fall on the ground, in which there will be no night, and there will be eternal light, and the river life "bright as crystal", and the tree of life, every month Giving fruits, and the city is "pure gold, like transparent glass." The lamb is a mystical symbol of apotheosis, awaiting righteous. And, apparently, the artists tried to invest all their love for the delights of the earth, to human persons, to herbs, trees, waters, to embody the Golden dreams about their eternity and adhesion.

Jan Wang Ayke was an outstanding portrait. In his brush, a pair portrait of Arnolphin's spouses, an image of ordinary people dressed in the then pretty fashionable fashion, in an ordinary room with a chandelier, a canopy, a mirror and a room dog seems to be some wonderful sacrament. He seems to be worshiped and a candle light, and a brush of apples, and a convex mirror; He is in love with each trait of the pale long face of Arnolphin, who keeps his gentle wife as a hand, as if he performs a hidden ceremonial. And people and items - everything froze in a solemn upcoming, in awe; All things have a slapted meaning, hinting on the holiness of the marital hobby and a homely focus.

So the household painting of the Burgers began. This thin scrupulsiness, love for comfort, almost religious attachment to the world of things. But the farther, the more prose acted and retreating poetry. Subsequently, the Burgers life has never been drawn in such poetic tones of sacred and dignity.

The early Buregument of the Nordic countries also did not have such a "bourgeois-limited" as his late descendants. True, the scope and versatility of Italians are unusual, but also in a narrower scale of the world, the Bogerger is not alien to a special kind of modest greatness. After all, this is he, Burger, created the cities, he defended their freedom from the feudalists, and he still had to defend her from alien monarchs and the greedy Catholic Church. On the shoulders of the Burgertism lay great historical affairs, the characters of uncommon, who developed except for increased respect for material values \u200b\u200balso durability, corporate cohesion, loyalty to duty and the word, self-esteem. As Thomas Mann says, Burger was a "middle man in the highest sense of this concept."

For the Italians of Renaissance, such a definition does not fit: they did not feel themselves by Middle people, at least in a high sense. Arnolphin, depicted by Jan Van Eyk, was an Italian who lived in the Netherlands; If his compatriot wrote him, the portrait would probably be different in spirit. Deep interest in person, to her appearance and character - it brings together artists of Italian and the Northern Renaissance. But they are interested in it in different ways and see it all different. The Netherlands have no feeling of titanism and the omnipotence of the human person: they see its value in the Burger Okrug, in the qualities, among which, not the last place occupies humility and piety, the consciousness of their smallness in the face of the universe, although in this humility the dignity of personality does not disappear, but even as it is emphasized.

In the middle and in the second half of the 15th century, many beautiful painters worked in the Netherlands: already mentioned Rogyr Van der Vayden, Dirk Boauts, Gogo Van der Gus, Memling, Geertgen That Sint Jans. Their artistic individuals are quite clearly distinguishable, although not with the degree of severity of individual style, like the Italian quathertists. They preferably painted altars and wrote portraits, wrote and machine paintings on orders of rich citizens. They have a special delegation of compositions imbued with meek, contemplative mood. They loved the scenes of Christmas and worship the baby, these plots are solved with them subtle and simply. In the "worship of the shepherds" Gogo Van der Gus, the baby is skinny and miserable, like any newborn child surrounding him, helpless and coarse, with deep peaceful defendant, Madonna Tiha, like a monastery, does not raise the gaze, but it felt that it is full of modest Proud motherhood. And outside the nursery there is a landscape of the Netherlands, wide, hilly, with winding roads, rare trees, towers, bridges.

There is a lot of touching, but there is no sweetness: a gothic angularity of forms is noticeable, some of their rigidity. The persons of the shepherds in Van der Gus are characteristic of both ugly, as usual in the works of Gothic. Even angels - and those ugly.

Netherlands artists rarely depict people with beautiful, right faces and figures and are also different from Italian. A simple consideration that Italians, straight descendants of the Romans, were generally more beautiful than the pale and loose sons of the North, maybe, of course, be taken into account, but the main reason is still not in this, but in the difference in the general artistic concept. Italian humanism will penetrate Paphos of the Great in man and passion for classical forms, the Netherlands pointed the "middle man", they have little business to classical beauty and harmonious proportions.

Netherlands feed addiction to detail. They are for them carriers of secret meaning. Lily in a vase, towel, kettle, book - all the details are carried out except directly and hidden meaning. Things are depicted with love and seem spiritualized.

Respect for themselves, to their everyday life, to the world of things was refracted through religious worldview. This was the spirit of Protestanian reforms, under the sign of which the Netherlands Renaissance passes.

Less comparatively with Italians Anthropomorphism of perception, the predominance of pantheistic principle and direct continuity of gothic affects all components of the style of the Netherlands painting. In Italian quatripentists, any composition, no matter how saturated with the details, more or less strict tectonics. Groups are built like a bas-relief, that is, the main figures the artist usually tries to post on a relatively narrow front platform, in a clearly defined closed space; It is architectonically balanced by him, they are firm on their feet: we will find all these features already at Jotto. Netherlands compositions are less closed and less tectonic. Their depth and gave them, the feeling of space they have more, air than in Italian painting. In the figures there are more solarness and unscrews, their tectonics is broken by a fan-shaped diverging book, broken out the folds of the robes. The Netherlands love the game of lines, but the lines serve not to the sculptural tasks of building volume, but rather ornamental.

Netherlands have no clear emphasis on the composition of the composition, reinforced allocation of the main figures. The attention of the artist is scattered in a variety of motives, everything seems tempting to him, and the world is diverse and interesting. Some scene in the distant plan claims a separate storyline.

Finally also develops such a type of composition, where there is no center at all, and the space is filled with many equal groups and scenes. At the same time, the main actors sometimes turn out to be somewhere in the corner.

Such compositions are found at the end of the XV century in Jerome Bosch. Bosch (1450-1516) is a remarkable kind of artist. Purely Netherlands Tensile and observation are combined with an unusually productive fantasy and a very gloomy humor. One of his favorite stories is "the temptation of St. Anthony", where the hermit is precipitated by the devils. Bosch inhabited her paintings by legions of small crawling, prisoner. It becomes completely terribly when these monsters are noting human parts of the body. All this kunstkamera of ammunition demons is significantly different from medieval chimeras: they were greatest and far from so sinners. Apotheosis of the Bosshov Demonology - His "Music Hell", similar to the garden torture: Nude people, mixed with the monsters with the monsters with the monsters, are swinging in painful lust, they will be crucified on the strings of some giant musical instruments, stuffing and repaid in mysterious devices , fuse in the pit, swallowed.

Bosha's strange phantasmagoria born by philosophical minds of mind. He stood on the threshold of the XVI century, and it was an era, forcing painfully thinking. Bosch, apparently, overposting meditation about the survivability and the omniposta of the world evil, which, as a leech, is embroidered to the whole living, about the eternal cycle of life and death, about the incomprehensible wastefulness of nature, which everywhere sows the larvae and germs of life - and on earth, and Underground, and in the rotten there is a swamp. Bosch watched nature, maybe sharper and more, but no harmony, nor perfection in it. Why a person, the crown of nature, is doomed to death and Tlenu, why he is weak and pitiful, why does he torment himself and others, is continuously subjected to torment?

Already one thing is that Bosch is asked by such questions, speaks of awakened toastfulness - a phenomenon concomitiated by humanism. Humanism does not mean only the gloriousness of the human. He means and the desire to penetrate things into the essence of things, solve the mysteries of the universe. At Bosch, this desire was stained in a dark tone, but it was a symptom of that mental thirst, which encouraged Leonardo da Vinci to explore everything - beautiful and ugly. Mighty Intellect Leonardo perceived the world holistically, felt unity in it. In the consciousness of Bosch, the world was reflected in a fragmented, broken into thousands of fragments that entered into incomprehensible compounds.

But it is worth saying about romantic currents, that is, those who were influenced by Italian Ginkvuene, - they began to spread in the Netherlands in the XVI century. Their carelessness is very noticeable. The image of the "classic nudity", the beautiful of the Italians, the Netherlands was not resolutely and looked even somewhat comically like "Neptune and Amphitrite" Yana Goszart, with their lush bloated televisions. There was Netherlands and their provincial "mannerism."

We note the development of genres of household and landscape stalks made by the Dutch artists in the XVI century. Their development contributed to the fact that the wider circles, hating the papacy and the Catholic clergy, were increasingly disgusted with Catholicism and demanded church reforms. And the reforms of Luther and Calvin included an element of iconoclap; The interiors of Protestanian churches were to be completely simple, bare - nothing like rich and spectacular design in Catholic temples. Religious art was greatly reduced in volume, ceased to be cult.

Pure genre paintings began to appear with the image of traders in the shops, changed in offices, peasants in the market, players in the card. The household genre grew out of the portrait, and the landscape - from those landscape backgrounds that were so loved by the Netherlands masters. The backgrounds grow up, and remained only a step to a pure landscape.

However, everything takes place and in itself concentrates the colossal talent of Peter Breygel (1525-1569). He highly possessed what is called national peculiarity: all the wonderful features of his art are torn to the original Netherlands traditions. Like no one, Bruegel expressed the spirit of his time and his popular flavor. He is people in everything: being undoubtedly an artist-thinker, he thinks aphoristically and metaphorically. The philosophy of life concluded in his allegoryrs, bitter, ironic, but also courageous. The favorite type of the composition of Bregel is a large space, as if seen from the top, so people look small and sink in the valleys, however, everything is written in detail and clearly. The story is usually associated with folklore, Bruegel wrote paintings-parables.

The type of spatial-landscape composition common in the Netherlands without focusing the main persons and events Bruegel applies so that the whole life philosophy is revealed. It is especially interesting to "drop ICARA". The painting of Breygel depicts a peaceful landscape on the seashore: Pahar is walking behind a plow, shepherd leaves sheep, a fisherman is sitting with a fishing rod, and the court sails. Where is Icar and what to fall? It is necessary to carefully look at it to see in the right corner a pitiful naked legs sticking out of the water. Ikar fell from the sky, but no one noticed that. The usual life flows, as always. For a peasant his arable land, for the shepherd, his herd is much more important than someone's ups and downs. The meaning of extraordinary events is found not soon, the contemporaries do not notice it, immersed by everyday worries.

revival Art Painting Sculpture

2.2 Revival in German and French art

At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. Germany was even more fragmented than in previous periods, which contributed to the survivability of feudal oblasts.

The development of German cities was lagged even in relation to the Netherlands, and the German Renaissance was formed in comparison with Italian for an entire century later. On the example of the creativity of many artists XV century. You can trace how the revival in Germany was formed: this is Konrad VIC, Mikhael Pacher, then Martin Shongauer. In their altar images, narrative elements appear, the desire to reveal human feelings on the religious plot (Altar of St. Wolfgang M. Pacher in the Church of St. Wolfgang in the town of the same name, 1481). But understanding space, introduction of gold backgrounds, fraction of drawing, restless rhythm of broken lines, as well as

scrupulous discharge of the main and private, - all this indicates about

the absence of a sequence in the artistic worldview of these masters and a close connection with a medieval tradition. The retirement for Germany begins with a powerful revolutionary movement of the peasantry, chivalry and burgherness against the prince of power and Roman Catholicism. The theses of the head of the German reformation of Martin Luther against the feudal church in 1517 "had a flammifying effect, similar to a lightning strike in a barrel of powder." The revolutionary movement in Germany was defeated by 1525, but the time of the peasant war was a period of high spiritual lifting and the flourishing of German humanism, secular sciences, German culture. This time coincides with the work of the largest artist of the German revival of Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528).

In the work of Durera, as it were, the search for many German masters would merge: observations of nature, man, the problems of the relationship of items in the space, the existence of a human figure in the landscape, in a spatial environment. According to versatility, along the scale of dating, the latitude of the perception of reality Durer is a typical high-revival artist. He was a painter, and engraver, and mathematician, an anatom, and a prospeativist, and an engineer. He traveled twice in Italy, once - in the Netherlands, traveled his native country. His legacy make up 80 machinery, more than two hundred engravings, more than 1000 drawings, sculptures, handwritten materials. Durer was the largest humanist humanist of the Renaissance, but his ideal of a person is different from Italian. Deep national images of Dieregor are full of strength, but also in doubt, sometimes grave

pondays, there is no clear harmony of Raphael or Leonardo.

The art language is complicated, allegic.

Even during the century of century, the process of addition of the French nation, the birth of the French national state began. The political association of the country was completed mainly under Louis XI. By the middle of the XV century. The beginning of the French Renaissance and the early stages are still closely associated with gothic art. Hiking of the French kings in Italy introduced French artists with Italian art, and from the end of XV

in. Starts a decisive gap with the Gothic tradition, Italian

art is rethought in connection with its own national tasks.

French Renaissance wore the character of court culture. (People's character most of all manifested itself in the French Renaissance literature, primarily in the work of Francois Rabol, with its full-blooded formation, typical Gallic wit and cheerfulness.) As in Dutch art, realistic trends are observed.

first of all, in miniature both theological and secular books. First

a large artist of French Renaissance - Jean Fuku (about 1420-1481), the court painter Karl VII and Louis Xi. And in portraits (portrait of Karl VII, about 1445), and in religious compositions (diptych from melen), the carefulness of the letter is combined with monumentality in the image interpretation. This monumentality is created by the chanceliness of forms, closure and solidity of silhouette, static poses, laconicomic color. In fact, in just two colors - bright red and blue - Madonna Mellensky diptych (a model for her served as a beloved Karl VII - a fact, an impossible in medieval art). The same compositional clarity and accuracy of the drawing, the colorfulness of the color is characteristic of numerous Fuce Miniatures (Bokcchcho. "Life of famous men and women", about 1458). The fields of manuscripts are filled with the image of the modern Fuce of the crowd, landscapes of the native turbo.

Conclusion

So, rebirth, or Renaissance - the epoch in the life of mankind, marked with a colossal attack of art and science.

The art of rebirth arising on the basis of humanism is the flow of public thought, proclaiming a person with the highest value of life. In art, the main theme was the beautiful, harmoniously developed person with unlimited spiritual and creative possibilities. Artists began to see the world otherwise: plane, as if disembodied images of medieval art gave way to three-dimensional, relief, convex space. They chased their creativity perfect personality, in which physical and spiritual beauty merge together in accordance with the requirements of ancient aesthetics. Many painters, poets, sculptors, architects abandoned the ideas of humanism, seeking to assimilate only the "Maneru" of the Great Renaissance figures. So, the features of the crisis of artistic ideals of Renaissance manifested themselves in Manherism (cordlessness, manniality), which developed on the degree of the Renaissance era - explicit imitate, the secondary style, hyperbolization of individual parts, sometimes even expressed in the name of the work ("Madonna with a long neck"), violation of proportions , disharmony, deformation, that in itself alien to the nature of the art of Italian revival.

The art of revival laid the foundations of the European culture of the new time, radically changed all major types of art. The architecture established creatively reworked principles of an ancient order system, new types of public buildings were established. Painting enriched in linear and air perspective, knowledge of anatomy and proportions of the human body. In the traditional religious theme of works of art penetrated the Earth content. Interest in ancient mythology, history, household scenes, landscape, portrait. Along with the monumental wall paintings, adorning architectural structures, a picture appeared, an oily painting appeared. In the first place in art, the creative individuality of the artist was usually a universally gifted personality.

In the art of revival, the ways of scientific and artistic comprehension of peace and man were closely intertwined. His cognitive meaning was inextricably linked with sublime poetic beauty, in his desire for naturalness it did not descend to small daily daily. Art has become universal spiritual need.

The topic of revival is rich and inexhaustible. This powerful movement determined the development of the entire European civilization for many years. We are only trying to enter the essence of the processes that happened. To understand, we need to restore the psychological attitude of the Human Renaissance in more detail, read the books of that time, visit art galleries. The ideas of humanism are the spiritual basis for the heyday of the Age of the Renaissance. The art of revival is imbued with ideals of humanism, it created an image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed person. The art of this era is infinitely for a long time to admire humanity, to strive with their vitality and the ability to conquer the minds and hearts. It was the time of titanism, which manifested itself in art and in life. Of course, the era of Renaissance is one of the most beautiful eras in the history of mankind.

Bibliography

1.Bitsilli P. . "Renaissance place in the history of culture." St. Petersburg: Mithril, 1996.

2.Bragin M., O.N. Varnash and others; The history of the culture of Western European countries in the Renaissance Epoch ": Textbook for universities, - M.: Higher School, 1999.

.Garen. E."The problems of the Italian Renaissance." M.: Progress, 1986.

5.Greenenko G.V. Readings on the history of world culture. - M., 1998

6.Dvorak M. "The history of Italian art in the Renaissance Epoch": at 2 t. M.: Art, 1978.

7."West and East. Traditions and modernity. " - M.: O-in "Knowledge" of the Russian Federation, 1993.

8.Ilina T.V. "The history of arts. Western European art. " - M.: Higher School, 1983.

9.Panofsky E. "Renaissance and Renaissans" in the art of the West. "Art, 1998.

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Renaissance - the time of cultural heyday, the heyday of all arts, but the most fully expressed spirit of his time was visual art.

Renaissance, or Renaissance (FR. "Re-" + "Born") had world importance in the history of the culture of Europe. The revival came to replace the average centuries and preceded the era of the Enlightenment.
Main features of the Renaissance - the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in man and its activities). During the era of the Renaissance, interest in ancient culture flourishes and there would be no "revival".
Revival arose in Italy - his first signs appeared in the XIII-XIV centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Jotto, Orcanya, etc.). But it was firmly established from the 20s of the XV century., And by the end of the XV century. reached its highest heyday.
In other countries, revival began significantly later. In the XVI century The crisis of rebirth ideas begins, a consequence of this crisis - the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Periods of the Renaissance

Renaissance era is divided into 4 periods:

1. PRATINESSANS (2nd half of the XIII V.-XIV century.)
2. Early rebirth (beginning XV-end XV century)
3. High revival (the end of the XV-first 20 years of the XVI century)
4. Later rebirth (mid-XVI-90s XVI century)

In the establishment of revival, the fall of the Byzantine Empire played its role. The Byzantines, who moved to Europe, brought with them their libraries and works of art, not known to medieval Europe. In Byzantium, they never broke out with an ancient culture.
Appearance humanism (socio-philosophical movement, which considered a person as a higher value) was associated with the lack of feudal relations in Italian cities.
The cities began to occur secular centers of science and art, which did not control the church. whose activities were outside the control of the Church. In the middle of the XV century. A typography was invented, which played an important role in the distribution of new views throughout Europe.

Brief characteristics of rebirth periods

PRASTORESANS

PRASTORESANCE is the rebirth forerun. It is still closely connected with the medieval, with Byzantine, Romance and Gothic traditions. It is associated with the names of Jotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, Brothers Pisano, Andrea Pisano.

Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)

Painting PRATINESSANS is represented by two art schools: Florence (Chimabue, Jotto) and Siena (Duccu, Simone Martini). The central figure of painting was Jotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled the religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from flat images to volumetric and relief, turned to realism, introduced the plastic scope of figures into painting, depicted the interior in painting.

Early rebirth

This is the period from 1420 to 1500. Artists of the early revival of Italy drew the motives from life, filled traditional religious plots in terrestrial content. In sculpture, it was L. Hibri, Donatello, Jacopo della Kverchar, the family of Della Robbia, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Setignano, B. Yes Mayano, A. Verrocko. In their work, a free standing statue, a picturesque relief, a portrait bust, horse monument begin to develop.
In Italian painting XV century. (Mazachcho, Filippo Lippi, A. Del Kastano, P. Strechello, Fra Angeliko, D. Girondaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocko, Piero Della Francesca, A. Manteny, P. Perugino et al.) The feeling of harmonious ordering of the world, appeal To the ethical and civil ideals of humanism, the joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
Filippo Bruntelleski (1377-1446) - Architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective, became the Renaissance Architecture of Italy.

Special place in the history of Italian architecture occupies Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). This Italian scientist, an architect, writer and musician of the Early Revival epochs received an education in Padua, studied the right to Bologna, in the future lived in Florence and Rome. Created theoretical treatises "On the statue" (1435), "On Painting" (1435-1436), "On Archage" (published in 1485). He defended "People's" (Italian) language as a literary, in the ethical treatise "On the family" (1737-1441) developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In the architectural work of Alberti, to bold experimental solutions. He was one of the prosecutors of the new European architecture.

Palazzo Rchelllai

Leon Battista Alberti developed a new type of Palazzo with a facade, the pilaster that looks like a constructive basis of the building (Palazzo Ruchellai in Florence, built by B. Rosselino according to Alberti's plans, was built on the entire height of the Palazzo and the three-tier tiers.
Opposite the Palazzo stands the Loggia Rchelllai, where shelters and banquets were held for trading partners, weddings were celebrated.

Loggia Rchelllai

High revival

This is the time of the most magnificent development of the style of revival. In Italy, it lasted approximately 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the entry into the papal throne Julia II., a person of ambitious, bold, enterprising, attracted to his yard of the best artists of Italy.

Rafael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julia II"

A lot of monumental buildings are built in Rome, magnificent sculptures are created, frescoes and paintings are written, still considered painting masterpieces. Antiquity is still valued high and carefully studied. But the imitation of the ancient does not swallow the independence of artists.
The top of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarot (1475-1564) and Rafael Santi (1483-1520).

Later revival

In Italy, this period from the 1530s to 1590-1620s. Art and culture of this time are very diverse. Some consider (for example, British scientists) that "revival as a holistic historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." The art of late revival is a very complex picture of the struggle of various currents. Many artists did not seek to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to learn the "mana" of great masters: Leonardo, Rafael and Michellane. On this occasion, the elderly Michelangelo said once, looking like artists copy his "terrible court": "Many art will make it fools."
In Southern Europe, a counter-processing was enthusiastic, which did not welcomed any freight, including the challenges of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
The famous artists of this period were Georgeon (1477/1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610) and others. Caravaggio It is considered the founder of the Baroque style.