Culture Indonesia is considered one of the oldest and richest in all Southeast Asia. The basis of the Indonesian culture is the Malay tradition, which has entered the combination of cultures of all the tribes and peoples inhabiting the islands of the Malay Archipelago.

One of the characteristic features of Indonesia culture is its amazing linguistic diversity - 728 live languages \u200b\u200band dialect are distributed on the archipelago.

From the XV century The traditions of Islam, distributed by the rulers of Malack Sultanate, who took control of the most part of Indonesia, came to the fore. European colonialists who settled on Java in the XVII-XIX centuries were significantly influenced by the country's architecture, contributed to the emergence of major cities and the formation of modern authorities.

National Features of Indonesia

In the formation of the worldview of Indonesians, the chief of the two traditional principles of life - the principle of mutual assistance (Gotong Royong) and the principle of public consent (MUFAKAT), achieved by exchanging opinions during negotiations (Musyawarah) played a decisive role. Religion also has a huge impact on all areas of the life of Indonesians, this is especially true of Muslim norms of behavior and traditions rising to the oldest times.

Despite the fact that the modern legal norms of Indonesia are based on the Code of laws adopted by the Dutch Colonial Administration, the laws of Adat, centuries who regulated the lives of local village communities are universally distributed in the country.

For Indonesian, one of the main life principles of the inhabitants of Indonesia lies in the desire to "save a person" at any cost. This principle assumes not only strict following its social role, but also condemnation of such obscene (for traditional culture) forms of behavior in society as a rapid manifestation of negative emotions (anger, loud cries, swearing), disrespect for the eldest, wearing too open, or flirting with women.

Indonesian National Suit

In Indonesia, more than 300 ethnic groups live, each of which has its own variation of a folk costume - starting from the projected bandages and feathers taken from Papuans and, ending with intricate outfits of the Minangcabo and Torage tribes, decorated with rich embroidery and beads. A classic Indonesian costume arose based on traditional outfits of residents of Java and Bali islands.

The central element of the traditional female costume in Indonesia is the slight narrow blouse "Kebayaya", which is carried along with the Sarong skirt (or its varieties of "Cain" and "Doddot"), painted in a colorful batik technique.

The male Indonesian suit consists of a spacious shirt "Badju", dressed over sarong, which differs from the female variant with a large number of folds. Muslim men in addition to this usually wear fez "Pichi" with embroidery, and Buddhist and Hindus - colorful scarves.

On Sumatra, men and women traditionally wear sarong over pants - trousers or sharovar.

Art of Indonesia

Indonesia boasts a variety of types of traditional arts that developed in centuries and absorbed cultural elements from all over Asia. The most famous forms of the classical art of Indonesia are dancing and dramatic puppet performances.

Dance art exists in Indonesia in a variety of forms - from simple ritual dances performed on holidays in villages, to costume dance and theatrical performances based on the ancient epic, rising to the court dances of Bali and Java. Dances in Indonesia are usually accompanied by the musicians of the Gamelan orchestra, consisting of a large number of strings and percussion instruments.

One of the most striking representatives of Indonesian national dance is Kechak (Monkey Song Ramayana) based on the famous Ancient Indian epic. Action in which a large group of local men participates, performing synchronous movements for complex rhythmic patterns, leaving the lead, resembles a certain mystical ritual or meditation, leaving an indelible impression on the viewer.

In the views of the traditional Indonesian theater "VAJANG", both live actors can participate (in masks - Vaang Toneng or without them - "Vaang Orang") and puppet dolls ("Vaang goal"), with great mastery made by local artisans.

Another type of theatrical art of Indonesia is the representations of the Shadan Kulit Shadow Theater, which became a generally accepted symbol of this country.

Most of the plots of theatrical productions taken from the large-scale Ancient Indian epic epic "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata", so it is not surprising that, according to custom, ideas will last from sunset before dawn, demanding from the audience a considerable ambitiousness.

Initially, Vajang Kulit did not have a relation to theatrical ideas, but was part of the ritual of Islanders' communication with souls.

Crafts Indonesia

Indonesia with antiquity was famous for its skillful artisans working in such directions as wood carving or stone, tissue treatment, work with ceramics and metals. The art of painting the wrapped fabric "Batik" is used as a bright example of mastery of Indonesian artisans. The main battal production centers are concentrated in such cities of Java as Jokyakarta, Surakart, Pekalongan and Chibon.

All over the world, such products of Indonesian artisans are known as "crisis" - daggers with an amazing form of the blade, which are attributed to magical properties. The curved blades of Chris symbolize the mythical snakes of Nag, and adorning them patterns "Pamora" carry an ancient sacred meaning.

Cultural events in Indonesia

Every year in Indonesia there are many holidays, many of which are associated with the religious and cultural traditions of the island state, as well as with important state dates.

Each of the more than 20,000 temples on Bali has its own festival.

The main holidays of Indonesia

• Chinese New Year "Elephant"(February 3) - a holiday associated with the large Chinese community of Indonesia.
• Birthday of the Prophet Mohammed(The second half of February) - for 86% of the population of Indonesia, confessing Islam, this day is one of the main holidays in the year.
• Weak or Hari Vesak(May-June) - the day for which the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha Buddhist countries celebrate the rituals of purification in temples and major street processions.
• Balinese New Year or Day Silence(The end of March - the beginning of April) - marks the beginning of the new annual cycle on the local lunar calendar. Many Indonesians will retire in their homes to spend the whole day in silent meditation. On this day (also known as "Nyepi"), almost all stores and many service sectors are closed. The day preceding Nyepie is a separate holiday - "Melasti". He, on the contrary, is devoted to the mass rituals to offer a good spirit performed in water sources and accompanied by massive festivities.
• Day Pattern(April 21) - is considered to be an Indonesian analogue of the International Women's Day and is associated with the name of the National Heroine Raded Adzhang Pictures dedicated to the fight for the rights of women.
• Bali Art Festival(June-July) - The largest art festival in Indonesia lasting a month and including musical and dance performances, exhibitions, craft fair, street processions and other massive entertainment events.
• Street Festival Jalan Jacksa(July-August), passing on the street of the same name in the capital of Indonesia, is considered one of the largest and most interesting events of this kind. On this day, the whole Jakarta Street turns into one cheerful fair, accompanied by numerous ideas of musicians, artists and athletes.
• Independence Day (August 17) - the largest national holiday of Indonesia, the main celebrations of which are held in the capital Jakarta.
• Ritual Cesodo(August) Every year it takes one of the most beautiful natural attractions of the Island of Java - the acting volcano Bromo. During it, local residents thrown in Zhero Volcano to offerings of the spirit of the mountain, asking for the patronage.
• Ramadan(Start 9 months of the Islamic calendar) - the largest Islamic holiday of the year marks the beginning of the holy month of Ramadan.
• Festival Erau(The last week of September) is a major ritual feast of the tribe of the devil, living on the island of Kalimantan.
• Day of sacrifice or go hello (Tenth days of the Muslim Month of Suul Hija) - one of the most popular Islamic holidays in the year (also known as Kurban-Bayram) is associated with the ritual of annual pilgrimage in Mecca.
• Christmas or Hari Natal (December 25) - the official public festival, which is known not only by traditional walking, but also the largest sales in the year.
• New Year or experience Baru Masi (January 1) - a nationwide holiday, which, in connection with the development of the tourism industry, is gaining popularity from the local residents from year to year.
• Galunhan or Hari Reia Galungan (Every 210 days) - one of the most colorful and popular Hindu holidays on Bali is dedicated to the victory of the Universal Good (Dharma) over evil (Adharma). It is believed that at the time of the holiday, the gods descend to the ground and accept the gifts of people to return to the sky in 10 days (which is dedicated to the special holiday - Kuningan).

In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. Two stages are clearly traced. The internal referees in the development of the culture of the XIII-XV centuries. The Kulikov Battle (1380) appeared. If the first stage is characterized by stagnation and fall after the terrible strike of Mongolian Haling, then after 1380 its dynamic lift begins, the beginning of the merger of local art schools in the general school, community culture is traced.

Folklore.

In the period of the fight against Mongolian conquerors and the Goldenordinsky Igog, appeal to the epics and lesions of the Kiev cycle, in which the battles with the enemies of ancient Russia were described in bright colors, and the routine feat of the people was famous for the Russian people, attached to Russian people new forces. The ancient epics gained a deep meaning, healed in oblivion. New legends (such as, for example, the "Tale of the Invisible Grade of Creek" - the city that went to the bottom of the lake with his brave defenders who did not surrender enemies, and became invisible for them), the name of Russian people to fight for the overthrow of the hated goldordin yoke . There is a genre of poetic washing songs. They relate to "the song about Skarne Dudensevich", Ko Aya talks about the uprising in Tver in 1327

Lettering.

Thanks to the economic rise, business entries are becoming increasingly necessary. From the XIV century The use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growth of records in the records, the appearance of the paper entailed the acceleration of the letter. To change the "statute" when the letters of the square form were discharged with geometric accuracy andthe semi-supersonality comes - a free and runaway, and from the XV century. There is a speed-up, close to a modern letter. Along with the paper in particularly important cases, the parchment continued to use, various types of draft and household records were made, as before, on Bereste.

As already noted, in Novgorod, the lunches were not interrupted even during the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. In the late XIII - early XIV century. There were new chronicles centers. Since 1325, the chronicle records began to be conducted in Moscow. During the folding of a single state with the center in Moscow, the role of chronicle has increased. When Ivan III was going on to Novgorod, he did not accidentally took the prick of Stepan bearded: he could well "speak the chronicles of the Novgorod guilt", i.e. Prove on the basis of the chronicles the need to join Novgorod to Moscow.

In 1408, the communional chronicle was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, who died in the Moscow Fire of 1812, and by 1479 referring to the creation of a Moscow chronicle architecture. Their is based on the idea of \u200b\u200bcommunity unity, the IC of the Institute of Moscow in the State Association of All Russian Lands, the continuity of the traditions of Kiev and Vladimir.

Interest in World AI, the desire to determine its place among the peoples of the world caused the emergence of chronographs - works on the World AI. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by a fragile logo.

The widespread literary genre of that time was the ICC note. They were told about the activities of real IC phones, specific ICs of facts and events. The story was often as part of the chronicle text. The story "On the Battle on Kalka", "the Tale of Ryazan Battle" was widely known to the Kulikovskaya Victory (it was told about the feud of the Ryazan hero of Evpato Kolovrat), a story about Alexander Nevsky, and others.

The brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 is dedicated to the cycle of IC and Association (for example, the "Tale of Mamaev's Boy"). Sophonius Ryazan created the famous Panthetic Poem "Zadonchina", built according to the sample "Words about the regiment of Igor." But if the "Word" described the defeat of the Russians, then in the "Zadonshchina" - their victory.

During the merger of Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of zhiyan literature was bloomed. The talented writers of Pakhomi Logohet and the Epiody of the wisdom made up the lives of the largest church figures of Russia: Metropolitan Peter, who has undergone the center of Metropolis to Moscow, Sergius Radonezh - Founder of the Trinity-Serrshev Monastery, who supported the Great Moscow Prince in the fight against the Ordans.

"Walking for the three seas" (1466-1472) Tver merchant Afanasiya Nikitin - the first in European literature Description of India. Athanasiy Nikitin arrived his journey for 30 years before opening a way to India Portuguese Vasco da Gama.

Architecture.

Earlier than in other lands, stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov. Using previous traditions, Novgorod and Pskov, tens of small temples were erected. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of the time as the Church of Fedor Prettylate on the crime (1361) and Savior in Ilyina Street (1374) in Novgorod, Church of Vasily on the hill (1410) in Pskov. The abundance of decorative decorations on the walls, general elegacity, festive is characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov practically did not change during the centuries. This stability of architectural and artistic tastes, specialists are explained by the conservatism of Novgorod boyarism, who has undertaken to preserve independence from Moscow. Hence the orientation mainly on local traditions.

The first stone buildings in the Moscow principality belong to the XIV-XV centuries. The temples that came to us in Zvenigorod - Assumption Cathedral (1400) and the Savvino Cathedral of the Ozhevsky Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of Trinity Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimiro-Suzdal White Blood Orders. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Great Moscow Prince - to create a mighty, full of greatness, dignity and strength of the Moscow Kremlin.

The first white-eyed walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected by Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortified fortifications were strongly injured. Centenary after a grand construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters, who then held the leading place in Europe, ended with the creation at the end of the XV early XVI century. The ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which preserved to the present day.

Terry of the Kremlin in 27.5 hectares was protected by a red brick wall, the length of which reached 2.25 km, the wall thickness is 3.5-6.5 m, and their height is 5-19 m. Then, in XV c., 18 towers from now existing 20 were erected. The towers had four-tie roofs. The Kremlin occupied a place on the caulation when the Neglinnaya River is shifted (prisoner is now in the collection) in the Moscow River. CO with Oya Red Square was built by the ditch, which connected both rivers. Thus, the Kremlin turned out to be on the island. It was one of the world's largest fortresses, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science. Under the shelter of powerful walls, the palaces of the Grand Prince and Metropolitan, the buildings of government agencies, monasteries were erected.

The heart of the Kremlin - the Cathedral Square, the main cathedrals are published; Its central construction is the bell tower of Ivan the Great (finally completed at Boris Godunov, it reaches 81 m in height).

In 1475-1479. The main Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was built - Assumption. The temple began to build another Pskov Masters (1471). A small "coward" (earthquake) in Moscow destroyed the walls of the building. The construction of the Assumption Cathedral was instructed by the talented architect of the Italian revival of Aristotle Fiorovandi. The sample was served by the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. In the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Fiorownati managed to organically comply with the traditions and principles of Russian (first of all, Vladimir-Suzdal) architecture and advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The majestic five-key Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here, the kings were crowned at the kingdom, Zemsky Cathedrals gathered, the most important state decisions were announced.

In 1481-1489 TT. Pskov masters elevated the Annunciation Cathedral - the houses of the Moscow sovereign. Not far from it, also at the Cathedral Square, under the leadership of the Italian Alevision, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Princes was constructed - Arkhangelsk Cathedral (1505-1509). If the building plan and its designs are made in the traditions of the ancient Russian architecture, the exterior decoration of the cathedral resembles the wall decorations of Venetian palaces. At the same time, the Granovy Chamber was built (1487-1491). From the "faces", decorated the outer walls, she got its name. The Granovy Chamber was part of the Tsarist Palace, his throne hall. Almost square hall, the walls of which are based on the massive quadruple pillar erected in the center, covers an area of \u200b\u200babout 500 square meters. M and has a height of 9 m. Here they were represented by the king of foreign ambassadors, there were techniques, important decisions were made.

Painting.

The merger of local art schools in the community was observed in painting. It was a long process, its traces are marked in the XVI, and in the XVII century.

In the XIV century In Novgorod and in Moscow worked a wonderful artist Feofan Greek, who arrived from Byzantium. The fresco paintings of the Faofan Greek in the Novgorod Church of the Savior in Ilyin are distinguished by an extraordinary expressive strength, expression, asceticism, the hill of the human spirit. Feofan Greek knew how strong long brush strokes, sharp "spaces" to create an emotional tension achieving tragedy. Russian people came to specifically observe the work of Feofan Greek. The audience amazed that the great master wrote his works without using icon-painted samples.

The highest rise of Russian iconographic art is associated with the work of the contemporary of Faofan Greek - the ingenious Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information about the life of an outstanding master is not preserved.

Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by a wonderful victory in the Kulikov field, the economic lift of Moscow Rus, the growth of the self-consciousness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, internal dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity reflected in the works of the artist. The harmonious, soft combination of gentle, clean paints creates the impression of the integrity and the completeness of its images. The famous "Trinity" (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), which became one of the vertices of world art, embodies the main features and principles of the picturesque manner of Andrei Rublev. The perfect images of the "Trinity" symbolize the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of the world 'of humanity.

A. Rublev's brush belongs also to us the frescovy painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of Zvenigorodsky China (are stored in the Tretyakov Gallery), the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad.

Russian culture XVI century.

The religious worldview continued to determine the spiritual life of society. A large role in this was played by the stalloral cathedral of 1551. He regulated art, approving the samples, which had to follow. As a sample in painting, the work of Andrei Rublev was formally proclaimed. But there were not artistic advantages of his painting, but iconography - the location of the figures, the use of a certain color, etc. In each specific plot and image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken for the sample, in the literature - writings of Metropolitan Makaria and his mug.

In the XVI century Completed the formation of the Great Russian nation. In the Russian lands, included in the composition of a single power, more and more generally found in the language, life, nravas, customs, etc. In the XVI century Tangle than before, secular elements were manifested in culture.

Social and political thought.

Events XVI century Called a discussion in Russian journalism many problems of that time: about the nature and essence of state power, about the church, about the place of Russia among other countries, etc.

At the beginning of the XVI century. A literary and journalistic and IC and the composition of the "Tale of the Grand Princes of Vladimir" was created. This legendary essay began with a story about the Great Flood. Then he followed the list of rulers of the world, among which the Roman impener of August was highlighted. He allegedly sent his brother Prus to the shores of his brother, who founded the genus of the legendary Rurik. The latter was invited as Russian Prince. The heir of the Prus and Rurik, and therefore August, the Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomakh received from Constantinople's Imper and the symbols of the royal power - a hat, and precious Barmests. Ivan Grozny, based on his relationship with Monomakh, proudly wrote the Swedish king: "We are related to the relationship from August Caesar." The Russian state, according to Grozny, continued the traditions of Rome and the Kiev Power.

In the church environment, the thesis of Moscow was nominated - "Third Rome". Here the ICC process performed as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - "Eternal City" - died due to heresy; "Oh Rome" - Constantinople - because of the Inia with Catholics; "Third Rome" - the true Keeper of Christianity - Moscow, to Aya will exist forever.

Reasoning about the need to create a strong autocratic power based on the nobility is contained in the writings of I.S. Perestec. Questions regarding the role and place for confess the management of the feudal state, they reflected in the correspondence of Ivan IV and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.

Lettering

In the XVI century The Russian Lettering continued to develop. The chronicles of the beginning of the kingdom, "the first years of the reign of Ivan Grozny are described in which the first years of the reign of Ivan Grozny are described and the need to establish the royal power in Russia is described. Another major essay of that time is the "Book of Power Tsarskiy". Portraits and descriptions of the boards of great Russian princes and Metropolitans in it are located on 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan Grozny. This location and construction of the text symbolizes the invisibility of the Union of the Church and the Tsar.

In the middle of the XVI century. Moscow chronicles prepared a huge chronicle arch, a peculiar IP of the IEC Encyclopedia of the XVI century. - The so-called Nikonovsky chronicle (in the XVII century belonged to Patriarch Nikonu). One of the lists of the Nikonov chronicles contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which the name of the facial arch ("face" is image).

Along with the chronicles, it was further developed by IC and a story, which was told about the events of that time. ("Kazan taking", "On the risk of Stephena Baia on the hail of Pskov" and others) created new chronographs. The book is evidenced by the book written at this time, containing a variety of useful information of management both in the spiritual and in worldly life, "Domostroy" (in translation - housekeeping), the Sylvester is considered to be Sylvester.

Beginning of typography.

The beginning of the Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when the first Russian dated Apostle Book "The Apostle" was published. However, there are seven books without an accurate date of publication. These are the so-called anonymous - books published before 1564, one of the talented Russian people of the XVI century was engaged in the organization of work on the creation of the printing house. Ivan Fedorov. Typographic works started in the Kremlin were translated into Nikolskaya Street, where they built a special building for printing house. In addition to the religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavts in 1574 released in Lviv the first Russian lettering is "ABC". For the entire XVI century. In Russia, only 20 books were published in a typographical way. The handwritten book occupied the leading place in XVI, and in the XVII century.

Architecture.

One of the outstanding manifestations of the heyday of Russian architecture was the construction of tents temples. Tent temples do not have inside the columns, and the whole mass of the building holds on the foundation. The most famous monuments of this style are the church of Ascension in the village of Kolomna, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, the Pokrovsky Cathedral (Basil Blessed), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.

Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. There was a construction of large five-chapted monastic temples on the sample of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Such temples were constructed in many Russian monasteries and as the main cathedrals in the largest Russian cities. The most famous Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergiev Monastery, Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Monastery, Cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. It was the construction of small stone or wooden landlands. They were centers of Slobod, inhabited by artisans of a particular specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron of this craft.

In the XVI century The widespread construction of stone Kremlin was conducted. In the 30s of the XVI century. Part of the Posada, adjacent to the Moscow Kremlin, was acquainted with a brick wall, called by the Kitty of the Kamer (a number of IP IKov believes that the name happened from the word "whale" - the binding of the Zherdess used in the construction of fortresses, others believe that the name happened either from the Italian word - the city or from Turkic - fortress). The wall of China-city protected G on Red Square and nearby Slobods. At the very end of the XVI century. The architect Om Fedor Kone was erected by the white walls of a 9-kilometer white city (modern boulevard ring). Then in Moscow, an earthen shaft was erected - a 15-kilometer wooden fortress on the shaft (modern garden ring).

The stone fortresses were erected in the Volga region (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan), in the cities of South (Tula, Kolomna, Zaraysk, Serpukhov) and west of Moscow (Smolensk), in the north-west of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Izbors, Pechorakh ) And even on the distant north (Solovetsky Islands).

Painting.

The largest Russian painter who lived at the end of the XV - early XVI century, was Dionysius. The works belonging to his brush include the frescus painting of the Christmas Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery under Vologda, the icon with the image of the scenes from the life of Moscow Metropolitan Alexey and others. Dioniria painting is inherent in an extraordinary brightness, festivity, sophistication, which he reached. Applying such techniques as the elongation of the proportions of the human body, the refinement in the finishing of each part of the icon or frescoes.

Russian culture XVII.

In the XVII century The folding of the All-Russian market begins. With the development of crafts and govli, the growth of cities is connected to the Russian culture and the widespread distribution of secular elements in it. This process was in the literature the name of the "Provision of" culture (from the word "worldly" - secular).

The severity of Russian culture was opposed by the Church, saw in it Western, Latin influence. Moscow rulers of the XVII century, seeking to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners who arrived in Moscow forced them to settle their away from Muscovites - in the German Slobod specially allotted for them (now District. Bauman). However, new ideas and customs penetrated the established life of Moscow Rus. The country was needed by knowing, educated people who are able to deal with diplomacy, to understand the innovations of military work, technology, manufactory manufacturing, etc. The expansion of political and cultural ties with Western European countries contributed to the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

Education.

In oh half of the XVII century. Several public schools were created. He worked as a school for the preparation of employees for central institutions, for a printed courtyard, a pharmaceutical order, etc. The printing press made it possible to produce a massive circulation of uniform allowances for literacy and arithmetic. On the interest of Russian people to literacy testifies to the sale in Moscow (1651) within one day of the "Bookwire" V.F. Burtsev, published by a circulation of 2400 copies. "Grammar" of the Maletra (1648) and the multiplication table were published (1682).

In 1687, the first Higher Educational Institution was founded in Moscow - the Slavic Greco-Latin Academy, where they were taught "from grammar, riockers, pigerties, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology". He headed the Academy of the Sofroniy Brothers and John Lichuda, Greek Scientists who graduated from the University in Padua (Italy). Here were preparing priests and officials. In this academy he studied and M.V. Lomonosov.

In the XVII century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Big successes were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure the area, distances, bulk bodies with great accuracy, etc.), in nature observation.

Significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge, Russian landlords were made. In 1648, the Expedition of Seeds Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) came to the strait between Asia and North America. The eastern point of our country is now the name of Dezhnev.

E.P. Khabarov in 1649 made a map and studied the land on Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. His name is the city of Khabarovsk and the village of Yerofee Pavlovich. At the very end of the XVII century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlas examined Kamchatka and Kuril Islands.

Literature.

In the XVII century Created last chronicle writings. The "New Chronicler" (30s) made events from the death of Ivan Grozny before the end of the troubled time. It was proved by the rights of the new Romanov dynasty at the royal throne.

The central place in the IC and literature was occupied by the ICC stake who had a publicistic character. For example, a group of such leads ("Temperature of Deca Ivan Timofeeva", "Tale of Abrahamia Palitsyn", "other legend", etc.) was a response to the events of the troubled time of the beginning of the XVII century.

The penetration of secular began in the literature is associated with the appearance in the XVII century a genre of a satirical story, where there are already fictional heroes. In the "Kabaku" service, "Tale of Cura and Fox", "Kalyazinskaya Podvor" contained a parody of the church service, the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks rose, in the "Tale of Yershe Ershovich" - judicial tyslogita and bribery. The new genres were memoirs ("Life of the Avvakum Protopopa") and love lyrics (Simeon Polotsky).

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed essay on IIA. The Kiev monk Innocent Gizel was "Sinopsis" (Review), where in popular form was the story about joint IC of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the moment of the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian ICI.

Theatre.

A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which existed only four years. German actors played in it. Male and women's roles were performed by men. In the repertoire of the theater there were plays on biblical and legendary-IC and scenes. The Court Theater did not leave any noticeable track in Russian culture.

In Russian cities and villages, a widespread theater was widespread since the times of Kievan Russia - the theater of the scomerokhov and parsley (the main hero of folk puppet ideas). The government and church authorities pursued a schomormility for a cheerful and bold humor, which was pounding the deferred power.

Architecture.

Architectural facilities XVII century. They differ in large painting. They are asymmetrical both within the same building and in the ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there are integrity, and unity. Buildings XVII century. Multicolored, decorative. Especially loved the architects to decorate intricate, unlike on each other platbands windows of buildings. Wide distribution in the XVII century. Received multicolor "solar tiles" - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and bricks. Such an abundance of jewelry located on the walls of one building was called "stone sore", "wondrous sore."

These features are well traced in the Tsar Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich's Tsar, in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, Kostroma Boyar XVII century, in the Novojerusalem monastery, built under Moscow Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - Church of Ilya Prophet and ensembles in a barn and push. As an example of the most famous buildings of the XVII in Moscow. You can call the Church of Nikola in Khamovniki (at the Metro Station "Park Culture"), Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putanka (near Pushkin Square), Church of the Trinity in Nicnics (near the Metro "China-City").

The decorative principle that marked the prudency of art was reflected in the construction or restructuring of fortress structures. By the middle of the century, the fortress has lost their military importance, and the four-tie roof first on Spasskaya, and then in other towers of the Moscow Kremlin gave way to magnificent tents, stressed the calm greatness and the rigor of the heart of the capital of Russia.

In Rostov, the Great in the form of the Kremlin was built by the residence of the Opel, but the domineering Metropolitan ions. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and his walls had a purely decorative character. The walls of large Russian monasteries, erected after the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention (Trinity-Sergiyev Monastery, Savior Efimyev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery under Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, also decorated with decorative details.

The development of ancient Russian stone architecture ended with the folding of the style that called "Naryshkinsky" (by the name of the main customers), or Moscow, Baroque. In this style, the screwdrate churches, the refectory and the bell tower of the Novodevichy Monastery, the Church of the Intercession in the films, Church and Palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod, and others.

For Moscow Baroque, the combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings is characteristic. The floors of buildings, the use of columns as decorative decorations, capitals, etc. can be clearly traced. Finally, in almost all buildings of "Naryshkinsky" Baroque can be seen in the cornices of construction decorative shells, which were first erected in the XVI century. Italian masters when decorating the Arkhangelsk Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of Moscow Baroque, who had common features with the architecture of the West, indicated that Russian architecture, despite the originality, developed in the framework of the pan-European culture.

In the XVII century, the flourishing wooden architecture is experiencing. The "eighth miracle of the world" was called contemporaries The famous Palace of Alexey Mikhailovich in the village of Selom Kolomenskoye near Moscow. This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and clouds. It was built by Russian masters Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and existed until the middle of the XVIII century, when was disassembled under Catherine II due to the windiness.

Painting.

Proviscious art with a special force manifested itself in Russian painting. The largest artist of the XVII century was Simon Ushakov. In his widely well-known icon "Savior Independent" well noticeable new realistic features of painting: volume in the image of the face, the elements of direct perspective.

The trend towards the realistic image of a person and the priority of icon painting, characteristic of S. Ushakov, is closely related to the distribution of portrait painting in Russia - "Persons" (person), which portrayed real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopina-Shuisky et al. However, the artists technique was even similar to icon painting, i.e. wrote on eggs with egg paints. At the end of the XVII century. There were first parns written by oil on canvas, anticipating the flourishing of Russian portrait art in the XVIII century.

It is believed that the very first inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago came from India or Burma. In 1890, fossils of Petecanthrop (Homo Erectus) were found in East Yava, about 500,000 years old. Later migrants ("Malays") arrived from South China and Indochina, and began to populate the archipelago approximately 3000 BC. Powerful groups, such as the Buddhist Empire of the Crested and the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram, appeared on Java and on Sumatra by the end of the 7th century. The last significant kingdom, founded by the Indians, was Majapahit in the 13th century. The subsequent spread of Islam on the archipelago in the 14th century forced Majapahits to retreat in the 15th century to Bali.

Indonesia Includes a full range of various societies and cultures. However, education, the mass media and the policy of nationalism, which the government conducted the entire government, created a certain Indonesian national culture. Distinctive cuisine Indonesia And her crafts, immediately brought it to the international arena.

Batik, the art of imposing wax on the fabric and the subsequent creation of colorful and dramatic paintings is made everywhere in Indonesia, and the center of this activity is Jakarta on Java. Other craft forms are represented by types such as IKAT - special weaving fabric from angry thread; Songket - silk fabric with gold or silver threads; And Chris is artwork, often decorated with jewels. Javanese Wayang - Puppet Pieces and Gamelan - hypnotic music, compiled mainly from percussion instruments - also popular artistic forms.

The majority of the dishes of Indonesian cuisine were influenced by the Chinese, but some dishes in Padan on Sumatra are truly invoking Indonesian. Wherever you are traveling in Indonesia, you will see sellers of snacks, like potatoes, sweet nuts, biscuits or fruits. Rice is the basis of each dish, it is placed in the soup or is fed to the side dish, participates in salads and marinades. A variety of tropical fruits would faint of any seller of greenery from Europe. These are apples with a cream taste, Durio, Guava, Jack fruit, mango, papaya, old fruit and rambutans.

Social and religious duties, for a long time, have formed a special code of behavior, which is called Adat or Traditional Law. Islam is the prevailing religion of the archipelago, it is slightly diluted with elements of the Hindu Buddhism, Adat and Animism. There are hundreds of places in Java, where spiritual energy is concentrated, which, according to believing, can absorb followers. Despite the long colonial period, the attempts of missionaries to transform the Indonesian population into Christians have not led to anything.

Have a long centuries-old history, the reason for this is amazing indonesia geography, or rather, its favorable climate. The development of civilization in these parts began long before our era, people from all over the districts moved to these places for the best life. Such close cohesion of various nations contributed to the fact that culture Indonesia It became so unique and unique.

Religion Indonesia

Most of the country's population professes traditional Islam, which appeared here at the end of the XIII century. This does not mean that, it is only Islam, the country is a secular state, the laws that guarantee any complete freedom of religion.

Economy Indonesia

Contemporary Indonesia It is considered an agrarian-industrial country. Over the past decades, the country's policy has slightly changed the course of its development, the current, it is not only tourism and recreation, but also an increase in the growth of its own industry.

Science Indonesia

Over the years, the country has been the colonial republic, the first Europeans here were Portuguese, then the Dutch, after them the French and the British. Of course, in those days, the state was experiencing not the best period in its history, but thanks to this, much acquired. Many available scientific institutions have been formed by the Dutch enlighteners.

Art of Indonesia

The multinational composition of the state, contributed to the fact that modern culture Countries are unique in its kind. The impact of several religions, such as Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, paganism, etc. has largely influenced spiritual development. Art of Indonesia Keeps the legacy of many nations. Literature, historical architecture, music, decorative and applied art, theater is only a small part of what the country boasts, with such a rich original culture.

Kitchen Indonesia

Local cooking combines the taste preferences of many nations, so for some local cuisine may seem a bit specific. The main ingredients of dishes are cereals, most often rice and seafood, which fill with a large number of different seasonings. Kitchen Indonesia diverse, abundance of dishes, seasonings, sauces can not but rejoice, it should be noted that the pork is not served here, because The overwhelming population is confessing Islam.

Customs and traditions of Indonesia

In the country where more than 300 peoples live, almost weekly holidays are the norm of life of local residents. The state officially celebrates only 3 holidays, the rest are religious, and are held on their own initiatives of residents. Customs and traditions of Indonesia Unique and diverse, the country of contrasts is ready to surprise its guests throughout the rest.

Sport Indonesia

Modern leaves much to be desired. At international competitions, the country is rare when showing good results. The main favorite sports are martial arts, football, chess, motorsport, badminton.

Culture Indonesia

Architecture

The oldest period includes remnants of megalithic structures found throughout Indonesia (I millennium BC. E. - the first centuries AD). The most significant ones are on the Papes Plateau (South-West Sumatra). These are mengirs, dolmen, terraced stepped squeezing facilities. The medieval period was characterized by the appearance of a peculiar culture in the architecture, which was the result of the synthesis of local traditions and brought from India of the Hindu-Buddhist elements of architecture. In the VIII - XV centuries, the leading types of architecture included Chandi (which combined the functions of the temple and the mausoleum), Stupa, Stambha (Memorial Column, Sumatra), Vihar (Monastery, Java, Sumatra), and in the XV - XVI centuries, gradual buildings (Eastern Java), Gopar, Mere (Bali). According to tradition, ornamentics (Kalamakar, etc.) and stone sculpture were widely used. The most famous temple complexes include: on Central Java (VIII - X centuries): Dieneg, Borobudur, will change, Prambanan, Kalasan; On Eastern Java (XI - XV centuries): Traillan, Panatran, Singhasari; on Sumatra - Padang Lavas; Bali - Bali, Gua Gadzhah ("ivory cave"). The peculiarity of the architecture of the Java of the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time was the construction of palaces of fortresses of local rulers - Kratonov (Jokyakarta, Surakarta, Chibon).

The wreck of the Madjapakhit Empire and the spread of Islam led to a decline of indulged culture. A typical religious construction became a mosque. She, as a rule, was a cubic building under a steep roof (sometimes in several tiers), crowned with a spire, less often - "bulb", with a devounted minaret. One of the oldest is a wooden mosque in Demaca (1478). It is originally a mosque in Skudus (XVI century), the red brick minaret which is rebuilt from Chandi. Bayturkhan Mosques are elegant in Semarang, Bengcock (XVII century) in Medan, Jama Tamboy in Jakarta. Civil buildings of this time are predominantly palaces of local rulers - cratones.

In the colonial period, architectural forms and methods of construction were introduced into colonializers. Forts and other defensive facilities were erected (Fort Rotterdam in Uzhungpandanga, XVI century; Fort Malboro in Bengkuli, XVI - XVII centuries; Fort de Cok in Bukittingga, 1825; Medan Headzun in Medan, 1873; Battivia fortress residues in Jakarta, 1619), trading facts and engineering facilities - canals, moles, dams, pier, warehouses. The cities founded by the Dutch were laid on a regular plan with a church and town hall in the center (the town hall building in Jakarta, 1626), but in the future they developed spontaneously. The principle of urban zoning on racial and ethnic signs (Dutch, Chinese, Native Quarters) was characteristic. He got the spread of a Dutch type of a stone single-storey house on a high basement with a red tiled roof and diamond-shaped windows (Glodok and Jatinegar regions in modern Jakarta). Cult buildings were built - lush Catholic cathedrals in a pseudo-style (Cathedral of the XVII century. In Jakarta, Architect Hulsvif), more modest Protestant churches.

At the end of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX centuries. Buildings in the style of "Classic Ampir" appeared - the Palace of the Governor General (now the President) in Jakarta (1826) and its summer residence in Bogora and Chibodas; The building of the National Museum in Jakarta (1868) and others from the end of the XIX century. The buildings of a new type (banks, stations, museums) were erected, urban development was expanded, ports (tanjung-prioca, 1877-83; Surabai port - with the participation of the Russian-building engineer, I.T. Good). At the beginning of the XX century. The spread of the construction in the style of "Tropical Modern" (the building of the former medical school of strings in Jakarta, Technology College in Bandung).

During the period of independence (after 1945), measures were taken to streamlining urban planning and development (Jakarta, Jokyakarta, Bandung). The creation of large architectural ensembles with concrete, glass, steel: university towns, sports complexes, large residential areas, satellite cities, hotels, department stores and shopping centers, airports, cultural and entertainment centers. The Jakarta jewelry was the central square of Merdek with a majestic stele-monument height of 137 m, at the base of which the historical museum is located, with a diponnegoro monument (Author - Italian sculptor Cobertaldo) and singing fountains (1962 - 75), the largest mosque in Yuva Striklal (Architect Silan, 70-80s.), Parliament building, Palace of Congress (created with the participation of sculptors of Sidhart and Sunaro, Artists A.D. Pyrus, Retaino, T. Sutano, 60-70s.). The modern architecture of the country reflects the typical features of world architecture and local traditions.

The folk architecture is represented by various types of dwellings: huts (Irian, Timor), light frame pile houses, large community "long houses" Djakov Kalimanthane, houses with saddled roofs of high removal from Toba Batakov and Minangcabau on Sumatra, traditional Yavanese houses with a pyramidal ceiling, depicting world mountain measure.

art

The ancient monuments of the pictorial art of Indonesia are rock paintings-petroglyphs and paintings, made by paints from local minerals and plants (mainly in the eastern part of the country from Kalimanthane to Irian-Jaya - Abba Caves, Bubble, etc.): Images of people, animals, especially fish , turtles and birds, boats, the symbols of the moon and the setting sun. In painting reflects the chapecological and magical motives, the cosmological representations of the ancient Indonesians and the close relationship of their lives with the sea. Some images (in particular, boats) are maintained in the form of roofs of houses, headscarves, etc.

The sample of the ancient fine arts is also the ornamental sculptural plastic, presented in the Papes area on South Sumatra: statuine images of animals (buffalo, elephants) and human shapes with swords and helmets coated with ornament stone sarcophages.

Great perfection reached the treatment of bronze. During the period of Dongshonsky culture, these are the objects of the cult: ceremonial actuators (Celts), vases, figures of ancestors, ritual drums (belonged to rain spells) with an ornament of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic character. The huge drum of the Balinese Moon's huge drum "Balinese" is decorated with a picture of a human face with large, widely opened eyes and with the urine, drawn earring. Later with the arrival of Hinduism and Buddhism (VII - XIII centuries), lamps appear, trays, bells with a plant pattern and Buddha statues and Bodhisatvi in \u200b\u200bthe style of Amaravati, the appearance of which (staticness of poses, inconsistency of the gaze, roundness of the lines) reflected the Yavanian concept of the transcendental world. Indian cultural canons borrowed by organic assimilation them with local elements. Stone plastic and reliefs of architectural and cultural complexes Chandi Borobudur, Prambanan, Panataran are distinguished high skill. Samples of the visual art of the late Middle Ages are marked by decorative growth, dynamism of compositions and simplified-graphic interpretation of images (as in the theater of the shadows of the Vaang). The development was obtained ceramic sculpture (finds at Traillaun) and the art of cutting ritual-theater masks.

The arrival of Islam with its canons, which forbidden the image of a person and animals, led to the decline of the visual art for most of the territory of Indonesia, limiting it mainly ornament. The continuity of ancient artistic traditions has been preserved only in the theater of shadows and some of its varieties (for example, in Wawng Beber) and the art of carving on a tree (at tribes with animistic beliefs in Jepara). Only on O-ve Bali, the traditions of the electional art were not interrupted: a school of stone and wooden sculptures, artistic thread, painting remained. Despite the penetration of modern Western art, the culture of Bali is at its base demonstrates the commitment to traditional canons: the limitations of the storylines, image techniques (signed, formal style, lack of expression) used paints.

Cinemaless

Cinema began to develop before the proclamation of independence. The first film "Lutung Clasamung" (on the Sundan Legend of the same name) appeared in 1927, he was put by the Dutch of Kruger and F. Karly. In 1930, Kruger set the first sound picture of Nyai Dasima. In the future, the film industry was largely monopolized by Chinese capital (the film company Vong Brothers, "Java Film Company", "Tang Film Company" and others). During this period, entertainment films were prevailed on fabulous and historical stories, as well as family melodramas. In a number of ribs, the Indonesian reality reflection is reflected: "Rice" (1935, dir. M. Franken), "Bright Moon" (1937, dir. A. Balink), "City Nuraura" (1941, dir. Le tech). Great popularity was won by artists Raded Mochar, hand Carto. In 1941, 28 paintings were already delivered. During the Japanese occupation and in the period of struggle against the Anglo-Dutch intervention, the producers of the Indonesians themselves, but the number of paintings declined sharply (two in 1948). However, by 1952 there were already 13 film studios, which were released on the screens 62 pictures. The leading role was played by the Association "Perfini", founded in 1950 by the director Usman Ismail. The beginning of the filming of the first film "Perfini" "Blood and Prayer" March 30, 1950 is celebrated in Indonesia as the Day of National Cinema. The development of non-chamber cinema contributed to the creation in 1950 by the State Filmor Corporation of PSN. In the pictures of the national cinema, up to the mid-60s. Patriotic topics prevail (Usmar Ismail director, Asrul Sani). Among the actors, R. Ismail, Bambang Hermanto, Sukarno M. Nur, Panji Nur, Actress Chitra Devi, Mila Karmila, Farid Ariani.

Political events related to the movement on September 30, 1965 were negatively affected by the position of cinema: a number of figures were repressions, production decreased to 6-12 films per year. The decline was overcome only by the mid-70s, when a decision was made, binding importers for five imported films to produce one Indonesian, and the National Rental Organization "Perfine" (1975) was created. In the 70-80s. The cabin and historical melodramas, comedies, horror films dominated in the cinema. However, among them there were pictures of high humanistic sound, in which there were reflection of the problem of modern society ("Veloiksha and Belli" Wim Umboch, 1978). Curly films of graduates VGIK Ami (Jakarta, Jakarta, "1977;" December memories ", 1977) and Shamandzhai (" Atheist ", 1974;" Pictures ", 1982), as well as Karraya (November 1928 , 1979; "Mother", 1986). In the early 80s. A series of doll films appeared about the village boy "Si Unil" (post. Kunain Suhardiman).

In Indonesia, about 2,500 cinemas, up to 70 art films are created per year, more than 200 are being imported. The cinematography Academy (founded in 1977), annually (since 1973) are held film festivals. The video rental contains 17,220 national and 106,342 foreign films.

Literature

The ethnic relationship of most of the peoples of Indonesia, the community of their historical fates and centuries-old cultural contacts led to a certain unity of both folklore and the literary process as a whole.

In the emergence (no earlier than the VIII century) written literature, the formative role was played by the ancient Indian (Sanskrit) literature of Hindu and less Buddhist complexes. In a modified form, Indian myths from Mahabharata and Ramayana also penetrated the folklore of many nations. Later, such a transformation has undergone legends about the devotees of Islam and the heroes of Arab and Persian literature.

Unlike Folklore, which exitted in the native language of each ethnos, for medieval written literature, the presence of two main languages \u200b\u200b- Javanese and Malayan. The first was used in the Javanese cultural zone (Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok), inhabited, besides Yavavans, Sundami, Balinese, Madurs and Sasakov. The second is in the Malay cultural zone, including all other islands, and historically - and the territory of the current Malaysia. In the creation of traditional literature in Malaysk, not only ethnic Malays and Minangcabaau, but also accommodation, Bugs, Makasar, partly Bataki, as well as residents of Molukksky, some small sordian islands, etc.

All listed peoples in the XVIII - XIX centuries. (and episodically and earlier) also applied to written creativity in their native languages, while the verbal art of other ethnic groups did not go beyond the oral folk stages.

From the middle of the XIX - at the beginning of the XX centuries. Local literary works appear educational trends. At the same time, the press and urban literature on the "low" (vulgar) Malay is born. In the first half of the XX century. Separate writers enjoyed in journalism and artistic work and Dutch language, partly also claimed the role of the language of interethnic communication.

As the most developed and dynamic, nationwide Indonesian literature finally approves itself after independence Indonesia gained (1945). Written literature in local languages \u200b\u200balso undergo significant changes. The bilingualism, characteristic of most residents of the country, is still manifested in the literature, and the individual modern writers create works both at the national Indonesian and their ("maternal") languages.

Music

Traditional musical art is a significant part of the sound-musical creativity of Indonesian peoples. These are Hamelan orchestras, Angklongists, Solo Singing Tegarang, a variety of theatrical dance styles (the performances of the Waown, Topeng Theater, Topeng, Dance, Levelong, etc.), represented by both urban professional troupes and rural amateur collectives. Interaction with Western musical traditions began with the penetration of Portuguese and Dutch (XVI - XVII centuries). In Catholic missions, there was a chore music of a cult type, the brass orchestras of the military garrisons were popular. The most obvious synthesis of local traditions with Western subculture was observed in urban popular creativity. On the territory of modern Jakarta already in the XVI - XVII centuries. The hybrid genres, the forms and styles of music, which united Western European and Asian traditions are beginning to develop. Typical in this respect the vocal and instrumental tradition of Kronchong, ascending to the early colonial period. In the XVIII - early XX centuries. The cities arise the orchestras of popular music, including both local and borrowed types of tools: brass orchestras tangegis (as part of pipes, trombones, clarinets, horn, as well as Rebab, Bedougon Drum, Gong Kedang); t. n. Chinese ensembles of Batavia - Hambang Kromong (from beginning. XIX century, included Chinese, Sundan, Malay, Portuguese tools); Later - the orchestras accompanying the singing of Kronchong and others.

Among the well-known Indonesian composers - Ismail Marzuki (1914-58), Geesang (r. 1915), Supratman (1903-38), Cornel Samanjuntak (1920-46), K.R. T. Madukusuma (1895-1972), N. Situmorang (1908-69), S. Syatipul (1904-74), K.R. T. Warsodyningrat (1882-1975). Among traditional musicians: V. Beratha (r. 1924), I. Nyoman Caleeler (1892-982), Coco Coszara (r. 1915), Tyhang Gultt (1896-1970).

Dance

Thanks to the insolation of individual islands, many dances in Indonesia have retained their original ritual forms. Very diverse costumes, styles of musical accompaniment, technique and plastic movements are very diverse - from strict court drams of central Java, using complex polyphonic music, to archaic rhythmic dances in Irian-Jay. The classic dance has developed in the XIII - XIV centuries. Under the courtyards of the Yavanian rulers based on the synthesis of animistic rituals and Hindu Buddhist canons before the beginning of the 20th century. remained aristocratic. The dancers were selected only from noble families close to the briefness of Surakarta and Jokyakarta. A characteristic feature of the classical dance is a peculiar combination of reference and grace poses and movements designed to reflect the refinement of court tastes. Moving in accordance with the specified choreographic samples, the dancers often freeze, fixing the postures, with ill eyes. Slow rhythmic movements, meditation postures, Gamena melody, accompanying dance, have hypnotic impact on the viewer. Important in the Yavansky classical dance is attached to the movements of the hands, legs, heads and buildings, gestures. Wanted years of workouts to achieve body ownership, which demonstrate troubles or Sermpi dance. Many Javanese classic dances narrate on the struggle of gods, princes and heroes. The second largest school of classical dance - Balinese has developed on the basis of mysterial actions under the influence of Indian and Javanese canons. The dancers are moving zigzag in a circle, hands bent at the shoulder level with elbows up, the head is drawn. The unexpected change of the direction of movements, the evidence of sharp steps - the feature of Balinese choreography. Almost all Balinese dances are plot, many of them include a pantomime and clownade (Barongan, Leongong). They are fulfilled, as a rule, in the open area near the temple (Pura) or in it during religious ceremonies or holidays.

Folk dances are very diverse, including on the themes of rural labor, performed on the Harvest Holidays: Rangguack (Jambi), Aguilis (Madura), Bunosca (Western Java), Kurung Kurung (South Kaliman), Parnare (South Sulawesi); Ritual dances: Sanggyang Dedari (Bali), Sanjang (Balambangangan), etc.; Dancing, expressing the character and habits of animals and birds: Barbach Indang (Western Sumatra); Dancing, demonstrating the military spirit, valor and heroism: Baris (Bali), Embleg, where Kepang (Java), Icehaw (O. Sava), Leko Henu (about. Timor); Modern mass dances: Pendet, Dzhanger (Bali), Jogiet (everywhere), Handrung (BanyuvanGi), Ketu Tila (Java); stylized military martial arts dance (Pupchak Silat); Dancing with a pronounced Muslim flavor: Samam (Ache), Japin (South Kalimantan, RIAU).

Classic and folk dances are developed in the production of modern choreographers (Kusumakesovo created in 1961 the Danceman's Dance Theater; Bagong Kusudajo artist founded Troupe in Jokyakarta in 1958). Choreographic preparation is carried out at the Conservatory of Music and Dance in Denpasar, the Academy of Music and Dance in Surakrat, at the School of Baganda Kusudiardjo and at the School "Creido Beks Virama" in Jokyakarta, at the Institute of Art Education in Jakarta.

Theatre

Scenic art obtained the greatest development in the Javanese cultural zone. The main form of the traditional theater associated with the ancient theatrical rituals and cults is Vaäng. Varieties: Vajang Kulit, or Vaang Purvo (Shadow Theater of Flat Leather Dolls); Vajang Click (Flat Wooden Dolls Theater); Holeng Goleka (theater of coexier volumetric wooden dolls); Vaang Beber (the theater of representing pictures drawn on the canvas); Vaang Wong or Vaang Orang (Theater of the Living Actor); Vaang Topeng (Mask Theater). For the first three species, a verbal beginning is characterized, for the other two - choreography and pantomime.

All types of Vyanka combines the community of plots related to the mythological or mythological historical cycle (local versions of "Mahabharata" and "Ramayans", Panjie cycles, Damar Vulane, Menakjing, Chalon Arange, etc.), and typology of heroes, stylization of images and tensions actions. General is the presence of the lead - Dalange: he manipulates dolls to the Vaang and Vaang Goleng, says dialogues, explains the course of events; In Vajang Topeng and Vajang Beber, he leads musicians and singers dancers, whose performances that are not related to the plot create a corresponding mood in the audience; In Waang Wong, where artists themselves sing and utter dialogues, he explains the course of events, makes it possible to offer the gods before the start of the performance. The necessary attribute of all types of Vyanka is Kayon or Gunungan - a decorative screensaver in the form of a sheet, symbolizing world mountain (measure) or a global tree. It is installed before the start and after the end of the performances, as well as during breaks and at the moments of the change of actions and at the same time can serve as a decoration (depict wood, mountain, fire, etc.).

The most popular is the Vaang Kulit, whose canons influenced and other varieties of Wyanga: Actors in Vaang Wong, for example, dancing, imitating the movements of flat leather dolls. Among the leading troupe Wyanga - "Srividari", founded in 1895 in Surakart by the Chinese entrepreneur Gan Kim.

The most famous form of the traditional theater outside the Javanese cultural zone is mayonong (RIAU Archipelago). In the XIX century The cities were distributed by spectacle, typologically close to such European theater genres, like waterville and melodrama. This is the Malay Opera Bangsavan, or Comedy Istanbul, Sundan Sandivar, Javanese Luduk and Ketoprak, Jakart Lenong. A large place in them is occupied by the judovo intermented, songs and dances that have no direct relation to the main plot. Themes of the Pieces are borrowed from chronicles, legends, fairy tales ("Thousand and One Night"), urban leads of the end of the XIX century. ("Nyai Dasima", "Si Chonat"), popular European novels. Later, the original plays appeared (Andzhar Asmara, etc.). Much fame in the 30s. XX century had a Jachart troupe "Miss Schichi" (Sandivar), in the 40s. - "Opera Dardanwell" (Comedy Istanbul). Currently, "Luduk Mandala" and "Sri Mulataya" are popular.

The first dramatic performances appeared at the beginning of the XX century. And they were implemented mainly in school theaters. At the same time, dramaturgy began to develop in Indonesian. At the end of 20 - early 30s. Significant dramaturgical works create such Indonesian writers as Rustam Effendi, Muhammad Yamin, Sanushi Pan, Armain Pan. During the Japanese occupation and the struggle against the Dutch intervention, the troupe, headed by Usman Ismail and Andzhar Asmara, received fame. In the 50s. Tatang Sartani, Abu Khanifa, Achdiat of Kartartja, Sito Situmorang, V.S. Randra, Agam Vispect, Bakhtiir Siagan, Mottingo Bush. For the best plays created during this period, democracy, social pathos, the search for new ways of development of theatrical art.

In modern national dramaturgy, surrealistic and non -expressionistic trends are dominated (ARIFIN S. Nur), the drama of the absurd (Puta Vizhai) and philosophical plays (F.K. Martha). The tragedies of Sofokla, Shakespeare, Schiller, Plays Chekhov, Gogol, Brecht, Camus, Beta, Jonesko, are put by tragedies. Many of them are adapted to local conditions. The main theaters and troupes are concentrated in Jakarta. Among them "Koma Theater" (Hands. N. Raintiano), "Theater Kechil" (hands. Arifin S. Nur), "Theater Mandiri" (hands. Putu Vizhaya), "Popper Theater" (Hands. Tehuh Karia), " Listra Banga "(Hands. Chek Hendra), LEMBAGU Theater (Hands. Senetombung), Szhazh's Theater (Hands. Icrangera)," Theater September "(hands. Ali Shahab). Great fame uses Jokyakartsky "Bengkel Theater" (hands. V. S. Randra). Significant development received the movement of university and other amateur semi-professional theaters. In the 70s - 80s. Theatrical festivals carried out by the cultural center of Jakarta in the park of Ismail Marzuki became frequent phenomenon. The main training center for the theater - the National Theater Academy, created by Usma Ismail in 1955.

Information about Indonesia