Report: Culture of Byzantium. Culture of the Byzantine Empire

And it first acquired the completed classic form in his orthodox Orthodox version. All specific features of Byzantine culture identified Christianity. According to expressiveness and spirituality of the artistic culture of Byzantium, many centuries stood ahead of all countries of medieval Europe.

Byzantium history begins in 330, when the Roman emperor Konstantin suffered the capital of the Roman Empire into ancient Greek settlement of Byzantiums on the shore of the Golden Horn and the Marmara Sea, subsequently renamed Konstantinople. In Russia, this city is known as King Grad. According to its sizes, Constantinople (who was called "the second Rome") surpassed the "first" Rome, rolled with him on beauty. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in 395, the Western and Eastern Last began to be called Byzanthythia.

Byzantium was located at the junction of three continents: Europe, Africa and Asia, becoming a link between East and West. Multi-ethnicity of the population, the mixing of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imposed a print on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical atmosphere, the art of the Byzantine society.

The most important features that distinguish the Byzantine culture from the cultures of Europe, the front and Middle East are the following:

· Language community (the main language was Greek);

· Religious community (Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);

· The existence of an ethnic core consisting of Greeks

· Sustainable statehood and centralized management (autocratic monarchy with unlimited power of the emperor - Vasilevs)

· Lack of economic and administrative autark (ie, independence) of the Church: Unlike Rome, the Orthodox Church of Byzantium submitted to the royal power.

In the history of the culture of Byzantium, three stages are distinguished:

· Early (IV - middle of the VII century);

· Medium (VII - IX century);

· Late (X - XV century).

The Greek-Roman heritage played a huge role in the formation of the Byzantine culture. The confrontation between the ancient tradition and the new Christian worldview has formed the culture of the Byzantine Empire. The struggle with philosophical, ethical, natural science, aesthetic views of the ancient world manifested itself in the entire history of the Byzantine culture. But at the same time there was a constant synthesis of Christianity and many Greco-Roman philosophical teachings.

The last ancient philosophy, with which the Byzantine culture came in, was neoplatonism, the philosophical and mystical direction of III - VI centuries, connecting oriental teachings with Greek philosophy, and had an impact on the Earlyzantine Patriatic (the works of the Church's fathers). In writings Vasily Kesiariansky, Grigoria Naziazine and Grigory Nissky, in speeches John Zlatousta where the foundation of medieval Christian theology was laid, a combination of ideas of early Christianity was noticeable with neoplatonic philosophy, paradoxical interlacing of antique rhetorical forms with new ideological content.

The most important themes of theological discussions at the early stage of the development of this cult was disputes about the nature of Christ and his place in the Trinity, the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the Universe and the limit of its capabilities. The main Christian dogmas, in particular the Symbol of Faith, were enshrined at the I Ecumenical Cathedral in Naquea (325) and confirmed at the II Ecumenical Cathedral in Constantinople (381).

The feature of the Byzantine culture was the formation new Aesthetics , arguing that the source of beauty, superioring everything beautiful, is God. The material and spiritual world is a system of images, symbols and signs (signs) indicating God. So, everything is beautiful in the material world and in the creations of human hands, as well as the light, color and images of verbal, musical and fine arts are images and symbols of God.

Based on this aesthetic concept, the main types of fine art developed - mosaic, fresco, iconography. Here is strict and stern canon , dictating composition, type of figures and individuals, the basics of the color solution. Canon caused and image shaped image. So, for example, the type of oranges (standing figure of Our Lady with open hands) predetermined the features of solemnity and greatness, the type of image of Our Lady with the infant of the infant "Uming" - a note of lyrical depth and so on.

The main thing architectural The construction was a temple, the so-called basilica(Greek. "Tsarsky House"), The purpose of which was significantly different from other buildings. If the Egyptian temple was intended for the priests of solemn ceremonies and did not allow a person to the sanctuary, and the Greek and Roman temples served as the location of the Divine, the Byzantine became the place where the believers were going to worship, i.e. Temples were designed for the stay in them. The feature of the Byzantine architecture has become dome Basalika connecting the basil and the central temple - a round, rectangular or polygonal building covered with a dome.

The embodiment of these ideas was the famous church of St. Sophia In Constantinople, the construction of which was conducted under the leadership of Isidore from Mileta and Anthimia from Thrall and ended in 537. He embodied all the best that was created in the architecture of the time, both in the West and the East. It was embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Grand Central Cathedral, crowned with a gigantic dome. At the top of the dome was depicted a huge cross framed by the starry sky.

Important component secondstage of the history of the Byzantine culture appeared to confront iconoboretsev and icon reprehensors (726-843). The first direction was supported by the ruling secular elite, and the second - orthodox clergy and many layers of the population. The iconoborets, claiming the idea of \u200b\u200bthe indescribableness and unknownness of the deity, seeking to preserve the sublime spirituality of Christianity, ratified the abolition of worshiping icons and other images of Christ, the Virgin and Saints, seeing the exhaustion of the carnal beginning and the remnant of antiquity.

At a certain stage, the iconobors won the top, therefore, in Byzantine Christian art, ornamental and decorative abstract-symbolic elements prevailed for some time. The struggle between the supporters of these areas was carried out extremely rigidly, and in this confrontation killed many monuments of the early stage of Byzantine culture, in particular the first mosaic of the Cathedral of the Hagia Sophia Konstantinople. But still, the final victory won supporters of iconication, which further contributed to the final addition of the iconographic canon - strict rules for the image of all scenes of religious content.

Late The period of the history of the Byzantine culture, continuing tradition, marks the new stage in the interaction of Christian and antique began. In the XI century, the processes of gradual rationalization of Christian creeds begin. With a special force, new trends manifested themselves in Mikhail Pwell and John Italy . They showed a new type of scientist who does not want to rely on their activities only at theological truths. Science itself can comprehend the truth, even in the field of Divine.

The last religious and philosophical teaching, which became the official form of Orthodoxy in Byzantium, appeared isicham. Isicham ("Isyhius" in Greek means "peace, silence, extension") in a more general sense of the word - this is the ethical and ascetic doctrine of the path of man to unity with God through the "purification of the heart" by tears and through the concentration of consciousness in itself For which a special prayer technique and a psychophysical self-control system, which has some external similarities with yoga methods has been developed. Initially, this teaching appeared in Egypt in the IV century, whereas for the needs of the Orthodox Church itself, it was reworked by Byzantine theologian Grigory Palama . He taught that Ascetic-Isihast in a state of ecstasy directly perceives the unprecedented and inventical radiation of God, the so-called Favorsky light, as a result of which such a "enlightenment" of the Spirit is achieved, which will be able to "live" the flesh.

After 1000-year-old history, Byzantium ceased to exist. Turkish troops who conquered Constantinople in 1453, put a point in the history of the Byzantine Empire. But Byzantium made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. Its basic principles and directions of culture moved to neighboring states.

The main achievements of the medieval culture were:

· Education of viable nations and states;

· Formation of modern European languages;

· Folding of the historical and cultural unity of Europe;

· The emergence of Catholicism (Western Europe) and Orthodoxy (Byzantium);

· The emergence of universities;

· Creating works of art, achieving scientific and technical success that have enriched world culture.

Culture of Byzantium

Introduction

The history of Byzantium as an independent state (395-1453) began with the section in 395, the Roman Empire on the Eastern and Western part. The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire became the city Constantinople, founded in 324 by the emperor Konstantin (OK 285-337). After the invasion of the barbaric tribes in 476, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, and the eastern part of the empire became its succession.

The Byzantines themselves called their empire Romary Kingdom, i.e. Roman Empire, and Constantinople - New Rome. Since Constantinople was on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, then on this title and the whole eastern part began to call Byzantine Empire, or Byzantia.

1. Features of the historical development of Byzantium

In the history of Byzantium, features related to geographic, political, economic, ethnic, religious factors are traced. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imposed a print on social life, statehood, religious philosophical ideas, culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went its historical way, in many ways other than the fate of the countries of both the East and the West.

. The territory of Byzantium and the features of the economy

At the beginning of its existence, Byzantium possessed a huge territory. She included small Asia, the Balkan Peninsula, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Crete Islands and Cyprus, Chersonesos in the Black Sea and Lasika in the Caucasus, some areas of Arabia, Islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Such a geographical location predetermined the connection of the Byzantine civilization with two different worlds - East and West. Here, the most important trading paths - the land and sea "silk way" to China and the "Path of Incense" - through Arabia to the ports of the Red Sea. Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean.

By staging from the invasion of the barbarians, Byzantium was inherited from Rome a lot of prosperous areas with a variety of economies and developed cities. The province of Byzantium in the Balkans - Frace, and Egypt was the main residents of the Empire, they were called bread pantry. In the East, the production of leather, wool tissues, metal products flourished in Malaya Asia, viticulture, gardening, cattle breeding was highly developed. Therefore, Byzantium was provided with raw materials, agricultural products, minerals. Crafts developed in Byzantium, which did not know in Western Europe: the production of jewelry, glassware, woolen and silk fabrics. There were fewer slaves, more free peasants than in Western Europe, which led to a smaller exhaustion of land, higher harvests.

. The role of cities and population

In Byzantium, lively and crowded cities were preserved, which were cultural centers. In IV-V centuries. The largest cities were Alexandria, Antioch (Syria), Edez. (Mesopotamia), Tir, Beirut, Ephesus, Smyrna, Nikeya (Asia Minor), Fesaloniki and Corinth (European part). Large urban centers of Byzantium retained the appearance of an ancient city. They had a clear layout of the streets with portica and squares decorated with antique statues.

Exceptional role played Constantinople, Successfully located in the Bosphorus Strait. Already in the VI century. He turned into the largest trading and craft center, which contemporaries called a "huge luxury workshop", "workshop of the Universe." Dozens of merchant ships from different countries constantly arrived in the Constantinople port. Byzantine merchants are rich in trade with Iran, India, China. The meaning of Constantinople as a cultural and religious center grew. In the capital of Byzantium, the widespread construction of secular buildings, spectacular structures, as well as temples. By the beginning of the V c. 150 thousand people lived here, and in the first half of the VI century. - 375 thousand, i.e. as much as in Rome. Constantinople personified the power and beauty of the Byzantine Empire.

The population of Byzantium, which achieved about 30-35 million people, consisted of various ethnic groups: Syrians, Jews, Armenians, Georgians, Copds, Greeks. Many nations, especially in the eastern provinces, firmly preserved their originality, language, culture, morals and customs. But gradually in Byzantium, the main ethnic Greek core - Greeks, who were the most numerous nationalities of the Empire. Although Romans lived in Byzantium a little, the state language before the VII century. There was a Latin language, and from the VII century. - Greek.

. Stages of state development

Behind the thousand-year history, Byzantium evolved in socio-economic relations from the slave-owned building to the feudal, which was finally established in the IX-XI centuries. The transition to feudalism took place in Byzantium slower than in Western Europe, which was explained by the influence of both internal and external reasons. In IV-VI centuries. Slavery was still common in Byzantium, although the forms of operation of slaves have already changed: slaves began to give land, they were allowed to have a family and their own economy, the number of slaves released to the will increased. In VII-IX centuries. The development of feudalism in Byzantium acquired synthesis features, which was due to the role of Slavic tribes. Under the influence of the settlement of the Slavs, the main cell of the economic life of Byzantium was the rural community. Labor slaves I. colon gradually replaced by the work of dependent peasants. X-XII centuries. Became a period of approval of feudal relations, approval of large feudal private property. At the same time, feudalism in Byzantium was significantly different from Western European - the state played an important role here. It controlled the number of land owned by Feodal, had the right to confiscate it, regulate taxes. Byzantine feudal feudalities did not possess the judicial function. The Byzantine State itself was the owner of huge land possessions serviced by the "state peasants". The position has changed in the XIII-XV centuries. When

Byzantium broke into parts and the power of the state was undermined. At this time, the role of feudal aristocracy increased, the positions of large private land ownership were strengthened, the functions of state power on the ground went to the feudal.

Byzantium was subjected to attacks ready, Slavic tribes (V-VI centuries), the Bulgarian kingdom, which existed in the VII - early XI centuries; The territorial claims of a powerful opponent in the East - Iran, with whom a long bloody war in the VI B was followed. For trading paths. In the history of Byzantium VII century. was tragic

. Byzantium and neighbors. End of the Byzantine Empire

the Arab tribes that have created their statehood and the United NEW religion - Muslim, captured Syria, Palestine, North Africa. At this time, the territory of the Byzantine Empire decreased three times. In IX century Byzantium managed to recover as a strong centralized empire, which it remained until the XIII century, when her sunset began. In 1204, Constantinople was captured by the crusaders, the empire again broke into parts. Despite the restoration of the unity of the Empire in the second half of the XIII century, the state power at this historical stage could not resist feudal separatism. Byzantium in the XIV-XV centuries. More and more crushed to the dots. Empire weaker. The army has decreased. In 1453, Turks defeated Constantinople, while capturing the entire empire at the same time. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist.

. The cult of the imperial power

Byzantium was a state-empire, in which the management was carried out from the center. In the capital, tax lists were drawn up, the provinces were sent out in the province of appliances, complaints about solving local courts were sent to the capital.

The emperor had a practically unlimited power, he could execute the subjects, despite their position, confiscate property, appointed by his position. He possessed the legislative authority, judicial, led the army and determined the foreign policy. Control over the life of the country was carried out by the emperor. His land ownership was huge. However, the emperor did not deify in the full sense of the word, he was considered mortal man, but in relation to society he was the likeness of the Heavenly Father. The duty of the emperor was to imitate God. This goal was subordinated to the whole ritual of the palace life. The emperor has always been on the elevation; The throne was doubled, it was left on holidays and Sundays a place for Christ - as his symbol on the seat pinned the cross.

Despite the perception of the emperor as the likeness of the Heaven's Father, the fate of many Byzantine emperors was tragic: he reigned for a long time. Many of them were deprived of life forcibly. The fragility of the Emperor's position was aggravated by the fact that in Byzantium, the royal power was not transmitted for a long time inherited. Dismissal emperors shifted. Formally, the emperor was chosen by the army and the people. In x in. The rite of entry into the throne changed - before the emperor proclaimed the people on the racetrack, now it was crowned with the kingdom as God's chosen in the main church of the country - the Church of St. Sophia. From this period the emperor was gone vasilevs, those. king as well autocrat (autocrat).

Byzantines recognized the empire the most advanced form of the state unit, and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe empire in every way justified by political theories. The cult of the imperial power was the most important element of state religion.

7. Influence of the church

The second major force in Byzantium was a church. Byzantine emperors showed themselves faithful sons of the church. In fact, they immediately managed church affairs, claiming patriarchs at their discretion. Byzantine monarchy not only possessed all the complete power, but also had a deep influence on the church, on religious views. But at the same time, the church had a huge impact on Byzantine society.

Despite the fact that in Byzantium, Christianity was recognized in IV. State religion, she remained another semi-public country. The departure of domestic pagan cultures remained to the end of V c. In the village, even in the XII century. The cult of Dionysus, the patron of agriculture continued to exist. An attempt to return to paganism took the emperor Julian (331-363), philosopher, brave commander. Although he received Christian upbringing, but becoming the emperor, expressed his commitment to paganism, reforming it on the basis of neoplatonism. For the edition of the edicts against Christians, the Christian church nickned his apostate.

The approval of Christianity was resisted, in turn, Christians destroyed the pagan monuments, temples, etc. So, in Alexandria at the end of the IV century. was destroyed Seradium - The center of the pagan cult and the famous library burned. From the distraught crowd of fanatikov-Christian killed a woman philosopher Ipatia (370-415). Olympic Games were prohibited. The property of closed pagan temples was selected in favor of the treasury. However, gradually the pagan consciousness was dying by replacing a new, Christian, which was increasingly determined by the spiritual life of Byzantium.

In Byzantium, the church was struggled with hergy, Religious movements, whose participants deviated from official teachings. According to churchmen, a person was supposed to comprehend the content of the Holy Scriptures in integrity and maintain the data to him of the Divine Truths, not to change their meanings and not to invent new ones. At the same time, there were no uniformity in the opinion - theologians and heretics understood the sacred Scripture in different ways, and therefore the spiritual life of the Middle Ages was a field of battle, where people defended their interpretation of any phrase from Scripture. During the first centuries of the Byzantine Church of the Byzantine, the minds of the Byzantines were engaged in philosophical reflections and dogmatic disputes. In the universal cathedrals, it was about the legality or misunderstanding of exercises. The members of the community required compliance with rites and recognition of church dogmas. Passionate disputes flared around the main dogma of Christianity - about a single and indivisible Trinity, including God's God, the Son's God and the Holy Spirit. Especially worried people of the time the question of the nature of Christ. God is he or a man?

In Christological disputes, the opinions of participants constantly diverged, changed. On Ephesian (431) and Chalkidonsky (451), the Councils won the opinion that tried to justify the myth of Christ's earthly life.

Within time, the contradictions between Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches increased. There was a struggle between the Pope Roman and Constantinople Patriarch for the political and religious championship. In IX century The eastern church ordered from Western. In the XI century occurred split (schism) As a result, the Catholic and Orthodox Church became independent branches of Christianity. Not only Byzantia herself was separated from Western Christianity, but also its succession on religion - Russia.

. The period of the early Middle Ages.

The process of forming the Byzantine culture lasted a few centuries, starting with the late ancient era, until the IX-centuries. Byzantine art, as well as the culture of other countries of medieval states, was a complex, but still a unified system of cultural property. The changes occurring in one of the spheres of culture immediately affected the other, although general phenomena, the struggle of the old with the new, the birth of new trends proceeded in different sectors of culture in different ways.

. Education

Since the East Roman Empire in IV-V BB. Not subjected to the invasions of the barbarians, her old centers of ancient science survived - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut,

Gas; New ones were created. In Byzantium, at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more people educated than in Western Europe. The city schools were taught reading, a letter, an account, the poems of Homer, the tragedy of Eschila and Sophocla, although children were studied in such schools. Created by the Commission in Constantinople, which included the best connoisseurs of Greek and Latin languages, conducted the search for rare books that rewritten for the Imperial Library. Byzantium became a state in which the first high school was opened in Europe. She began to function in the IX century. In Constantinople. Higher medical school was created here. Already then it was thought out medical care for the population of the city. For each doctor of the capital, a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe city was fixed in which he treated patients.

. Scientific knowledge

By success, Byzantine geographers have achieved: they skillfully dragged the map of the country and the seas, the plans of urban quarters and the buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not stop in Byzantium. In IV century Here worked large mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics. Significant were success in medicine. Doctor Oribazie (326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia, which included 70 books. It contained extensive discharge of the works of ancient physicians, as well as their own conclusions and generalizations of the author.

After the approval of Christianity, the best representatives of science began to persecute as a state religion. Ipatia died, hardly managed to escape Oribazia. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, the school in Ephesus was closed at the insistence of the bishops, in 529 - a school in Athens is one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the IV century. The fanatic monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandria library. At the same time, church spiritual schools were created for the spread of Christianity, and the highest.

With the statement of the position of the Church Science becomes theological What is especially manifested in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the VI century. monk Mocise Indicoplov Posted "Christian topography", In which he recognized the Ptolemy system of the wrong and contrary to the Bible. According to the poverty, the shape of the Earth is a flat fetragon, surrounded by the ocean and covered by the heavenly arch, where the paradise is placed. This essay was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in ancient Russia.

In the VI-VII centuries. In Byzantium, alchemy was dominated by the search for "Divine Elixira", with which any metals can be turned into gold, heal various diseases, return youth. At the same time, the chemical craft was developed - the manufacture of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramic products, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in the Byzantine fine art and fabric making.

Most medical works of this period tried to unite medicine with theology. Only some doctors continued to defend the achievements of ancient science, summarized their own practices. Among them Alexander Trall, Having studied pathology and therapy of internal diseases. His work was subsequently translated into Latin, Syrian, Arabic and Jewish languages. Pavel Eginsky - The compiler of a great encyclopedia, which used in the future the authority of the Arabs, primarily on surgery and obstetrics.

Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the VII century. Byzantines invented "Greek fire" - The incendiary mixture of powder, resin and nitrate, which possessed the ability to burn on the water. It helped the Byzantians to win their enemies in marine battles. Greek fire was widely used in the siege of fortresses in the VII-XV centuries. Byzantine scientist Lev Mathematics Improved light telegraph. Doctor Nikita Compiled a collection of surgery (IX century). There was a number of works of the historical plan, in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the standpoint of the dominant class.

In IX century In Constantinople, the highest secular school was restored, closed in VII century.

. Philosophy

Since the crisis of a slave-ownership society in Byzantium did not accept such forms as in the Western Roman Empire, it determined the preservation of ancient traditions in the development of Byzantine philosophy. During the early Middle Ages in the IV-V centuries. in Byzantium was distributed neoplatonism, Representing, by definition of Marx, a combination of stoic, epicurean and skeptical teachings with Plato's philosophy and Aristotle. The most famous representatives of this direction were Proble (410-485) and John Filopon, or Grammatik (VI-VII centuries). Most supporters of neoplatonism used it to justify Christianity. Some of them were followers of Aristotle. However, the use of the Aristotle system was carried out with the withdrawal of the most progressive elements from it, which was especially manifested in the views of the grammar. In the late VI - early VII centuries. In Byzantia, the departure and approval of feudal relations was accompanied by mystical sentiments in the dominant classes. In the design of mystical teachings, a major role played Maxim confessor(580-662).

The Epoch of the Early Middle Ages has become for Byzantia the time of the struggle of various philosophical views and adapting them to the interests of the feudal society naming. Of great importance was the conflict iconoboretsev and icon repositors Lowned in religious movement in the VIII-IX centuries. One of the leaders of the iconistors was John Damaskin (OK 675 - OK. 754), LABOR by "Source of knowledge." The first part of this work is "dialectic" - became the basis of all medieval scholasticism. Solemn recovery in 843. The icon is celebrated by the East Church.

. Literature

The beginning of the Middle Ages was the final stage of the literature of a slave-owned society. Although during this period, Christianity was approved everywhere, the ancient traditions were still strong in all areas of ideology, especially in poetry. The secular poets of that time retell antique myths, use the ancient principles of renovation. At the same time, the antique metric is used by church poets. At the same time, the poets give tribute to evangelical scenes.

Since Folklore's monuments were not preserved, then the folk creativity and its characteristics are judged by the church literature of the time. The church, to fasten his victory over paganism, used folk beliefs, language and songs, i.e. Church poetry enjoyed the folk language. There was a poetic size called name folk verse. Lyrics of this period was Roman Sladkopevts, Pissed by a popular language, the size of close folk songs, his hymns became popular in the Orthodox Church. He is considered to be the largest poetic custody of Byzantium.

Epic songs appeared about the fight against external enemies, glorifying the heroism of the defenders of their land. On their basis, a feudal poem was later written. Digeneis acry. The struggle of the masses against feudal exploitation was reflected in oral creativity. The scraps of the so-called animal epic, The form of which the people enjoyed for the satirical image of the Lord.

Period of VII- IX explosive It is characterized by a sharp reduction in the number of preserved literary monuments, as well as the weakening of the ancient tradition. The reduction in written literary sources is not explained by the Wizantium, but an acute class struggle that occurred during the formation of feudalism and accompanied by religiousracy. In connection with the final victory of Orthodoxy, almost only theological literature has been preserved. It was represented by: Kosma Magomsky (VIII century) - one of the largest church songs, John Damaskin, We also acquired Slava canons. The pillar of the icon is Feodor Studit. (759-826) - author of the canons, hymns and epigrams from monastic life. By this time, the forms of religious works were changed, including chants. The anthem was replaced by a canon, distinguished manners, artificiality, far from the language and rhythm of folk songs.

But the secular poetic creativity did not stop. The so-called is especially important "Mirobls" (Greek. Many books), consisting of a kind of annotations to 280 antique and earlynessizanis works with comments. "Miroblocks" is a kind of encyclopedia with elements of the Chesttomatia. The author of this collection was Patriarch Fotiy (OK. 810 or OK. 820-890). He combined the ministry of the church with the fruitful activities of the enlightened patron of patron of science and arts, a fan and ancient culture of ancient culture. "Miroblocks" includes works on philosophy, theology, medicine, compositions of historians and love novels, description of travel and oratory work. The value of labor of Fothia increases immeasurably, since many now lost essays of antique authors reached us only from this work. Critical estimates of Fothia are considered the first example of literary criticism in the Epoch of the Middle Ages. This secular flow of Byzantine literature distinguishes it from the whole of theological literature of the West.

The folk art of this period experienced the influence of Slavic colonization. A number of proverbs, sayings firmly entered the life of Byzantines from Slavic Folklore.

cult Imperial Byzantium Philosophy

13. Fine art and architecture

The art of the Byzantine Empire due to the historical features of the country's development was difficult. In the formation and development of art, various peoples who inhabited the empire played a major role.

The ideas about the sacred character of the political organization of the state were reflected in the art of Byzantium and determined the overwhelming prevalence of religious themes and the abdicated nature of art. At the same time, the development of art was combined with Greco-Roman art traditions, widely entered as heritage in the culture of Byzantium.

The highest flowering of the art of Byzantium falls at the time of the reign of the emperor Justinian (482 or 483-565) when the Empire reached the sizes almost equal to the old Roman state. With Justinian, Byzantine art acquires full independence. Art reflected state and religious ideas in their images, as well as the wealth of the Byzantine Empire. The originality of the official art of the time of Justinian is a show of a palace life as a magnificent ceremonial, theatrical solemn cult. In Kolake's palace in Constantinople, a cycle of Mozaik was created, in which the military triumphs of the Byzantine commander were depicted.

This is a show of the palace life as a lush ceremony, theatrical solemn cult. In Kolake's palace in Constantinople, a cycle of Mozaik was created, in which the military triumphs of the Byzantine commander were depicted. Display of palace life as a magnificent ceremonial, theatrical solemn cult. In Kolake's palace in Constantinople, a cycle of Mozaik was created, in which the military triumphs of the Byzantine commander were depicted.

The equestrian statue of Justinian was installed on one of the squares of the capital. Images of this statue of the emperor are preserved on Russian icons.

To the number of outstanding monuments of the mid-V c. belong mausoleum Gali Plakida In Ravenna. This is the tomb of the Byzantine princess, the daughter of the emperor Feodosia. The tomb with the dome (refers to the eastern type of structures) has massive forms, it has impermeable walls, low box vaults that retain a cryptic twilight. At the same time, the walls of this tomb decorated at the bottom of the precious marble cladding of the most tender shades. The upper part of the walls sparkles with mosaics with lush floral ornaments. Over the entrance to the tomb - a mosaic, made in bright colors with the image of Christ in the form of a shepherd among sheep on the background of a landscape. In the center of the dome - the symbolic cross, on the walls - figures of martyrs on a blue background are allocated with clear silhouettes and are similar to the ancient teachers of philosophers. Thus, in the tomb of Gali Plakida, the foundations of an ancient artistic worldview have not yet been completely overcome.

In the capital of Byzantium, in Constantinople, an outstanding single architectural ensemble took shape: Hippodrome, big palace with floor, laid out mosaics, and central city building - church of St. Sophia (built in 532-537). This is the main monument of not only this era, but all the Byzantine history. The hippodrome was not only the place of sports, but also the only place where the people could communicate with the rulers.

Sofia Temple built by low-monia architects ANNIMIME From Thrall I. Isidore From the Mileta. Then the building was destroyed with fire and was again erected on one of Konstantinople's hills. In form it dome Basil: The main artistic idea is revealed in the interior of the cathedral representing a square in terms of the hall, topped with a colossal, as if soaring in the air dome. The diameter of the dome of 31.4 m. To this dome on both sides, the gradually rising half-centas is adjacent. Walls are lined with marble plates of different colors and mosaics. The feature of the decoration of the temple is a combination of pomp with a feeling of infinity of space. With its dimensions and courage of construction techniques, this temple is superior to all other buildings. The temple of Sofia and artistic perfection - merged with two types of early Christian architecture - dome and longitudinal. At the same time, this is a whole diverse. The dome contains heroic, has the cosmic importance to the likeness of the world, but at the same time it donates the place of the meeting of the community, i.e. living people. It is believed that in any antiquity building the greatness of the world was not given in such a relationship with human, as in Sofia.

Along with the creation of major urban centers, local artistic traditions developed, thanks to which the expression found national characteristics. Architectural monuments were created in monasteries and villages of Syria, Malaya Asia, Egypt.

Simultaneously with the addition of the Earlyzantine Temple, the style of wall painting is folded. Her favorite technique has become mosaic, Berving origins in antiquity. Byzantine mosaicists used all the wealth of a colorful spectrum. In their palette, gentle, green and bright paint, palelyl, pink and red different shades. The greatest mosaic force achieves thanks to the merger of the color spots of smalts with a golden background. Byzantines loved gold: it had a value for them and as a symbol of wealth and luxury, and as the brightest of all colors.

For Byzantium, secular art was rare. In mosaic church of St. Vitaly (San Vital) in Ravenna Two scenes are distinguished: the emperor of Justinian and the Bishop of Maximian are presented at one, accompanied by a suite, on the other - the wife of Justinian, the Empress of Theodore. Before us is a bright gallery of edded images - their portraits are expressive. And if the young emperor is somewhat idealized, then the secondary characters as it were caught from life: the bishop of bristly rare hair, the monk is a bony, a fat face and a view of the fanatics, from the court stupid and dull face.

Portrait images in the Ravenna mosaic are transformed into a solemn procession - the emperor is attached to an unearthly greatness. The emperor is central. In the easy turn of his figure and the direction of the hands, his satellites are expressed by spiritual impulse - the figures do not step on the ground, and, as if soaring, swim. This impression is promoted by slender, overly elongated proportions of figures. The Byzantine Master first of all sought to express the god like the imperial power.

In Nica, the fresco is preserved, known as "Nicege Angels." Before us, the image of the angel is the demigod - receiving. Angels have heavy passing clothes of the imperial bodyguards. The figures are frozen, expressive, but faces are filled with amazing charm. According to art historians, these mosaics with the recently revealed mosaics of the church of Sofia in Constantinople - the most sublime from all the well-known creatures of the Earlyzantine painting. With its vitality "Nicene Angels" is not inferior to the best ancient portrait: Delicate sowing faces, open forehead, free hair, big eyes, elongated nose and small lips. All this is embedded in the image of spiritual beauty.

By VII. relate mosaic Church of St. Dimitria in Soluni. Compared with the above-described Nicene and equal mosaics, they already represent another artistic world. Although individuals retain portrait features, the whole composition is frozen: still all the figures are not connected with each other, they are symmetrical - this is a young saint with huge, expanded eyes, and both donors, and representatives of secular and spiritual power - bishop, prefect. Characters are deprived of lyrical lifting, they are almost idols, objects of superstitious worship. Their figures resemble stone poles - Byzantine art, as it were, returns to the initial stage.

The noted inconsistency of the Earlyzantine art prepared the emergence iconference - socio-political and religious movement in Byzantium in VIII-IX centuries, aimed against the cult of icons. In art, the struggle was expressed in the denial of the eligibility of sacred images, i.e. Icons, as well as in the destruction of the iconoclands of monuments of church art. In their works, the iconobors developed non-religious motives: in temple paintings, birds, animals among vegetation, architectural motives were depicted; In the secular buildings-palaces, mosaic murals glorified the victory of emperors or depicted court ceremonies.

Victory icon reprehensors Meaning the defeat of artistic freedomiff and further subordination of the art of the Church. Fifty years of iconococration deeply reflected in the life of the Byzantine society. Only in 787 in Nichet, and not in the capital gathered the seventh Ecumenical Cathedral, which was formulated and proclaimed dogma on icon.

Unrivaled sample of the monumental art of Byzantium of the middle of the IX century. - mosaic Sofia Constantinople. Majestic, sitting in a relaxed pose Huge figure of Mary with a baby in his arms - the embodiment of sublime spirituality. Arkhangel Gabriel standing next to Archangel is striking with the angel, he is the embodiment of earthly and at the same time heavenly beauty.

Earlyzantine monumental art was supplemented by monuments of applied art, i.e. Art of small forms. So, in Ravenna, this carving, decorated with the capitals of the columns; The Maximian chair with reliefs from ivory and others reached our days of sculpture V-VI centuries. from ivory, which are called consular diptych. Often they depict circus scenes.

Beautiful sample of applied art is Cypriot dish "David's engagement", In which the features of the Byzantine monumental style are combined with classic. Building is characterized by solemn tranquility and symmetry. In the center - the priest, on the left - David, right - his bride. The group fade two elegant flutes similar to shepherds in pastorals. The whole composition is perfectly inscribed in a round framing. Against the background of the group - the portico, it not only supports the curly composition, but also highlights the central figure. Such a relationship of figures with architecture, as art historians noted, antiquity did not know.

The miniature of the early Middle Ages, despite the commitment of antique samples, at the same time carries the stamp of the abstractness of artistic images. The ancient period of an ancient period indicates the transition from an individual antique portrait to the symbolic image of the saints.

. Music

The music art of Byzantium goes back to the Persian, Coptic, Jewish, Armenian Sension, as well as the Lategorical and Roman Melosu. With the development of contacts with other peoples, elements of the Syrian, Slavic, Arab musical culture penetrated into the music of Byzantium. In literary sources, it is mentioned about the wandering singers-musicians. Secular music, which sounded at the imperial courtyard, was a magnificent style, which resolved the Byzantine "Palace Despotism".

Great development got welcome harhs-Slavostovia. On poetic texts, drinking magnitude songs in the performance of choirs. They were often accompanied by an organ and pipes. Instrumental music (ensembled) zimbalists and trumpeters were known.

Of the yotatted monuments, only cult music, formerly purely vocal and one-haired music reached us. Widespread in Byzantium received hymns - Religious-philosophical song lyrics that combined mysticism with emotional content. The flourishing of the Byzantine anthemmer is referred to the V-VI centuries; The most famous poet and musician - author of the hymns Roman Sladkopevts, Right from Syria. The famous author of the hymns was John Damaskin. His best hymns are collected and grouped in eight glaces in the most famous "OKTOYKH". With IX century Studit monastery in Constantinople became the center of anthemmer, where monk flew Feodor Studit.

To IX century Byzantine music played a prominent role in Europe. She penetrated Rome, Franconia, South Italy, Ireland.

Literature

.Albedil, M.F. Buddhism. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.

.Arutyunov, S.A., Ryzhakov, S.I. Cultural anthropology. - M.: The whole world, 2004.

.Balakina, T.I. Reader in world artistic culture. Russia is the IX-early XX century. - M.: LLC firm MHK, 2000.

.Bashkortostan: Brief Encyclopedia. - Ufa: Bashkir Encyclopedia, 1996.

.Belik, A.A. Culturalology. Anthropological theories of culture. - M.: Russian. State Humanite. University, 2000.

.Borzov, E.P. The history of world culture. - SPb.: Lan, 2001.

.Vasilyev, L.S. The history of the religions of the East. - M.: Book House "University", 2004.

.Georgiev, TS Russian Culture: history and modernity. - M.: Yurait, 1998.

Tutoring

Need help to study what language themes?

Our specialists will advise or have tutoring services for the subject of interest.
Send a request With the topic right now, to learn about the possibility of receiving consultation.

Byzantine Empire There was at the turn of two epochs - the crash of the late antiquity and the birth of a medieval society as a result of the separation of the Roman Empire on the eastern and western part. The Geographical position of Byzantium, spread its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes Straightened their power and the field of Africa, made this empire as if a link between East and West. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imparted an imprint on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went its historical way, in many respects other than the fate of the countries, both east and west, which determined the features of its culture.

In the history of the European, and the whole world culture of the Byzantine civilization belongs to a special place, it is characterized by solemn pomp, inner nobility, the grace of the shape and the depth of thought. During the entire millennial existence, the Byzantine Empire, which has absorbed the legacy of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was a center for a kind and truly brilliant culture. Also, right up to the XIII century. Byzantium in terms of the level of development of education, on the tensions of the spiritual life and the colorful sparkling of the subject forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all countries of medieval Europe.

Features of Byzantine Culture Consist in the following:

1) the synthesis of Western and eastern elements in various spheres of the material and spiritual life of society with the dominant position of Greco-Roman traditions;

2) preserving a large extent tradition of antique civilization that served as the basis of development in the Byzantium of humanistic ideas and fertilized the European Renaissance Epoch culture;

3) The Byzantine Empire, in contrast to the fragmented medieval Europe, retained state political doctrines, which imposed a print on various spheres of culture, namely: with the ever-increasing influence of Christianity, secular artistic creativity has never been fucked;

4) The difference between Orthodoxy from Catholicism, which was manifested in the originality of the philosophical-theological views of Orthodox theologists and the philosophers of the East, in dogmatics, liturgical, the ritual of the Orthodox Church, in the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values \u200b\u200bof Byzantium.

The formation of Byzantine culture It happened in the situation deeply contradictory ideological life of early Byzantium. It was the time of folding the ideology of the Byzantine society, the design of the Christian Mirosania system, approved in the acute struggle with philosophical, ethical, aesthetic and natural science views of the ancient world.

IN patriotic literature Earlyzantine era, in the works of Vasily Kaesariovsky, Gregory Naziazine and Grigoria Nissky, in the speeches of John Zlatoust, where the foundation of medieval Christian theology was laid, we see the combination of ideas of early Christianity with neoponical philosophy, paradoxical weave of antique rhetorical forms with new ideological content. Cappadocious thinkers of Vasily Kesiai, Grigory Nissky and Grigory Naziazine lay the foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their philosophical constructions are rooted in the ancient history of Hellensky thinking. In the center of Patriotic philosophy there is an understanding of being as good, which gives a peculiar justification of the cosmos, and, therefore, the world and human. Grigory Nissky has this concept sometimes approaching the pantheism.

Konstantin Bagryanorovna at his own expense issued extensive collections and encyclopedia from the works of old literature, which became rare. According to his order, the historical encyclopedia was compiled.

The Byzantine Epoch ends in 1453, when Constantinople captured the Seljuk Turks and the last emperor Konstantin Paleologist died on the battlefield. The sunset of Byzantine literature is accompanied by "crying about the fall of Constantinople", about the flour and the shame of his historical isgetiousness.

4. Fighter Painting Byzantium

The fresan painting of Byzantium was almost preserved. Mosaic turned out to be more durable and typical for the Byzantine desire for paintness and magnificence. Antique mosaics were made up of marble cubes and colored stones and were used in the decoration of the arch.

Another Florentine mosaic, reclined from closely fitted pieces of marble and stone in the inlair technique. The Byzantine Mosaic was made from Smalt (stained with enamels of glass pieces) and served to decorate walls and arch.

Palace Mosaic Compositions (Constantinople, Palermo) represent hunting or pastoral scenes. But, by the advantage of Byzantine mosaics are in churches.

5. Decorative and Applied Art Byzantium

Book miniature

Book miniature of Byzantium Multicolored: There are sample samples and more realistic, more colorful and more stringent, belonging to the imperial and monastic schools.

Ceramics and glass

Byzantine ceramics studied little. Initially, irrigated monochrome dishes were made, with IX century. She had a molded relief. Facing tiles, convex and concave, decorated with decorative motifs are greatest interest. On flat tiles depicted the Virgin with a baby or saints. Often the composition was made up of many tapes. Later, the dishes became polychrome. With IX century The Sgrafito technique is used, that is, turning on the glaze or removal of wide areas of watering.

If we talk about glass, then the most remarkable stained glass windows from the present glass, covered with color enamels and the invested in lead, which are found in the apcide windows of the Khora monastery (Kachrie Jami in Constantinople), created no later than 1120, were depicted on them to the human growth of Our Lady, Christ , Saints in rich Byzantine clothes, the background is decorated with medallions, sockets, curls. Colors - blue, green, crimped.

Jewelry and Metal Processing

In jewelry used mobile, pearls, precious stones and especially enamel. The greatest glory of Byzantine jewelers used for the magnificence of the palette of their enamels. These are partitioned enamels: crosses, salaries of sacred books, crown. Sometimes enamels are solid, but more often - on a gold background: Byzantines believed that this metal was covered with the sky, and the gold was highly appreciated. The most interesting are products from the Limburg Reliquarian, Hungarian Crown. They were manufactured in royal workshops, but silver products are inferior to gold.

For the manufacture of doors, bronze was used (the doors of the Saint Sophia Cathedral - with a subtle ornamental pattern, engraving). Byzantine received many orders for temple doors from European countries, moreover, openwork bronze lampadophoras, crosses, kadyl, plaques (records), tsarist gates (altar doors) were manufactured.

A rock

In the field of clinker art, the Byzantines left only samples of architectural decor, for example, the capitals of St. Sophia. The thread is very thin, sometimes resembling a thread on ivory. Sculpture relief flat, openwork, with abundant floral ornament.

Fabrics

The authenticity of the Byzantine origin of the fabrics can be determined mainly by ornament: a favorite motive - a circle with a figure of an animal (lion, an elephant, an eagle - the symbol of power). Silk, embroidered with golden thread preserved. Dalmatics are made of such silk - spacious long clothes of Charles Great.

6. Icon in Byzantium

Byzantium is the birthplace of icon painting. The roots of fine techniques icon painting, on the one hand, in the book miniature, from which a subtle letter is borrowed, airiness, sophistication of the palette. On the other hand, in the Fayum portrait, from which icon-painted images inherited huge eyes, the seal of a sorrowful absence of faces, a golden background. Fayum portrait - part of the funeral oriental cult. The pictured as it were in the other world. Such portraits were carried out in the technique of Enkautics with wax paints, influenced in the background, which gave a portrait of bodily warmth.

Problems of icon painting - the embodiment of the deity in the bodily image. The word "icon" means in Greek "image", "Image". She had to remind about the image that broke up in consciousness praying. This is a "bridge" between the person and the divine world, the sacred subject. The Christian icon paints managed to fulfill the complex task: to transfer with picturesque, intangible material, spiritual, obsolete. Therefore, for iconographic images, the limit dematerialization of figures reduced to two-dimensional shadows on a smooth surface of the board, a golden background, a mystical medium, not a plane and non-space, but something shimmering in the light of the lampad. Golden color was perceived as a divine not only, the eye, but also a mind. Believers call it the "Favorsky", for, according to the biblical legend, the transformation of Christ occurred on Mount Favor, where his image appeared in a blinding gold radiance. At the same time, Christ, Virgo Maria, the apostles, the saints were really living people who had earthly features.

The architectural structure of the icon and technology of iconography was in line with ideas about its purpose: to carry the sacred image. The icons wrote and write on the boards, most often cypress. Several boards fasten with swords. Top of the board are covered with left-hander - ground, made on fish glue. Levks polish before smoothness, and then apply the image: first the drawing, and then a picturesque layer. The icon distinguish the fields, the furnace - the central image and the ark - a narrow strip around the perimeter of the icon. The iconographic images developed in Byzantium also strictly correspond to the canon.

In the first three centuries of Christianity, symbolic and allegorical images were common.

Christ portrayed in the form of a lamb, anchors, a ship, fish, grape vines, a kind shepherd. Only in IV-VI centuries. An illustrative and symbolic iconography began to make shape, which became the structural basis of all East Christian art,

7. Development of artistic culture

Hellenistic art, even at the time of the heyday, not united, gave rise to several art schools: Coptic in Egypt, Sassanida and Persia, Syrian, etc. The division of the Latin West and the Greek East (Byzantium) occurred. However, the Hellenistic foundations, Christian ideology led to the similarity of individual branches in the plots, forms, technology, methods of medieval art, blurred boundaries.

Corresponding is mutually influence, interpenetration while maintaining the main direction. The geographical boundaries of Byzantine art are changing: Caucasus Transcaucasia, Small Asia, Southern Italy, Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Greece, Nizhny Egypt Adriatic coast. The Slavic countries of the Balkan Peninsula are included, then come out of the area of \u200b\u200bByzantine art. Changing economies and public apparatus will pay the fluidity of art, its plots, styles, technical principles. This contributes to the constant change in the geography of culturally active centers. And therefore, it should be renounced from the walking of ideas about the cosiness of the Byzantine culture arising in Western Europe on the basis of the differences in religion and differences in the development of culture (contempt of revival to Middle Ages).

Actually, Byzantine art begins with the VII century, but the ancient tradition in Byzantium has never been interrupted, and the ancient chain constrained the steps of art development, which largely performed the function of transmission of cultural heritage and spiritual education. The most firmly connected by the traditions of the past Constantinople (second Rome). The rulers of any origin required the imitation of Roman samples, the architects and artists carried out their will that in new historical and social conditions leads to aesthetic cloister.

In the field of painting, this process is associated with mosaic technique that flourished in the IV-VI centuries. Up to HN. According to Byzantine mosaica, this process of an Hellenistic extinction can be traced: monumentality is lost, swells color, the drawing becomes more geometric, schematic. K xiv in. Mosaic replaces the fresco, and then the old icon. But the extinction of the Hellenistic tradition is accompanied by a positive process of influencing the art of overseas provinces.

In the East, new linear rhythmic elements were developed.

VII century - This is the end of the lateant period in the culture of Byzantium and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Arabs become the owners of the East, the Slavs - the Balkans, Langobard - Italy, that is, the class struggle exacerbates. The "bottoms" of society assimilate the art of its eastern monks, the masses of the erasers running from Arabs.

The wrestling of the emperor with the church, the gap between the fasteners of the imperial and peasant-blessing art in the VIII-IX centuries. Takes the form of iconoclap. The icons prohibited by the emperor as pagan widows were distributed by monks like shrines. This struggle ends in the IX century. The victory of iconing together with the strengthening of the Syrian and Palestinian influence in art.

With Vasily I (836-886), a new, canonical type of architecture and new iconography is formed. New temples are created with painting, in form and content of a significant step forward.

The second half of the IX century. - This is the Earniewicantine Phase, which coincides with the Doroman form in the West. But unlike the West, Byzantium will be traveled along the path of compromises between the imperial tradition and oriental forms, and the stylistic unity is achieved only in the X-XII centuries. In the Materialist Russian period, which coincided with Romance in the West.

Culture of Byzantium

The stank painting of Byzantium is closely related to the Eastern and dolninist portrait in the technique of Enkautics (wax paints, affected by the basis). The exact date and time of transition to the temperature of Levukas is unknown. In the XII century Stank painting becomes along with a miniature leading painting type. In the XII century Masterpieces of Byzantine Icon Pouring were created. The idea of \u200b\u200bits high level gives the icon of Vladimir's Mother of God, now stored in the Tretyakov Gallery. This is an unusually humane image of a mother, the prefiguration of the future tragic fate of his son, which is achieved by pie and extremely precisely found funds, the medium of which the main role is played by a thin spiritual line and soft muffled flavor. Vladimir Icon is one of the masterpieces of world painting.

ADD A COMMENT [possible without registration]
before publishing, all comments are considered by the moderator of the site - spam will not be published

Byzantine culture does not have certain territorial and temporary boundaries. Historians consider the beginning of the development of Byzantine culture - the period of the founding of Constantinople in 330, the completion - the seizure of the empire of Ottoman troops. After 1456, when the empire destroyed the Turks, the traditions of Byzantine art continued their existence in Russia, in Serbia, Georgia, Bulgaria. The highest point of magnitude and power is the development of Byzantine culture reached in the 9th century.

The development of Byzantine culture occurred in the process of the evolution of the Byzantine society from antiquity to the Middle Ages, the struggle of the pagan and Christian ideologies, as a result of which Christian traditions became the ideological basis of Byzantine culture.

Features of Byzantine Culture

Byzantine culture is a special, original and original type of culture. The originality is that it is very different from the medieval culture of Europe with special elements of Eastern civilizations. At the same time, she was not alien to the details of Muslim and ancient culture.

Byzantine culture

Byzantine culture oriented man on the perfect, in some extent the irrational world of higher truth. This is explained by the dominant role of religion in the life of the Byzantine society.

Such features of culture could not affect Byzantine art. Byzantine culture presented his own art phenomenon to the world. The main differences of the Byzantine art style was that it was not attempted to reproduce the mapping of the surrounding world, and the artistic creativity itself was not a means of self-expression of the author. Artists first of all were peculiar guards of spirituality. They embodied the highest divine world on the canvas.

Influence and role of Byzantine culture

Byzantine culture has had a huge impact on the culture of Kievan Rus. After the baptism of Russia, the Byzantium began to some extent an object for inheritance. Including the Byzantine culture was completely borrowed as the basis in the formation of his own culture. Nestor Chronicler in the "Tale of Bygone Years" wrote about the visit of Prince Vladimir to Constantinople. The prince was struck by the beauty, greatness and aesthetic filling of the Byzantine temples and returning home, the construction of the same in Kievan Rus immediately began. Byzantine culture presented the world, and in particular Rus, the art of icon painting.

In the history of European and world culture, the Byzantine culture played a very important and prominent role not only because it became a logical historical continuation of the Greco-Roman antiquity, but also was a peculiar synthesis of Western and Eastern spiritual framework.

She had a decisive influence on the formation and development of cultures of South and Eastern Europe.

Need help in studying?

Previous topic: Byzantium and Slavic World: Culture, Religion and Military Conflicts
Next topic: & NBSP & NBSP & NBSP formation of Slavic States: Bulgarian kingdom, Moravia, Rus

In the era of the Middle Ages, Byzantium joined, retaining the cultural heritage of antiquity. Crafts and trade continued to develop in her cities. Christian religion has provided a strong influence on the cultural and political life of the country. In the VII-VIII centuries. Greek has become the state language of the Eastern Roman Empire. Despite the reduction of the ownership of Byzantium, it continued to develop education (even among the peasants and artisans were competent people), public and private schools were opened. In IX century In her capital, Constantinople acted a higher school in which religion, mythology, history, geography, literature were taught. Two centuries in the capital was. The university is the first in Europe.
Byzantine preserved and developed ancient knowledge of mathematics, chemistry, medicine, geography and history. Scientist Lev Mathematics (IX century) laid the beginning of algebra. The "Greek Fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and resin, which it is impossible to extinguish with water (with its help the Byzantines have repeatedly won battles).
The construction of Christian temples was carried out. Their distinctive feature was a rich decoration and beauty of interior. In terms of the temple, it was shared on the entrance - the room at the western, main entrance, the main part of the temple, where the believers were going for prayer, and the altar where only spiritual faces could include. The altar was turned to the east, to the city of Jerusalem, where Jesus Christ was crucified. Church of St. Sofia (Wisdom of God) in Constantinople is the most wonderful monument of Byzantine architecture. His gigantic dome (31.5 m in diameter) is surrounded by a wreath of forty windows. It seems that the dome, like the heavenly semicode, ferry in the air.

II. Byzantine spiritual culture

Beautiful mosaics - images from multicolored pebbles and pieces of glass - decorated the walls of the temple. In the X-XI centuries. Instead of a rectangular, the Cross-dome type of the temple, who had the type of cross with a dome in the middle in terms of the cross.
The temple was at the same time a model of the world and the inhabitant of God. In the design of the temples there was a strict canon - the rules of the image of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, saints and scenes from the Bible. The meaning of Christian art was to instruct believers, how to earn paradise bliss after death. The icons were placed in the temples and dwellings - the picturesque images of God, the Mother of God, scenes from the Holy Scriptures on smooth wooden boards. The Savior Liks, the Mother of God and Saints reflected high thoughts and spiritual concentration. One of the best samples of the Byzantine Icon Pouring - "Vladimirskaya Virgin" was brought to Russia and became one of the main Russians shrines.
Byzantium was the main carrier of culture in medieval Europe: her masters, artists, architects were invited to other countries, the Byzantine masters and scientists have studied European youth.
The culture of the South and Eastern Slavs experienced the strong impact of Byzantium. From Byzantium Rus took the Christian faith. The first temples in Russia were constructed and decorated with Byzantine masters.

The Byzantine Empire arose at the turn of two eras - the crash of the late antiquity and the birth of a medieval society as a result of the separation of the Roman Empire to the eastern and western part. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the concept of the World Roman rule, the title of emperor and the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe global monarchy, as well as the traditions of ancient education survived only on. East - in the Byzantine Empire. In the early period of the highest bloom, it is pre-stored in the rule of Emperor Justinian 1 (527-565). The increase in the territory of the Byzantine Empire is almost twice, broad legislative and administrative reforms, the development of crafts and trade, the flowering of science and other cultural spheres - all this marked the transformation of Byzantium under Justinian again to the most powerful state of the Mediterranean.

The geographical location of Byzantium, spreading its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes I stretched my power and on the field of Africa, made this empire as a link between East and the West.

The constant split between the Eastern Western world, the crossed of Asian and European influence (with the predominance of some of the other epochs, the other) became the historical Dettle of Byzantium. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Oriental traditions imparted a print on social life, the state, the religious and philosophical ideas, the culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went its historical means, in many respects other than the fate of the countries both the east and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

(In the history of the European, and the whole world culture of the Byzantine civilization belongs to a special place, it is characterized by a solemn pomp, inner nobility, the elegance of the shape and the depth of thought. Throughout the thousand-year existence, the Byzantine Empire, which has absorbed the heritage of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East , Introduced the center a kind and truly brilliant culture. In addition, up to the XIII century. Byzantium on the level of development of education, on the tensions of the spiritual life and the colorful sparkling of the subject forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all countries of medieval Europe)

(The features of the Byzantine culture are as follows: 1) the synthesis of Western and eastern elements in various spheres of the material and spiritual life of society with the dominant position of Greco-Roman traditions; 2) preserving a large extent tradition of antique civilization that served as the basis of development in the Byzan of the Humanistic ideas and fertilized the European Epoch of the Renaissance; 3) The Byzantine Empire, in contrast to the fragmented medieval Europe, retained state political doctrines, which imposed a print on various spheres of culture, namely: with the ever-increasing influence of Christianity, secular artistic creativity has never been fucked; 4) The difference between Orthodoxy from Catholicism, which was manifested in the originality of the philosophical-theological views of Orthodox theologists and the philosophers of the East, in dogmatics, liturgical, the ritual of the Orthodox Church, in the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values \u200b\u200bof Byzantium. The establishment of the Byzantine culture occurred in the situation of deeply contradictory ideological life of early Byzantium. It was the time of folding the ideology of the Byzantine society, the design of the Christian Mirosania system, approved in the acute struggle with philosophical, ethical, aesthetic and natural science views of the ancient world. The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine Empire can be considered as an important stage of the ideological coup, when not only the main trends of the thinking of the Byzantine society were formed, but its shaped system based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and found the official status of Christianity.

In the patriotic literature of the Earlyzantine era, in the works of Vasily Kaesarian, Grigory Naziazine and Grigoria, Nissky, in the speeches of John Zlatoust, where the foundation of medieval Christian theology was laid, we see the combination of early Christianity ideas with neoplatonic philosophy, paradoxical weave of antique rhetorical forms with new ideological content. Kappa-Didskiy thinkers Vasily Kesiai, Grigory Nissky and Grigory Naziazine lay the foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their philosophical constructions are rooted in the ancient history of Hellensky thinking. In the center of Patriotic philosophy there is an understanding of being as good, which gives a peculiar justification of space, and therefore peace and humans. Grigory Nissky has this concept sometimes approaching the pantheism.

In IV-V centuries. The Empire launched fierce philosophical theological disputes: Christological - about the nature of Christ and Trinitarian - about his place in Trinity. The essence of these extremely acute discussions concluded not only in the development and systematization of Christian dogmatic. The philosophical content of them was an anthropological problem: there was a question of the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the Universe, the limit of its possibilities.

The ideological struggle between the anthropological maximalism was expressed in these disputes, which considered it possible to dissolve human nature in the Divine and thus raising a person to unprecedented heights in the ancient world, and anthropological minimalism, fully submitted to the man and with respect to the extreme degrees of self-confidence.

In the reformed Christian ideology, during this period, two steps can be distinguished: the aristocratic, associated with the dominant church and the imperial courtyard, and the Plabee, who grew up from heresy and the roots of the religious and ethical ideas of the masses and the wide layers of the poorest monastic. The court aristocracy, the highest clergy, the educated intelligentsia of major cities vigorously advocate the use of all the best, which was given to humanity ancient culture. Christian theologians, writers, preachers are increasingly and more often borrow from the treasury of the Greco-Roman culture Imposing simplicity and plasticity of philosophical prose, filigree methods of neoplatonic dialectics, the logic of Aristotle, practical psychologism and sparkling eloquence of ancient rhetoric. In the earlyness system, the Christian scholarship literature reaches a high degree of refinement, connecting the exquisite elegance of the deep spiritualism of the content. The whole spiritual life of society is distinguished by dramatic strain: in all areas of knowledge, in the literature, art there is an amazing mixing of pagan mythology and Christian mysticism. In artistic creativity, sincerity and emotionality, the people's naivety and integrity of the perception of the world, the sharpness of moral estimates, an unexpected connection of mysticism with the vitality of a household flavor, a devout legend with business practitioning, penetrate. The didactic element in all spheres of culture is enhanced; Word and book, a sign and symbol, permeated with religious motifs, occupy a large place in the life of a person of the Rannevianizan-Tiy era.

The empire then entered into a new period of its development - the formation and victory of the feudal system. It is not surprising that the emperors of the Isavi dynasty (Lion III, Konstantin V, etc.) not only conducted war with the Arab Caliphate, but also carried out important reforms in the field of law, public relations and church policies. Under Lev III, a brief legislative collection of "Ecloga" was issued, the main tasks of which were the strengthening of the central authorities and the protection of the interests of the military-serving nobility - the supports of the dynasty. In "Eclogs" there are a number of new moments, including reinforced repression against heresy.

Especially wide political and ideological resonance in Vi-Zantei caused church reforms of the first Isavrov. For the first time in the history of Byzantium, there was an open clash of the state and the church, when a strong blow to reveal the icons, the cult of which gave the churches a powerful ideological impact on the wide sections of the country's population and brought considerable incomes.

Culture of Byzantium.

Economicity is the struggle of military landowner nobility and part of the trade and craft circles of Constantinople for limiting the power of the Church and the section of its property. As a result, the struggle was completed by ideological victory iconistors, but was actually a compromise between the state and the church was achieved. The church monastery land tenure was strongly limited, many church treasures were confiscated, and church hierarchs both in the capital and in the places are actually subordinated to the imperial power. Byzantine Emperor became a recognized head of the Orthodox Church.

During this struggle, the iconoborets, as well as the iconistors, caused noticeable harm to the cultural development of Byzantium VIII-IX centuries. The destruction of monuments of human thought and works of art. But at the same time, it is impossible to deny that the iconoborous doctrine and the aesthetic thinking of the iconoborets made a new fresh stream into the figurative vision of the world of Byzantines - an exquisite abstract symbolism in combination with refined and aesthetically attractive decorative ornament. Indeed, on the formation of the iconobor doctrine and aesthetics, which was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bnon-described, inexpressibility of a single supreme deity, the idea of \u200b\u200bJudaism and Islam was a well-known influence.

In the development of the artistic creativity of Byzantium, there was a noticeable trace and struggle of the iconoborets against the sensual, who chant the human flesh of Hellenistic art with his illusionist technique and a colorful color scheme. Perhaps, it was the iconochetical artistic quest that was largely discovered on the creation of deep spiritualistic art of Byzantium X-XI centuries. And they prepared the victory of sublime spirituality and the abstract symbolism in all spheres of the public consciousness of the subsequent centuries.

Report: Culture Byzantium

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium did not survive such a decline of culture as Western Europe. She became the heiress of the cultural achievements of the ancient world and the countries of the East.

1. Development of education. In the VII-VIII centuries, when the ownership of Byzantium decreased, the Greek language became the state language of the Empire. The state needed well-trained officials. They were supposed to competently draw up laws, decrees, contracts, testaments, conduct correspondence and court cases, respond to promoters, copy documents. Often, educated people achieved high positions, and they came with power and wealth.

Not only in the capital, but also in young cities and large villages in primary schools, children could learn the children of ordinary people who can pay for training. Therefore, even among the peasants and artisans, competent people met.

Along with church in the cities, public and private schools were opened. They were trained in reading, writing, account and church singing. In addition to the Bible and other religious books, the schools studied the works of ancient scientists, the poems of Homer, the tragedy of Eschil and Sophocla, the compositions of the Byzantine scientists and writers; Solved rather complex arithmetic tasks.

In the 9th century in Constantinople, with the Imperial Palace, the Higher School was opened. It was taught religion, mythology, history, geography, literature.

2. Scientific knowledge. Byzantine preserved ancient knowledge of mathematics and used them to calculate the amount of tax, in astronomy, in construction. They also widely used inventions and the compositions of great Arab scientists - physicians, philosophers and others. Through the Greeks on these works, IV Western Europe was recognized. In the Byzantia itself there were a lot of scientists and creative people. Lion mathematician (IX century) invented sound alarms for transmitting messages to the distance, automatic devices in the throne hall of the imperial palace, driven by water - they had to affect the imagination of foreign ambassadors.

Conducted training manuals on medicine. For teaching medical art in the XI century, a medical school (first in Europe) was created at the hospital of one of the monasteries in Constantinople.

The development of crafts and medicine gave impetus to the study of chemistry; The ancient recipes of glass, paints, drugs preserved. "Greek fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and resin, which can not be extended by water. With the help of "Greek Fire", the Byzantines won a lot of victories in battles on the sea and on land.

Byzantine accumulated a lot of knowledge of geography. They knew how to draw cards and cities plans. The merchants and travelers constituted descriptions of different countries and peoples.

Especially successful in Byzantium history developed. Bright, interesting essays of historians were created on the basis of documents, stories of eyewitnesses, personal observations.

3. Architecture. Christian religion has changed the destination and the device of the temple. In ancient Greek temple, the statue of God was placed inside, and the religious ceremonies were performed outside, on the square. Therefore, the appearance of the temple was striving to do particularly elegant. Christians were going for a general prayer inside the church, and architects took care of the beauty not only external, but also its interior.

The Christian temple in the plan was divided into three parts: the premises - the western, main entrance; Neft (French ship) - elongated main part of the temple, where believers were gathered for prayer; Altar, where only spiritual faces could include. With its apsides - semicircular vaulted niches, who performed outside, the altar was turned to the east, where, according to Christian ideas, the center of the Earth Jerusalem with the Golgota Mountain is the place of Crucify Christ. In the large churches, the ranks of the columns separated a wider and high main oil from the side oils, which could be two or four.

The wonderful work of the Byzantine architecture was the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Justinian did not skimp on expenses: he wanted to make this temple the main and the largest church of the whole Christian world. The temple was built 10 thousand people for five years. Its construction was led by famous architects, and decorated the best artisans.

The church of St. Sophia was called "miraculously from miracles," they were angry in verses. Inside it hit sizes and beauty. The giant dome with a diameter of 31 m seems to grow out of two semi-cubs; Each of them relies, in turn, on three small half-centuries. Along the base, the dome is surrounded by a wreath of 40 windows. It seems that the dome, like the heavenly semicode, ferry in the air.

In the X-XI centuries, instead of an elongated rectangular building, a cross-domed church was established. In the plan, he had a view of a cross with a dome in the middle mounted on a round elevation - drum. Churches have become much, and they have become smaller in size: they gathered inhabitants of the city district, village, monastery. The temple looked easier, aspiring. For its decoration, a multicolored stone was used outside, brick patterns, alternated layers of red brick and white solution.

4. Painting. In Byzantium, earlier than in Western Europe, the walls of the temples and palaces began to decorate the mosaic - images from multicolored pebbles or pieces of colored opaque glass - smalts. Smat

strengthen with different inclination in raw plaster. Mosaic, reflecting the light, flashed, sparkling, flickering with bright multicolor paints. Later, the walls began to decorate frescoes - paintings written by water colors for raw plaster.

In the design of the temples there was a canon - strict rules for the image and placement of biblical scenes. The temple was a model of the world. The more important an image was, the higher it was placed in the temple.

The eyes and thoughts of the part of the church were addressed primarily to the dome: he was represented as a heavenly arch - the abode of the Divine. Therefore, often in the dome was placed a mosaic or fresco with the image of Christ surrounded by angels. From the domes, the eyes moved to the top of the wall over the altar, where the figure of Our Lady reminded about the connection of God and man. In 4-tie temples on sails - triangles formed by large arches, frescoes with images of four authors of the Gospels were often placed: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Moving around the church, a believer, admiring the beauty of her decoration, as if I traveled through the Holy Land - Palestine. On the upper parts of the walls, artists deployed episodes from Christ's earthly life in the order as they are described in the Gospels. Below are those whose activities are related to Christ: the prophets (messengers of God), who predicted his coming; Apostles - his students and followers; martyrs affected by the sake of faith; saint that disseminated the teachings of Christ; kings like his earthly governors. In the western part of the temple on the entrance, the pictures of hell or a terrible trial were often placed after the Second Coming of Christ.

In the image of persons, attention was attracted to the expression of mental experiences: huge eyes, a large forehead, thin lips, elongated faces - everything spoke about high thoughts, spirituality, cleanliness, holiness. The figures were placed on a gold or blue background. They seem flat and frozen, and expressions of persons - solemn and focused.

The planar image was created for the church specifically: wherever the man went, he met the saints facing him everywhere.

In medieval art, there was a special understanding of the future. The masters tried to draw attention to the most important in the image. The figure of Christ was painted larger than the rest, and towers, trees, buildings are smaller in size than those who stand next to people.

The icons were placed in the temples and dwellings - the picturesque images of God, the Mother of God, scenes from the Bible on smooth wooden boards. Unlike mosaic and frescoes, the icon can be transferred from place to place, send as a gift, take with you hike. One of the most revered icons is the "Vladimirskaya Virgin" - was brought to Russia from Byzantium. The painting, icons and frescoes, the sculptures of churches were not accidentally called the "Bible for illiterate": after all, ordinary people could not or could not read the Bible. To an even greater extent, this applies to Western Europe, where the Bible was rewritten and read on Latin, and not in local languages \u200b\u200bon which the people spoke. Only church images and preaching of the priests acquainted ordinary people with the content of Christianity.

5. Cultural links of Byzantium. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium was the most cultural country of Europe. Kings, princes, bishops of other countries and most of all Italy invited architects, artists and jewelers from Byzantium. Inquisitive young men were sent to Constantinople to study mathematics, medicine, Roman laws. By the Byzantine masters, architects and artists of European countries studied.

The Byzantine culture on the culture of Slavs was particularly strongly influenced. Bulgaria, Serbia and Rus took the Christian faith from Byzantium. Slavic alphabet on Rus brought those studied by the Greeks of Bulgarians (see below). From the Greek language to Slavic, many books were translated. The first stone temples in Russia were built and decorated with the wizards invited from Byzantium. The culture of Armenia and Georgia, where Christianity established at the end of the IV century, also experienced the strong influence of Byzantium. In Byzantium, many manuscripts of Greek, Roman and eastern scientists and writers reached us.

1. Introduction 3.

2. Early stage in the history of the Culture of Byzantium IV - VII centuries. four

3. The middle stage in the history of the culture of Byzantium VII - IX centuries. 7.

4 Late stage in the history of the culture of Byzantium X - XV centuries. nine

5. Conclusion 13.

6. Literature used 14

1. INTRODUCTION

Byzantium is a state that has made a great contribution to the development of culture in Europe of the Middle Ages. In the history of the world culture of Byzantium, a special, outstanding place belongs. In the artistic work of Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which was distinguished by the noble grace of forms, shaped by the vision of thought, the refinement of aesthetic thinking, the depth of philosophical thought. According to expressiveness and deep spirituality of Byzantium, many centuries stood ahead of all countries of medieval Europe.

The Byzantine Empire arose at the turn of two eras - the crash of the late antiquity and the birth of a medieval society as a result of the separation of the Roman Empire to the eastern and western part. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the concept of the World Roman rule, the title of emperor and the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe world monarchy, as well as the traditions of ancient education survived only in the East - in the Byzantine Empire.

On the shore of Bosphor, Emperor Konstantin was erected by Constantinople - "New Rome" - the capital of the Byzantine state. It was fabulously beautiful, she appeared to aliens from the West, the East and the North.

The geographical location of Byzantium, spread its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes I stretched my power and on the field of Africa, made this empire as if the link between East and the West. The constant split between the Eastern Western World, the crossed of Asian and European influences (with the predominance of some of the other epochs, the other) became the historical Dettle of Byzantium. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imparted an imprint on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went its historical means, in many respects other than the fate of the countries both the east and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

If you try to separate the Byzantine culture from the culture of Europe, the front and Middle East, the following factors will be the most important:

· In Byzantium, there was a language community (the main language was Greek);

· The Byzantium had a religious community (the main religion was Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);

· In Byzantium, with all the multi-ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks.

· The Byzantine Empire has always distinguished steady statehood and centralized management.

This, of course, does not exclude that the Byzantine culture, which affects many neighboring countries, herself was culturally influenced by both the tribes and peoples who inhabited it and their neighboring states. During its millennial existence, Byzantium came across powerful external cultural influences, which emanated from countries that were close to it, from Iran, Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia, and later the Latin West and Ancient Rus. On the other hand, Byzantium had to join a variety of cultural contacts with peoples, which were standing for several or at a much lower stage of development (the Byzantines called them "barbarians").

The development process of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had era of the rise and decline, periods of the celebration of progressive ideas and the gloomy years of the domination of the reaction. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprout sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times.

Therefore, the Culture of Byzantium is an interesting cultural and historical type, which has very specific peculiarities.

In the history of the culture of Byzantium, three stages are distinguished:

* Early (IV - mid VII century);

* Medium (VII - IX century);

* Late (X - XV century).

As you know, Byzantium was formed from the eastern part of the Roman Empire. The center of Byzantium, which was rebuilt and called Constantinople became the center of the new state.

In the history of the European, and the whole world culture of the Byzantine civilization belongs to a special place, it is characterized by solemn pomp, inner nobility, the grace of the shape and the depth of thought. During the entire millennial existence, the Byzantine Empire, which has absorbed the legacy of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was a center for a kind and truly brilliant culture. Also, right up to the XIII century. Byzantium in terms of the level of development of education, on the tensions of the spiritual life and the colorful sparkling of the subject forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all countries of medieval Europe.

2. Early stage in the history of the Culture of Byzantium IV - VII centuries.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be viewed as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of the Byzantine society, based on the traditions of the pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. In the early Byzantium, the new flourishing is experiencing the philosophy of neoplatonism. A number of neopotonikov philosophers appear - Burner, Diarat, Plotin, Pseudo-Dionysius, Areopagitis.

The formation of neoplatonism coincides with the origin of Christianity, with the decomposition and decline of the risk empire. In general, it is characterized by deep pessimism, disappointment in the earthly life, the conviction of the corruption of human nature.

The most important themes of theological discussions at the early stage of the development of this cult was disputes about the nature of Christ and his place in the Trinity, the meaning of human existence, the place of man in the Universe and the limit of its capabilities. In this regard, several directions of theological thoughts of that era can be distinguished:

* Arianism: Ariana believed that Christ is the creation of a god-father, and therefore he is not a certain way to God, is not eternal and occupies a subordinate place in the structure of the Trinity.

* Non-traditional: Nestorian believed that the divine and human principle in Christ were only relatively and never merged.

* Monofisitism: Monofixites allocated first of all the divine nature of Christ and talked about Christ as a Godchor.

* Chalkeduction: Chalkecedonites preached those ideas that later became dominant: the one of the god-father and her son, the inability and inseparalness of the Divine and Human in Christ.

The main Christian dogmas, in particular the Symbol of Faith, were enshrined at the I Ecumenical Cathedral in Naquea (325) and confirmed at the II Ecumenical Cathedral in Constantinople (381).

The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and long-term process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. The Christian Dogmatic has developed under the strong influence of not only Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, manikes, but also neoplatonism. Dogmat about the trocherity of the Divine, one of the central dogmas of Christian creed, is essentially a rethinking Triad of Neoplatonists. However, Christianity, despite the presence of the devil with manicia and neoplatonism, is fundamentally different from Manichaean dualism and neoplatonian monism. Christianity itself was not only a syncretic religious teaching, but also a synthetic philosophical-religious system, an important component of which was antique philosophical teachings. This may be explained to some extent that Christianity not only fought with ancient philosophy, but also used it for its own purposes. On the change of the intransigence of Christianity with everything that stamped the stamina, comes a compromise between Christian and ancient world-coal. In the very neoplatonism, two currents were formed: one - a radical, configured against Christianity, the other is more moderate. Gradually take up supporters of compromise with Christianity. Take the process of repulsion, separation and at the same time rapprochement, mergers of neoplatonic philosophy and Christian theology, which is completed by the absorption of neoplatonism Christianity.

In the patriotic literature of the Earlyzantine era, in the works of Vasily Kaesarian, Grigory Naziazine and Grigoria, Nissky, in the speeches of John Zlatoust, where the foundation of medieval Christian theology was laid, we see the combination of early Christianity ideas with neoplatonic philosophy, paradoxical weave of antique rhetorical forms with new ideological content. Kappa-Didskiy thinkers Vasily Kesiai, Grigory Nissky and Grigory Naziazine lay the foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their philosophical constructions are rooted in the ancient history of Hellensky thinking. In the center of Patriotic philosophy there is an understanding of being as good, which gives a peculiar justification of space, and therefore peace and humans. Grigory Nissky has this concept sometimes approaching the pantheism.

The flourishing of the Byzantine art of the early period is associated with the strengthening of the power of the empire during Justinian. In Constantinople at this time, magnificent palaces and temples are erected.

The style of the Byzantine architecture developed gradually, elements of ancient and eastern architecture were organically combined in it. The chief architectural structure was the temple, the so-called Basilica (Greek. "Tsarsky House"), the appointment of which was significantly different from other buildings. If the Egyptian temple was intended for the priests of solemn ceremonies and did not allow a person to the sanctuary, and the Greek and Roman temples served as the location of the Divine, the Byzantine became the place where the believers were going to worship, i.e. Temples were designed for the stay in them.

From now on, the imperial ceremonies and solemn services began to conduct. For the first time, the idea of \u200b\u200ba grandiose central temple, crowned with a giant dome, was embodied, on top of which a huge cross, framed by starry sky, was depicted. The temple located in the city center, on the highest hill, is far from the Bosphorus.

Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the church of St. Vitaly in Ravenna - striking the sophistication and elegance of architectural forms. Special fame to this temple was brought by his famous mosaics not only a church, but also secular character, in particular the images of the emperor of Justinian and the empress of the farodore and their suits. The faces of Justinian and theeodora are endowed with portrait features, the color gamut mosaics is distinguished by full-blooded brightness, warmth and freshness.

The world glory acquired the mosaic of Byzantium. The technology of mosaic art is known since antiquity, but only in Byzantium, they were first used not natural, and glass alloys painted with mineral paints, the so-called smalts with the finest gold surface. The masters widely used the gold color, which, on the one hand, symbolized luxury and wealth, and on the other hand, was the brightest and shining of all colors. Most Mosaic was located at a different angle of inclination on a concave or spherical surface of the walls, and from this only increased the Golden Glitter of uneven Cubes Smalt. It turned the plane of the walls into a solid flickering space, even more sparkling thanks to the light of the candles burning in the temple. Byzantium mosaicists used a wide colorful spectrum: from soft blue, green and bright blue to pale-purple, pink and red different shades and degrees of intensity. Images on the walls are mainly told about the main events of Christian history, the earthly life of Jesus Christ, glorified the power of the emperor. Of particular fame acquired Mosaics Church of San Vitaly in the city of Ravenna (6th century). On the side sides of the apse, on both sides of the windows, there are mosaics with the image of the imperial couple - Justinian and his wife Feodora with a suit.

The artist places characters on a neutral gold background. All in this scene is performed by solemn greatness. Both mosaic paintings located under the figure of the Smear Christ inspire the viewer the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inviolability of the Byzantine emperor.

In painting VI-VII centuries. Crystallizes a specific Byzantine image, purified from foreign influences. It is based on the experience of the masters of the East and the West, who have come independently from each other to the creation of a new art corresponding to the spiritualist ideals of a medieval society. In this art, various directions and schools appear. The metropolitan school, for example, was distinguished by the excellent quality of performance, sophisticated artistry, painting and colorful diversity, trepacy and blurry of colors. One of the most advanced works of this school was mosaic in the dome of the Church of Assumption in Niceka.

The church worship has turned into the Byzantium in a kind of lush mystery. In the twilight of the arches of the Byzantine temples, many candles and lamps were shining, illuminated by mysterious reflections Gold Mosaik, dark lines of icons, multicolor marble colonnades, magnificent precious utensils. All this had to, according to the plane of the Church, eclipse in the soul of a person's emotional elevation of the ancient tragedy, healthy fun mimes, fumes of circus rhythages and give it a repel in everyday life.

In the applied art of Byzantium, the leading line for the development of Byzantine art was determined in the applied art and painting, which reflects the formation of medieval mineosament. The vitality of the ancient traditions here was manifested both in the images and in the forms of artistic expression. At the same time, gradually the artistic traditions of the nations of the East penetrated. Although at least in Western Europe, the impact of the barbaric world has played its role.

The music occupied a special place in the Byzantine civilization. A peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democratism could not affect both the character of musical culture, which represented the complex and many-sided phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries. The formation of Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status, is included in the system of represented state power. Special color preserved music of urban streets, theater and circus ideas and folk festivals, which reflected the richest song and musical practice of many nations who inhabited the empire. Each of these types of music had his own aesthetic and social sense and at the same time, interacting, they merged into a single and unique integer. Christianity very early appreciated the special possibilities of music as art universal and at the same time with the power of mass and individual psychological impact, and included it in his cult ritual. It was a cult music that was destined to take a dominant position in medieval Byzantium.

The education system also inherits Greco-Roman traditions, based on the principle (seven free arts. Two levels of education:

* Trivium - grammar, rhetoric and dialectics.

* Quadrivium - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

In the life of the wide masses, mass spectacles played a huge role. True, the ancient theater begins to tear down to decay - the ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly replaced by performances of mimes, juggler, dancers, gymnasts, wildlife tamers. The place of the theater is currently occupied by Circus (hippodrome) with its equestrian rhystments, using great popularity.

If you summarize the first period of the existence of Byzantium, we can say that during this period the main features of the Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, it should be attributed to the fact that the Byzantine culture was opened by other cultural influences obtained from the outside. But gradually in the early period, they were synthesized by the main, leading Greek-Roman culture.

The culture of early Byzantium was urban culture. The major cities of the Empire, and first of all, Constantinople were not only the cities of crafts and trade, but also the foci of the highest culture and education, where the rich heritage of antiquity was preserved.

3. The middle stage in the history of the culture of Byzantium VII - IX centuries.

An important component of the second stage of the history of the Byzantine culture was the confrontation of the iconoborets and iconocrators (726-843). The first direction was supported by the ruling secular elite, and the second - orthodox clergy and many layers of the population. The iconoborets, claiming the idea of \u200b\u200bthe indescribableness and unknownness of the deity, seeking to preserve the sublime spirituality of Christianity, ratified the abolition of worshiping icons and other images of Christ, the Virgin and Saints, seeing the exhaustion of the carnal beginning and the remnant of antiquity. And therefore, their requirements were reduced to neutral paintings, abstract symbols, ornamental and decorative motifs, landscapes with images of animals and birds. As a result, the walls of the temples turned into a figurative expression of one of the contemporaries, in the "gardens and poultry houses". During the level of iconoclasting (726-843), an attempt was made by the official prohibition of icons. The philosopher, the poet, the author of many theological writings John Damaskin (700-760) spoke in defense. In his opinion, the icon is fundamentally different from the idol. It is not a copy or decoration, but an illustration, reflective nature and the essence of the Divine.

At a certain stage, the iconobors won the top, therefore, in Byzantine Christian art, ornamental and decorative abstract-symbolic elements prevailed for some time. However, the struggle between supporters of these areas was carried out extremely rigidly, and in this confrontation killed many monuments of the early stage of Byzantine culture, in particular the first mosaic of the Cathedral of St. Sophia Konstantinople. But still, the final victory won supporters of iconication, which further contributed to the final addition of the iconographic canon - strict rules for the image of all scenes of religious content.

It is necessary to note that a significant moment that the iconocrocal movement served as an incentive to a new takeoff of secular visual art and the architecture of Byzantium. In the iconocological emperors, the influence of Muslim architecture penetrated the influence of Muslim architecture. So, one of the Konstantinople Palaces of Vriass - was built according to the plan of Palace Baghdad. All palaces surrounded the parks with fountains, exotic flowers and trees. In Constantinople, Nija and other cities of Greece and Malaya Asia were built urban walls, public buildings, private buildings. In the secular art of the iconoboric period, the principles of representative solemnity, architectural monument and colorful multifiguric decorativeness were defeated, served in the future the basis of the development of secular artistic creativity.

Reaching the art of colored mosaic image during this period of a new heyday. In the IX-XI centuries. Restored and old monuments. Mosaics resumed and in the church of St. Sofia. There were new plots in which the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Union of the Church with the state was reflected.

In the IX-X centuries. Significantly enriched and complicated the decor of manuscripts, the richer and diverse became book miniatures and ornaments. However, a truly new period in the development of book miniatures falls at the XI-XII centuries, when the Konstantinople School of Masters in this field of art was experiencing a flourishing. In that epoch, in general, the leading role in painting in general (in icon painting, miniature, fresco) acquired the capital schools marked by the seal of special perfection of taste and technology.

In the VII-VIII centuries. In the temple construction of Byzantium and the countries of the Byzantine Cultural Circle, the same cross-domed composition was dominated, which arose in the VI century. and was characterized by a weakly pronounced external decorative design. Large importance of the facade decor has acquired in the IX-X centuries, when a new architectural style was distributed and received. The appearance of a new style was associated with the flowering of cities, the strengthening of the public role of the Church, a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (the temple as the image of the world). A lot of new temples were built, a large number of monasteries were built, although they were like The rule is small in size.

In addition to changes in the decorative design of buildings, architectural forms changed, the composition itself. The value of vertical lines and facade members increased, which changed the silhouette of the temple. Builders have increasingly resorted to the use of patterned brickwork.

The features of the new architectural style appeared in a number of local schools. For example, in Greece X-XII centuries. It is peculiar to the preservation of some archaic of architectural forms (not the dismemberment of the plane of the facade, traditional forms of small temples) - with further development and increasing influence of a new style - the patternation decor and polychrome plastic were also used.

In the VIII-XII centuries. There was a special musical and poetic church art. Thanks to its high artistic advantages, weakened the impact on the church music of the music of folklore, whose melodies were previously penetrated even in Liturgy. In order to even greater insulation of the musical foundations of worship from external influences, the canonization of the Lotonal system was carried out - "Octocyha" (octalia). They were some melodic formulas. However, musical and theoretical monuments make it possible to conclude that the Ijosov system does not exclude the sound understanding. The most popular genres of church music were canon (musically poetic composition during the church service) and a tropar (almost the main cell of Byzantine gymnography). The trails were composed of all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates.

The progress of musical art led to the creation of a music letter (notation), as well as liturgical handwritten collections, in which chants were recorded (or only text or text with notation).

Social life also did not do without music. In the book "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine courtyard", almost 400 chants reported. These are songs - processions, and songs during equestrian processes, and songs in the imperial feast, and song-acclaiming, etc.

With IX century In the circles of the intellectual elite, an interest in ancient musical culture increased, although this interest was theoretical in nature: attention was attracted not so much music itself as the composition of the ancient Greek musical theorists.

As a result of the second period, it can be noted that Byzantium at this time reached the highest power and the highest point of development of culture. In public development and in the evolution of the culture of Byzantium, contradictory trends are obvious due to its midrange between East and West.

4. Late stage in the history of the Culture of Byzantium X - XV centuries.

With x in. There is a new stage of the history of Byzantine culture - there is a generalization and classification of everything achieved in science, theology, philosophy, literature. In the Byzantine culture, this age is associated with the creation of works of a generalizing nature - composed of encyclopedia on history, agriculture, medicine. The treatises of the emperor of Konstantin Bagryanorogennoe (913-959) "On the State Management", "about the fams", "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine courtyard" - an extensive encyclopedia of the most worthwhile information on the political and administrative structure of the Byzantine state. At the same time, the colorful material of the ethnographic and historical and geographical nature of the neighborhoods with the Empire and nations is assembled here, including the Slavs.

In culture, generalized spiritualistic principles are fully triumph; Public thought, literature and art, as it were, come off from real reality and get closed in a circle of higher, abstract ideas. The basic principles of the Byzantine aesthetics are finalized. The perfect aesthetic object is transferred to the spiritual sphere, and it is now described using such aesthetic categories as beautiful, light, color, image, sign, symbol. These categories help the coverage of global art problems and other spheres of culture.

In artistic creativity, traditionalism is predominant, canonism; Art now does not contradict the dogmas of official religion, but actively serves them. However, the duality of the Byzantine culture, the confrontation in it of the aristocratic and national directions does not disappear even during the periods of the most complete domination of the dogmatized church ideology.

In the XI-XII centuries. In the Byzantine culture there are serious ideological shifts. The growth of provincial cities, the rise of crafts and trade, the crystallization of the political and intellectual self-consciousness of the citizens, the feudal consolidation of the dominant class, while maintaining a centralized state, a rapprochement with the West during comments could not but affect the culture. Significant accumulation of positive knowledge, the growth of natural sciences, expanding the ideas of a person about land and the universe, the needs of navigation, trade, diplomacy, jurisprudence, the development of cultural communication with European countries and the Arab world - all this leads to the enrichment of the Byzantine culture and major changes in the worldview of the Byzantine society . It was the time of raising the scientific knowledge and the origin of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium.

Rationalistic trends at the Byzantine philosophers and theologians in the same way as Western European Scholastov, the XI-XII centuries, were manifested primarily in the desire to combine faith with a mind, and sometimes put the mind above faith. The most important prerequisite for the development of rationalism in Byzantium was a new stage of the revival of ancient culture, the understanding of the ancient heritage as a single, holistic philosophical-aesthetic system. Byzantine thinkers of the XI-XII centuries. perceive from ancient philosophers respect to mind; To change the blind faith based on authority, the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society comes. But unlike the Western European Scholasty, the Byzantine philosophy of the XI-XII centuries. It was built on the basis of the ancient philosophical teachings of different schools, and not only on the writings of Aristotle, as it was in the West. Expressives of rationalistic trends in the Byzantine philosophy were "Mikhail Pwell, John Ital and their followers.

However, all of these representatives of rationalism and religious freedomiffs were convicted of the church, and their works are devoted to burning. But their activities did not disappear - she prepared the ground for the emergence of humanistic ideas in Byzantium.

The literature detects trends towards the democratization of the language and the plot, to the individualization of the author's face, to the manifestation of the author's position; It originates critical attitude towards the ascetic monastic ideal and slip religious doubts. Literary life becomes more intense, literary circles arise. Significant heyday reaches during this period and Byzantine art.

Konstantinople capture Crusaders in 1204 led to the collapse of the Byzantine Empire and the short-term existence of the Latin Empire (1204-1261) and the possessions of Latin barons on the land of Byzantium. In the sphere of culture, this episode marks the cultural interaction of Greek and Western civilizations. The Catholic Church made great efforts to spread among the Greeks of Latin culture and Catholic creed. Already in 1205, an attempt was made to establish a Catholic University in Constantinople, and the monastery of Catholicism in the Latin Empire became the center of Catholicism in the Latin Empire. Dominica in Constantinople, where in 1252 by the monk Barto-Lomem was drawn up a polemical work "against the mistakes of the Greeks". At the same time, the Byzantine culture began to influence both the enlightened people arriving from the West. Thus, Catholic Archbishop Corinara Guillaume de Marbeke, a man widely educated, knowledgeable in Latin and Greek philosophy, translated into Latin the works of Aristotle, Hippocrat, Archimedes and Ibed. These translations, apparently, had an impact on the formation of philosophical views of the Foma Aquinas.

In my abstract, I would like to talk about the culture of Byzantium, one of the states that made a great contribution to the development of culture in Europe of the Middle Ages. In the history of the world culture of Byzantium, a special, outstanding place belongs. In the artistic work of Byzantium gave the medieval world high images of literature and art, which was distinguished by the noble grace of forms, shaped by the vision of thought, the refinement of aesthetic thinking, the depth of philosophical thought. According to expressiveness and deep spirituality of Byzantium, many centuries stood ahead of all countries of medieval Europe. The direct heiress of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium always remained the center as peculiar and truly brilliant culture. If you try to separate the Byzantine culture from the culture of Europe, the front and Middle East, the following factors will be the most important:

• 1. In Byzantium, there was a language community (the main language was Greek);
• 2. In Byzantium there was a religious community (the main religion was Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);
• 3. In Byzantium, with a lot of ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks.
• 4. The Byzantine Empire has always distinguished steady statehood and centralized management.

This, of course, does not exclude that the Byzantine culture, which affects many neighboring countries, herself was culturally influenced by both the tribes and peoples who inhabited it and their neighboring states. During his millennial existence, Byzantium came across powerful cultural external influences, which emanated from the countries that were close to it, from Iran, Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia, and later the Latin West and Ancient Rus. On the other hand, Byzantium had to join a variety of cultural contacts with peoples, which were standing for several or at a much lower stage of development (the Byzantines called them "barbarians").

The development process of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had era of the rise and decline, periods of the celebration of progressive ideas and the gloomy years of the domination of the reaction. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprout sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times. An inexhaustible source of culture was folk creativity. Under the cover of traditions and stereotypes, there was a new, creative principle for themselves.

All the millennial history of Byzantium can be divided into three periods: 1.Ser.IV-per.pol.vii centuries. - The period of decomposition of the slave-ownership and the formation of a medieval society. 2.Ser.VII-NCH.XIII century. - The emergence and development of feudalism in Byzantium. 3.xii-gray. XV centuries - The last period characterized by the further development of feudalism and the beginning of its decomposition.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be viewed as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of the Byzantine society, based on the traditions of the pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. In the early Byzantium, the new flourishing is experiencing the philosophy of neoplatonism. A number of neopotonikov philosophers appear - Burning, Diarat, Plotin, Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagitis. Neoplatonism was directly adjacent and coexisted with the Earlyzantine philosophical thought. But neoplatonism demanded special philosophical training from its adherents, special thinking, turning of the brain.

It was elitaren, that is, unavailable to the widespread masses, which his historical doom affected. The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and long-term process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. The Christian Dogmatic has developed under the strong influence of not only religious Middle Eastern teachings, Judaism, manikes, but also neoplatonism. Dogmat about the trocherity of the Divine, one of the central dogmas of Christian creed, is essentially a rethinking Triad of Neoplatonists. However, Christianity, despite the presence of the devil with manicia and neoplatonism, is fundamentally different from Manichaean dualism and neoplatonian monism. Christianity itself was not only a syncretic religious teaching, but also a synthetic philosophical religious system, which is important to the component of which were antique philosophical teachings. It may be explained to some extent that Christianity not only fought with ancient philosophy, but also used it for their own purposes. On the change of the intransigence of Christianity with everything that glimo, the glimbar, comes a compromise between the Christian and ancient world-plating. In the very neoplatonism, two currents were formed: one - a radical, configured against Christianity, the other is more moderate. Gradually take up supporters of compromise with Christianity. Take the process of repulsion, separation and at the same time rapprochement, mergers of neoplatonic philosophy and Christian theology, which is completed by the absorption of neoplatonism Christianity.

The most educated and far-sighted Christian of theologian understood the need to master the pagan culture to all the arsenal for use in the creation of philosophical concepts. In the works of Vasily, Kaesari, Grigoria, Nissky and Grigory Naziazine, in the speeches of John Zlatoust, you can see a combination of ideas of early Christianity with neoplatonic philosophy, sometimes the paradoxic weave of rhetorical ideas with new ideological content. Such thinkers like Vasily Kesiasky, Grigory Nissky and Grigory Naziazine, are laid out the foundation of the Byzantine philosophy. Their philosophical constructions are deeply rooted in the history of Hellenic thinking. In the center of their philosophy there is an understanding of being as perfection, which leads a peculiar justification of space, and consequently, peace and humans. Grigory Nissky has this concept sometimes approaching the pantheism.

In the transitional era of the death of the slave building and the formation of a feudal society, indigenous shifts occur in all spheres of the spiritual life of Byzantium. A new aesthetics is born, a new system of spiritual and moral values, a more appropriate warehouse of thinking and emotional requests of a medieval person. Patriotic literature, biblical cosmography, liturgical poetry, monastic story, World Chronicle, Christian Agiography, Penetrated by Religious Mirosal, Miscelly mastered the minds of the Byzantine society and come to replace the ancient culture.

The man of that era is changing, his vision of the world, his attitude to the universe, nature, society. A new "image of the world" compared to the antiquity of the world is created, embodied in a special iconic system. To replace the ancient idea of \u200b\u200bthe heroic personality, an ancient understanding of the world, as the world of laughing gods and fearlessly reaching the death of heroes, where the highest good - not to be afraid of anything and no hope (very pretty philosophy), the world of the suffering, torn by contradictions, is small , sinful man. He is infinitely humiliated and weak, but he believes in his salvation in a different life and is trying to find consolation. Christianity with an unprecedented intensity reveals painful split inside the human person. The presentation of a person about space, about the time, about the space, about the progress of history, is changing, about the time of the history of history: to change the closed historical cycles of the ancient writers, due to the will of God, the biblical vision of the progressive movement of the history of the Rannevizantine historians and chronicists.

In the early Byzantium, one of the fundamental ideas of the Middle Ages is crystallized - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Union of the Christian Church and the "Christian Empire".

The spiritual life of the then society is distinguished by dramatic tensions; In all areas of knowledge, the literature of art there is an amazing mixing of pagan and Christian ideas, images, ideas, the colorful connection of pagan mythology with Christian mystics. The era of the formation of a new, medieval culture creates talented, sometimes marked by the seal of the genius of thinkers, writers, poets. The individuality of the artist has not yet dissolved in church-dogmatic thinking.

Indigenous changes occur in the field of visual art and aesthetic views of the Byzantine society. Byzantine aesthetics developed on the basis of the entire spiritual culture of Byzantium. She largely relied on antique views of the essence of the beautiful, however, synthesized and rethinkled them in the spirit of Christian ideology.

A distinctive feature of Byzantine aesthetics was its deep spiritualism. Having preferred the spirit in front of the body, at the same time she tried to remove the dualism of earthly and heaven, divine and human, spirit and flesh. Not denying bodily beauty Byzantine thinkers The beauty of the soul, virtue, moral perfection set a lot above. Of great importance for the establishment of the Byzantine aesthetic consciousness was the early Christian understanding of the world as a wonderful creation of the Divine Artist. That is why the beauty is naturally valued higher than the beauty created by the hands of a person, as if "secondary" in its origin.

Byzantine art is genetically scene to Hellenistic and artistic East Christian art. In the early period in Byzantine art, as it were, the refined platonity and the reverent sensuality of the lateanthic impressionism naive, sometimes rude expressiveness of the folk art of the East. Hellenism for a long time remained the main, but not the only, source from where the Byzantine masters had evolved the grace of forms, the correctness of the proportions that the transparency of the colorsistic gamma, the technical perfection of its works. But Hellenism could not fully resist the powerful stream of the eastern influences that surpassed its existence on Byzantium in the first centuries. At this time, there is an impact on the Byzantine art of Egyptian, Syrian, Malaysian, Iranian artistic traditions.

In IV-V centuries. Lateant traditions were still strong in the art of Byzantium. If the classic antique art was distinguished by peaceful monism, if it did not know the struggle of the spirit and body, and his aesthetic ideal embodied the harmonic unity of physical and spiritual beauty, then the tragic conflict of the Spirit and the flesh is planned in the artistic lateant work. The monistic harmony replaces the collision of the opposite began, "the Spirit seems to be trying to reset the shackles of the body shell." In the future, Byzantine art has overcome the conflict of spirit and body, he was replaced by a calm contention, designed to lead a person from the storm of earthly life into the overseas world of pure spirit. This "peace" occurs as a result of the recognition of the superiority of the spiritual principle over the body, the victory of the Spirit over the flesh. The main aesthetic task of Byzantine art is now becoming the desire of the artist to embody a transcendental idea in an artistic image.

In the VI-VII centuries. Byzantine artists managed not only to absorb these diverse influences, but also overcoming them, create their own style in art. From this time, Constantinople turns into a glorious art center of the medieval world, in the Palladium of Science and Arts. It follows Raisal, Rome, Nikeya, Fessonika, who also become the focus of the Byzantine artistic style.

The flourishing of the Byzantine art of the early period is associated with the strengthening of the power of the empire during Justinian. In Constantinople at that time, magnificent palaces and temples are erected. The unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine creativity became built in the 1930s of the VI century. Church of St. Sofia. For the first time in him, the idea of \u200b\u200ba grandiose central temple, crowned with a dome, was embodied. The glitter of multi-colored marbles, the flickering of gold and precious utensils, the radiance of the lamps created the illusion of the boundlessness of the cathedral space, turned it into the likeness of the macrocosmos, they were symbolically closer to the image of the universe. No wonder he always remained the main shrine of Byzantium.

Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the church of St. Vitaly in Ravenna - striking the sophistication and elegance of architectural forms. Special fame to this temple was brought by his famous mosaics not only a church, but also secular character, in particular the images of the emperor of Justinian and the empress of the farodore and their suits. The faces of Justinian and theeodora are endowed with portrait features, the color gamut mosaics is distinguished by full-blooded brightness, warmth and freshness.

In painting VI-VII centuries. Crystallizes a specific Byzantine image, purified from foreign influences. It is based on the experience of the masters of the East and the West, who have come independently from each other to the creation of a new art corresponding to the spiritualist ideals of a medieval society. In this art, various directions and schools appear. The metropolitan school, for example, was distinguished by the excellent quality of performance, sophisticated artistry, painting and colorful diversity, trepacy and blurry of colors. One of the most advanced works of this school was mosaic in the dome of the Church of Assumption in Niceka.

Other directions in the art of early Byzantium, embodied in Mosaics Ravenna, Sinai, Fessonaloniki, Cyprus, Parenzo, marvel to the refusal of the Byzantine masters from ancient reminiscence. The images become more ascetic, not only sensual, but also there is no place for the emotional moment in such art, but spirituality reaches extraordinary force.

Church worship has turned into the Byzantium of a kind of lush mystery. In the twilight of the arches of the Byzantine temples, many candles and lamps were shining, illuminated by mysterious reflections Gold Mosaik, dark lines of icons, multicolor marble colonnades, magnificent precious utensils. All this had to, according to the plane of the Church, eclipse in the soul of a person's emotional elevation of the ancient tragedy, healthy fun mimes, fumes of circus rhythages and give it a repel in everyday life.

In the applied art of Byzantium, the leading line for the development of Byzantine art was determined in the applied art and painting, which reflects the formation of medieval mineosament.

The vitality of the ancient traditions here was manifested both in the images and in the forms of artistic expression. At the same time, gradually the artistic traditions of the nations of the East penetrated. Although at least in Western Europe, the impact of the barbaric world has played its role.

The music occupied a special place in the Byzantine civilization. A peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democratism could not affect both the character of musical culture, which represented the complex and many-sided phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries. The formation of Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status, is included in the system of represented state power. Special color preserved the music of urban streets, theatrical and circus ideas and folk festivals, which reflected the richest song and musical practice of many peoples inhabited by the empire. Each of these types of music had his own aesthetic and social sense and at the same time, interacting, they merged into a single and unique integer. Christianity very early appreciated the special possibilities of music as art universal and at the same time with the power of mass and individual psychological impact, and included it in his cult ritual. It was a cult music that was destined to take a dominant position in medieval Byzantium.

In the life of the wide masses, mass spectacles played a huge role. True, the ancient theater begins to tear down to decay - the ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly replaced by performances of mimes, juggler, dancers, gymnasts, wildlife tamers. The place of the theater occupies now Circus (hippodrome) with its equestrian rhystanes, using great popularity.

If you summarize the first period of the existence of Byzantium, we can say that during this period the main features of the Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, it should be attributed to the fact that the Byzantine culture was opened by other cultural influences obtained from the outside. But gradually in the early period, they were synthesized, the main, leading Greco-Roman culture.

The culture of early Byzantium was urban culture. The major cities of the Empire, and first of all, Constantinople were not only the cities of crafts and trade, but also the foci of the highest culture and education, where the rich heritage of antiquity was preserved.

The struggle of secular and church cultures is especially characteristic of the first period of the history of Byzantium. In the history of Byzantine culture, the first centuries of the existence of Byzantium were the time of the acute ideological struggle, the collision of contradictory trends, complex ideological collisions, but also the time of fruitful quest, intensive spiritual creativity, positive development of science and art. These were the century, when the culture of the future of medieval society was born in the flour of the struggle of the old ones.

In the second stage of the development of culture, which came at the time from the second half of the VII century. Until XIIV, allocate the time of iconoclapses (second quarter of the 2nd - 40s IX., the time of the reign of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (the so-called "Macedonian revival": 867-1056, and the time of the reign of comnins ("Comninovsky Revival": 1081-1185 GG.).

The defining feature of the spiritual life of the empire by the middle of the 6th century was the undivided domination of the Christian worldview. The deep religiosity was simulated now not so much dogmatic disputes as the offensive of Islam, which was the Arabs, inspiring the "Holy War" and the fight against the pagans - Slavs and Togolgars. The role of the church has even more increased. The instability of life lies, economic and household vitality of the masses of the population, poverty and the constant danger on the part of the external enemy aggravated the religious feeling of the empires filed: the spirit of humility was argued before the "Peace of Peace" by the "Spiritual Shepherds", the infinite faith in wonders and signs, in Salvation through self-denial and prayer. The estate of the monks rapidly increased, the number of monasteries has multiplied. More than ever, bloomed the cult of saints, especially worship known only in this area, district, city; On them, all hopes were assigned to them on the "own" celestial intercessors.

A widespread superstition helped the church to rule over the minds of the parishioners, multiplying his wealth and strengthen their position. This contributed to the decrease in the literacy level of the population, the extreme narrowing of secular knowledge.

However, the Celebration of theology, the approval of its domination with the help of violence Taired a serious danger - theology could be powerless before the criticism of the innerians and heretics. As any ideological system, Christianity needed development. The need for this was aware of the narrow circles of the church elite, which preserved the tradition of high religious and secular education. The systematization of theology became the first challenge, and for this was to resort to spiritual treasures of antiquity again - without its idealistic theories and formal logic, the new tasks of theologians were impracticable.

The search for original philosophical and theological solutions has already been made in the second half of the VII century., Although the most outstanding works in this area were created in the next century. It is characteristic of this connection that on the general background of the decline of culture in the middle of the 6th century, in essence only theology experienced a certain ascent: this was required by the pressing interests of the ruling elite, issued for the acute need of the widest layers of society.

Regardless of the fact that the Maxim confessor subjected the emperor CONSTANT II itself, the theoretical search for this theologian met the needs of the dominant class; Without the way, the manifestation and "source of knowledge" of Damascus would be impossible.

The basis of the theological constructions of Maxim is the idea of \u200b\u200breuniting a person with God (through overcoming the abyss between spiritual and carnal) as the reunification of the root cause of all things, a whole with its part. In climbing the spiritual active role, Maxim took the person himself, his free will.

John Damaskin set himself and fulfilled two main tasks: he subjured the sharp criticism of the enemies of the lawwror (Nestorian, Manicheev, Iconoborets) and systematized theology as a world stroke, as a special system of ideas about God, the creation of peace and man, determining his place in the pretentious and other worlds . Compilation (in accordance with the motto Damascus "I do not like anything") on the basis of Aristotelian logic presented the main method of its work. He used the natural science ideas of the ancients, but carefully selected from them, as from the dogmas of their predecessor-theologians, only the fact that anyone did not contradict the canons of the universal cathedrals.

In essence, Damascus's creativity even on medieval standards is devoid of originality. His works played a major role in ideological struggle with iconocrobalism, but not because they contained new arguments in defense of traditional ideas and religious rites, and by eliminating contradictions from church dogmas, bringing them into a slender system.

A significant step forward in the development of theological science, in the development of new ideas relating to the problems of the ratio of spirit and matter, the expression of the thought and its perception, the relationship of God and the person, was made during fierce disputes between the iconoborets and the icon-controllers.

But generally up to the middle of the IX century. Philosophers and theologians remained in a circle of traditional ideas of lateant Christianity.

The ideological struggle of the Epoch of the Iconality, who adopted an acute political form, the spread of Pavlican Yersiei made a completely obvious need to increase the education of the clergy and representatives of the Supreme Layers of the Company. In the situation of the general lift of spiritual culture, the new direction in the scientific and philosophical thought of Byzantium was marked in the work of Patriarch Foto, who made more than anyone else to him, for the revival and development of sciences in the empire. Fothy made a new assessment and selection of scientific and literary works of the previous era and modernity, based on this not only in church feedback, but also on the considerations of rationalism and practical benefits and trying through natural science knowledge to explain the causes of natural phenomena. The rise of rationalistic thought in the Epoch of Fothia, accompanied by a new increase in interest in antiquity, has become even more tangible in the XI-XIIIV.

It is noteworthy, however, simultaneously with this trend, as it often happened in Byzantium, a purely mysticalological theory was developed and deepened. One of these theories created at the turn of the X-XI centuries. and not received widespread confessions in the XI-XII centuries, a large ideological and political role was determined later: it was based on a powerful flow in the Orthodox Church in the XIV-XVI centuries. - Isichams. We are talking about the mysticism of Simeon of the New Theologian, who developed the thesis on the possibility for a person of real unity with the deity, connecting the sensual and mental (spiritual) world through mystical self-pressing, deep humility and "smart prayer".

In the time of Fothia, the contradictions in the interpretation of idealistic concepts of antiquity between the adherents of Aristotle and Plato were clearly discovered. After the era of long preference, by the Byzantine theologians, the teachings of Aristotle, from the XI century. In the development of philosophical thought there was a turn to Platonism and Neoplatonism. A bright representative of this direction was Mikhail Pwell. With all its worship before the antique thinkers and with all its dependence on the provisions of the Classics of antiquity, Pwell remained nevertheless, a very original ("artistic") philosopher, where no other, to connect and reconcile the theses of ancient philosophy and Christian spiritualism, subordinate orthodox Dogmatic even mysterious obnomen occult sciences.

However, however, no carefully attempts to protect the intellectual Byzantine elite to protect and cultivate the rationalistic elements of ancient science, the sharp clashes turned out to be inevitable: the example of this is the excretion from the Church and the condemnation of the student of Pwell of Philosopher John Ital. The ideas of Plato were driven into a rigid framework of theology. Rationalistic trends in Byzantine philosophy will now be resurrected soon, only in the situation of the growing crisis of the XIII-XV centuries, especially in the conditions of a fierce fight against mystics - Isihastami.

The general decline of creative activity in the "Dark Century" with particular force was reflected in the state of the Byzantine literature. Vulgarization, lack of literary taste, "Dark" style, template characteristics and situations - all this was established for a long time as the dominant features of the literature created in the second half of the VII - first half of the 9th century. The imitation of antique samples no longer found in society. The main customer and the connoisseur of literary labor became black clergy. The monks were completely and near the authors of life. Agiography and liturgical poetry reached the fore. The preaching of asceticism, humility, hopes for a miracle and sweating reward, the chanting of a religious attitude is the main ideological content of the literature of this kind.

Special heights, Byzantine Agiography reached in the 9th century. In the middle of the x century. About one and a half hundred of the most popular lives were processed and rewritten by a visible chronistic Simeon with a metaphrate (logo). The decline of the genre was as follows, XI W.: Instead of naive, but the living descriptions began to dominate the dry scheme, template images, screen scenes of saints.

At the same time, the gortgled genre, invariably used by the widest popularity among the masses, had a noticeable impact on the development of Byzantine literature and in the X and in the XI centuries. Vulgarization was often combined with a bright imagery, the realism of the descriptions, the vitality of parts, the dynamism of the plot. Among the heroes of life, the poor and offended, who committing a martyrdom in the glory of God, were safely joined the fight with strong and rich, with injustice, inappropriate and evil. The note of humanism and mercy is an integral element of many Byzantine zhiv.

Religious themes dominated this era and in poetic works. Part of them directly referred to liturgical poetry (church chants, hymns), the part was dedicated, as well as agiography, glorifying the religious feat. So, Fyodor Studit sought to open the monastic ideals and the most routine of monastic life.

The revival of the literary tradition concluded in the orientation on the masterpieces of antiquity and in their rethinking, especially noticeable in the XI-XII centuries, which affected the choice and plots, and genres, and artistic forms. As in the time of antiquity, the epistolography, which made up reminissations from the ancient Greco-Roman mythology, became a means of bright emotional narration, the authonation of the author, rising to the level of exquisite prose. Belly borrowed plots and forms and oriental and western literature during this period.

Translations and processing from Arabic and Latin are carried out. There are experiments of poetic writings on the people, spoken language. For the first time in the history of Byzantium, starting with IV century. I took shape and began to gradually expand from the XII century. The cycle of the people's literature. The enrichment of ideological and artistic content of literature due to the enhancement of the folk folklore tradition, the heroic epic is most clearly appeared in the epic poem about the Digeneis acrylic, created on the basis of the folk song cycle in the X-XI centuries. Folklore motifs penetrate into the Hellenistic Love and Adventure Roman who was revived at that time.

At the second period there are also the flourishing of the Byzantine aesthetics. The development of aesthetic thought in the VIII-IX centuries. It was stimulated by the struggle around cult images. The iconocrators had to summarize the main Christian concepts of the image and based on their basis to develop a thorius of the ratio of the image and archetype, primarily in relation to the visual arts. The functions of the image in the spiritual culture of the past were studied, a comparative analysis of the images of symbolic and mystical (imitative) was carried out - in a new meaningful attitude of the image to the Word, the problem of painting priority in religious culture was raised.

The most complete development was obtained in that epoch an anti-regulation direction of aesthetics, oriented on the ancient criteria of the beautiful. The interest in the physical (bodily) beauty of a person was revived; Received a new life, the aesthetics of eroticism, borne religious Rigorists; Remedily enjoyed special attention to secular art. New impulses also found the theory of symbolism, especially the concept of allegory; Garden art began to be appreciated; Revival touched and dramatic art, the understanding of which special works were dedicated.

In general, aesthetic thought in Byzantium in the VIII-XII centuries. It was perhaps the highest point of its development, providing a strong impact on the artistic practice of a number of other countries in Europe and Asia.

The crisis phenomena of the transition era in the Byzantine culture were particularly protracted in the field of visual art of VII-IX centuries, the fate of which is stronger than in other industries, the iconoborhood has affected. The development of the most massive, religious species of visual art (iconography and fresco painting) resumed only after 843, i.e. After the victory of iconing.

The peculiarity of the new stage was that, on the one hand, the impact of an ancient tradition was noticeably increased, and on the other, the iconographic canon was produced in that era, with its sustainable standards concerning the sequire selection, the ratio of figures, the most of them, Selection of paints, distribution of blueberries, etc. This canon will continue to strictly follow Byzantine artists. The creation of a picturesque stencil was accompanied by the strengthening of stylization, designed to serve the goals of transmission through a visual image, not so much of the human face as a religious idea concluded in this image.

Reaches at that time a new heyday art of colored mosaic image. In the IX-XI centuries. Restored and old monuments. Mosaics resumed and in the church of St. Sofia. There were new plots in which the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Union of the Church with the state was reflected.

In the IX-X centuries. Significantly enriched and complicated the decor of manuscripts, the richer and diverse became book miniatures and ornaments. However, a truly new period in the development of book miniatures falls on

The XI-XII centuries., When the flowering of the Konstantinople School of Masters in this field of art was experiencing. In that epoch, in general, the leading role in painting in general (in icon painting, miniature, fresco) acquired the capital schools marked by the seal of special perfection of taste and technology.

In the VII-VIII centuries. In the temple construction of Byzantium and the countries of the Byzantine cultural circle, the same cross-domed composition was dominated, which arose in the VI century. and was characterized by a weakly pronounced external decorative design. Large importance of the facade decor has acquired in the IX-X centuries, when a new architectural style was distributed and received. The appearance of a new style was associated with the flowering of cities, the strengthening of the public role of the Church, a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (the temple as the image of the world). A lot of new temples were built, a large number of monasteries were built, although they were like The rule is small in size.

In addition to changes in the decorative design of buildings, architectural forms changed, the composition itself. The value of vertical lines and facade members increased, which changed the silhouette of the temple. Builders have increasingly resorted to the use of patterned brickwork. The features of the new architectural style appeared in a number of local schools. For example, in Greece X-XII centuries. It is peculiar to the preservation of some archaic of architectural forms (not the dismemberment of the plane of the facade, traditional forms of small temples) - with further development and increasing influence of a new style - the patternation decor and polychrome plastic were also used.

In the VIII-XII centuries. There was a special musical and poetic church art. Thanks to its high artistic advantages, weakened the impact on the church music of the music of folklore, whose melodies were previously penetrated even in Liturgy. In order to even greater isolation of the musical foundations of worships from external influences, the canonization of the ladhotonal system was carried out - "Octocyha" (octalia). ICOSs were some melodic formulas. However, musical and theoretical monuments make it possible to conclude that the Ikos system does not exclude the sound understanding. The most popular genres of church music were canon (musically poetic composition during the church service) and a tropar (almost the main cell of Byzantine gymnography). The trails were composed of all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates.

The progress of musical art led to the creation of a music letter (notation), as well as liturgical handwritten collections, in which chants were recorded (or only text or text with notation).

Social life also did not do without music. In the book "On the ceremonies of the Byzantine courtyard", almost 400 chants reported. These are songs - processions, and songs during equestrian processes, and songs in the imperial feast, and song-acclaiming, etc.

With IX century In the circles of the intellectual elite, an interest in ancient musical culture increased, although this interest was theoretical in nature: attention was attracted not so much music itself as the composition of the ancient Greek musical theorists.

As the result of the second period, I would like to say that Byzantium at this time reached the highest power and the highest point of development of culture. In public development and in the evolution of the culture of Byzantium, contradictory trends are obvious due to its midrange between East and West.

The third period (XII-XIV centuries) can be briefly described as the highest point of the development of feudalism and the collapse of the Byzantine Empire. In view of the lack of material at this period, I will only say that, despite the fact that Byzantium existed for 1000 years longer

The Great Roman Empire, she was conquered in the XIV century. Seljuk Turks. But despite this, Byzantium made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. Its basic principles and directions of culture moved to neighboring states. Almost all the time medieval Europe developed on the basis of the achievements of Byzantine culture. Byzantium can be called "Second Rome", because Her contribution to the development of Europe and the whole world is no inferior to the Roman Empire.