Precucumbian civilizations of South America. Indian peoples of Decolumbovy America The oldest of the famous civilizations of Decolumbovy America

By the time Columbus "opened" America (1492), it was populated by many Indian tribes and ethnic groups, most of which were at the primitive stage of development. However, some of them who lived in Mesoamera (Central America) and Andes (South America) have reached the level of highly developed ancient civilizations, although much lagged behind Europe: the latter by that time was worried about the breakdown of the Renaissance.

The meeting of two worlds, two cultures and civilizations had different consequences for those who met. Europe borrowed many achievements of Indian civilizations, in particular thanks to America, Europeans began to use potatoes, tomatoes, corn, beans, tobacco, cocoa, quinine. In general, after the opening of the new light, the development of Europe was significantly accelerated. Very otherwise the fate of the ancient-American cultures and civilizations has developed: the development of some of them actually ceased, and many completely disappeared from the face of the earth.

Available scientific evidence suggests that the American continent had no focus of the formation of ancient man. The population of this continent began in the era of the late Paleolithic - about 30-20 thousand years ago - and went from Northeast Asia through Bering Strait and Alaska. The further evolution of the communities of the communities has passed all the well-known stages and had both similarities and differences from other continents.

An example of a highly developed primitive culture of the new light can serve as the so-called Olmek culture, existing on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the I thousand BC. In relation to this culture, much remains unclear and mysterious. In particular, the concrete ethnic group is not known - the carrier (the name "Olmek" is conditional) of this culture, the general territory of its distribution is not defined, as well as the features of public defendance, etc.

Nevertheless, the existing archaeological information suggests that in the first half of the I thousand BC. The population and Tabasco tribes have reached a high level of development. They appear the first "ritual centers", they build pyramids from Saman and clay, build monumental sculptures monuments. An example of such monuments was huge anthropomorphic heads weighing up to 20 tons. Wide distribution is obtained by embossed carving in basalt and jade, the manufacture of axes-Celts, masks and figurines. In i century BC. The first samples of writing and calendar appear. Similar cultures existed in other regions of the continent.

Ancient cultures and civilizations have developed by the end of the I thousand BC. And existed until the XVI century. AD - Before the arrival of Europeans. In their evolution usually allocate two periods: early, or classic (I thousand AD), and late, or post-classical (X-XVI centuries. AD).

Among the most significant cultures of the mesoamer of the classical period refers Teotihukanskaya. Arriving in Central Mexico. The preserved ruins of Teothuacan - the capital of the same name of civilization - indicate that it was a political, economic and cultural center of all mesoamerics with a population of 60-120 thousand people. The most successfully developed in it crafts and trade. Archaeologists have discovered about 500 craft workshops in the city, whole quarters of foreign merchants and "diplomats". Masters are found almost all over Central America.

It is noteworthy that almost the whole city was a kind of architectural monument. Its center was carefully planned around two intersecting wide streets of wide streets: from the north to south - the avenue is the road of dead longer than 5 km long, and from the West to the East - a non-name prospekt up to 4 km long.

At the northern end of the road of the dead, the huge silhouette of the pyramid of the moon towers (height 42 m), folded from raw bricks and a lined volcanic stone. On the other side of the avenue there is an even more grandiose structure - the pyramid of the Sun (height 64.5 m), at the top of which the temple was once stood. The place of intersection of prospectuses occupies the Palace of the ruler of Teothuacan - "Citadel", which is a complex of buildings, where the temple was God of Cetzalcoatlia - Feather Snake, one of the main deities, patron of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind. Only its pyramid base has been preserved from the temple, consisting of six decreasing stone platforms, as if supplied to each other. The facade of the pyramid and balustrade of the front staircase is decorated with the sculptural heads of the Ketzalcoatlia and the god of the water and the rain of the Tlalok in the image of the butterfly.

Along the road of the dead there are still ten temples and palaces. Among them - the beautiful Palace of Ketzalpapalotl, or the Pennate Snail Palace, the walls of which are decorated with fresco painting, are reconstructed today. Excellent samples of such painting are also available in the temple of agriculture, which depicts gods, people and animals. The original monuments of the culture under consideration are anthropomorphic masks of stone and clay. In the III-VII centuries. Widespread products from ceramics - cylindrical vessels with picturesque painting or carved ornament - and terracotta figurines.

The highest flourishing culture of Teothuacan reached the beginning of the VII century. AD However, at the end of the same century, a beautiful city suddenly dies, destroyed by a giant fire. The reasons for this catastrophe still remain unexplained - most likely as a result of the invasion of militant barbaric tribes of Northern Mexico.

Culture Aztec

After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico was immersed for a long time in the troubled times of inter-ethnic wars and intercruise. As a result of multiple mixes of local tribes with arrows - first with chickeques, and then the tenosh-pharmacies - in 1325, the capital of the Aztecs was founded on the deserted islands of Lake Teskoko Tenochtitlan. The emerging city-state quickly expressed and at the beginning of the XVI century. turned into one of the most powerful powers of America - the famous Aztec Empire With a huge territory and a population of 5-6 million people. Her borders stretched from Northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico.

The capital itself - Tenochtitlan - has become a big city with a population of 120-300 thousand inhabitants. With the mainland, this island city tied three broad stone dampers. According to eyewitnesses, the capital of the Aztec was a wonderful, well-planned city. His ritual-administrative center was a magnificent architectural ensemble, where he entered the "Holy Plot" wedges, inside which the main city temples were located, the dwellings of the priests, schools, a presenter for a ritual ball game. Nearby were no less magnificent palaces of Aztec rulers.

The basis Economy Aztecs were agriculture, and the main cultural culture - corn. It should be emphasized that it was the aztecs who became the first to grow cocoa beans and Tomatoes; They are the authors of the word "Tomati". At a high level there were many crafts, especially Gold chasing. When the Great Albrecht Durer in 1520 saw the Aztec products from gold, he stated: "Never in life I have not seen anything that I would excite me so deep as these items."

The highest level reached Spiritual culture of Aztecs. This largely contributed to the effective education system,i included two types of schools in which the male population is studying. In the first-type schools, boys from the highest layer were brought up, who had to become a priest, a dignitary or warlord. In second type schools, boys were studied from ordinary families, where they were preparing for agricultural work, crafts and a military case. Study at school was mandatory.

System of religious and mythological representation and cults Aztec was quite complicated. Attokov Pantheon had progenitor - God-Creator Ohme Curing And his divine spouse. Among the leading chief deities, the God of the Sun and War Witilopochaty. The war was the form of worshiping this God and was erected in the cult. Special place was held by Synthethoble - the patron saint of corn fertility. The defender of the priest was Vladyka Ketzalcoatl.

The God of Trade and the patron of merchants was jacketuned. In general, the gods were many. Suffice it to say that every month and every day I had our God.

Very successfully developed . It was based on philosophy,which was engaged in wise men who used great respect. Leading science was astronomy. Aztec starzets were freely oriented in the star picture of the sky. Satisfying the needs of agriculture, they developed a pretty accurate calendar. Taking into account the situation and movement of stars in the sky.

Aztecs created highly developed Artistic culture. Among the arts of significant success reached literature. Aztec writers created didactic treatises, dramatic and prosaic works. The leading position was occupied by poetry, which included several genres: military poems, poems about colors, spring songs. Religious poems and hymns who sang in honor of the main gods of Aztec used the greatest success.

No less successfully developed architecture. In addition to the above-mentioned beautiful ensembles and palaces of the capital, magnificent architectural monuments were created in other cities. However, almost all of them were destroyed by Spanish conquistadors. Amazing creations are recently discovered by the temple in Malnalko. This temple, who had the shape of the traditional Aztec pyramid, is notable. That all he was carved right in the rock. If we consider that Aztecs used alone with stone weapons, then you can imagine what kind of giant efforts the construction of this temple was required.

In the 1980s, as a result of earthquakes, earthquakes and excavations in the very center of Mexico City, the main temple of the Aztecs was opened - Temple Major. The sanctuary of the chief god Witilopochatley and the god of water and the rain, the patron of agriculture of Tlalok, are also opened. Wall painting remains, stone sculpture samples. Among the foundation found, a round stone with a diameter of more than 3 m with a bas-relief image of the goddess Kool-Shauhaki is the sister of Witilopochti. In the deep pits-caches, stone figures of gods, corals, sinks, ceramic products, necklaces, etc. have been preserved.

The highest flourishing culture and civilization of the Aztecs reached at the beginning of the XVI century. However, soon this bloom was put an end. The Spaniards captured the tenoctures of the Glak in 1521. The city was destroyed, and a new city was grew up on its ruins - Mexico City, which became three of the colonial possessions of European conquerors.

Civilization Maya.

The culture and civilization of Maya became another amazing phenomenon of Precuccian America, which existed in the I-XV centuries. AD On the territory of Southeast Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. The modern researcher of this region of Lehman called Maya "the most fascinating from all civilizations of Ancient America."

Indeed, all associated with Maya is shuttered with a secret and mystery. The mystery remains their origin. The mystery is their choice of the place of settlement - Irudnoye Jungle Mexico. At the same time, the mystery and miracle are presented ups and downs in their subsequent development.

In the classical period (I-IX centuries. AD) The development of civilization and the culture of Maya goes along the steep ascending. Already in the first centuries, our era, they reach the highest level and amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting. The arising major and crowded cities become centers of handicraft production, marked with a real bloom of painted ceramics. At this time, Maya creates the only developed in America Hieroglyphic writingWhat is evidenced by the inscriptions on steles, reliefs, subjects of shallow plastics. Maya accounted for an accurate sunny calendar, successfully predicted solar and lunar eclipses.

The main type of monumental architecture There was a pyramidal temple installed on a high pyramid - up to 70 m. If we consider that all the construction erected at high pyramidal hills, then the majestic and grandiose does everything structure looks like. That is exactly what the temple of the inscriptions in Palenka, who served the tomb of the ruler is similar to the pyramids of ancient Egypt. All construction covered with hieroglyphic embossed inscriptions, which decorate the walls, the crypt, the sarcophagus cover and other objects. A cool staircase with several platforms leads to the temple. The city has three more pyramids with the temples of the sun, the cross and the deciduous cross, as well as the Palace with a five-story square tower that served, apparently, the Observatory: on the top floor, the stone bench was preserved on which he was satispret, peering in a distant sky. The walls of the palace are also decorated with reliefs depicting prisoners of war.

In VI-IX centuries. The highest success is achieved Monumental sculpture and painting Maya. Sculptural schools Palenk, Copan and other cities achieve rare skills and subtlety when transferring naturalness of poses and movements of the characters depicted, which rulers, dignitaries and warriors are usually performed. Amazing skill is also distinguished by small plastic - especially small figurines.

The preserved samples of Maya painting are amazed by the grace of the pattern and the richness of the color. The famous frescoes of Bonampak are recognized masterpieces of pictorial art. They talk about military battles, depict solemn ceremonies, complex rituals of sacrifice, graceful dancing, etc.

In the 1x centuries. Most Maya cities were destroyed by invading Toltec tribes, but in the XI century. The Mayan culture was re-revived on the Yucatan Peninsula and in the Gwatela Mountains. The main centers are the cities of Chichen Itsa, Ushmal and Mayap.

Most successfully develops architecture. One of the wonderful architectural monuments of the postclassical period is the Pyramid of Kukulkana - "Pernoy Snake" in Chichen-Ice. On the top of the nine-speed pyramid, where the temple is located, there are four stairs, bordered by the balustrade, which begins the perfectly performed snake head at the same time and in the form of a serpentine body continues until the top floor. The pyramid symbolizes the calendar, for 365 steps of its stairs correspond to the number of days a year. It is noteworthy, in addition, and the fact that there is another nine-speed pyramid inside it, in which there is a sanctuary, and in it an amazing stone throne depicting Jaguar.

Very original is also the pyramid "The Temple of the Wizard" in Ushmale. It differs from all others in that the horizontal projection has an oval form.

By the middle of the XV century. The Mayan culture enters a heavy crisis and falls into decay. When Spanish conquerors joined the beginning of the XVI century. In Mayan cities, many of them were abandoned by their inhabitants. The reasons for such an unexpected and sad finals of the prosperous culture and civilization remain a mystery.

Ancient civilizations of South America. Inca culture

In South America, almost simultaneously with the Olmek civilization of mesoamerics, at the end of the II thousand BC, in the mountains of the northeastern region, Peru arose no less mysterious Culture Chavin,similar to Olmek, although not associated with it.

Pa Rowing our era in the northern part of the coastal zone Peru appears uchik civilization, And in the south - Civilization of Nask.Somewhat later in the mountains of the North of Bolivia there was an original tiaanac culture. These civilizations of South America in some respects were inferior to the cultures of mesoamsriki: they did not have a hieroglyphic letter, an accurate calendar, etc. But in many ways - especially in technology - They were superior to mesoamer. Already with II thousand BC. The Indians Peru and Bolivia paid the metals, treated gold, silver, copper and their alloys and did not only be wonderful decorations, but also tools for labor - shovels and hoes. They had developed agriculture, built magnificent temples, created monumental sculptures, made excellent ceramic products with polychrome painting. A wide fame acquired their thin tissues made of cotton and wool. In I thousand AD. The production of metal products, ceramics and tissues has reached large sizes and high levels, and it was it that was the unique peculiarity of the South American civilizations of the classical period.

Postclassical period (X-XVI centuries. AD) is marked by the appearance and disappearance of many states both in the mountain and in the coastal zones of South America. In the XIV century Incas create the state of Taatin-Sui in the mountain zone, which, after a long warrior, with neighboring small states, it is possible to exit the winner and subjugate all the others.

In the XV century It turns In the gigantic and famous Empire Inca With a huge territory and a population of about 6 million people. At the head of a huge power stood the divine ruler, the son of the Sun Inca, who appeared on the hereditable aristocracy and Casta Priests.

Foundation Economy Massed agriculture, the main cultures of which were corn, potatoes, beans, red pepper. The Inca State was distinguished by an effective organization of public works, called Mita. Mita meant the obligation of all the empires to work out one month a year on the construction of public facilities. She allowed to collect tens of thousands of people in one place, so that irrigation canals, fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. were built in a short time.

From the north to south the country of Inca crossing two palel roads. One of which had a length of more than 5 thousand km. These highways were connected to each other with a large number of transverse roads that created the excellent network of communications. Along the roads after certain distances there were postal stations, warehouses with products and necessary materials. In Gauatinsuyu, public post was operating.

Spiritual and religious life And the cult of the cult of priests were in juris. The Supreme Divine was considered Viracoo - Creator of the world and the rest of the gods. Other deities were the god of the Golden Sun of Inti. God of weather, thunder and lightning Ilp. The ancient cults of Mother Mother Mom Pacha and Mother of the Sea of \u200b\u200bthe Sea of \u200b\u200bMother (Sochi. The worship of the gods occurred in the stone temples decorated inside the gold.

Regulated all parties to life, including the personal life of the citizens of the Empire. All the inconsities until a certain age were to marry. If this did not happen, then this issue has solved the state official at its discretion, and its decision was mandatory for execution.

Although the incons did not have a present writing, it did not prevent them from creating wonderful myths, legends, epic poems, religious hymns, as well as dramatic works. Unfortunately, little of this spiritual wealth has been preserved.

The highest bloom Culture Inca reached at the beginning XVI in. However, this prosperity lasted not long. In 1532, the most powerful empire of Decolumbovoy America was almost no resistance to Europeans. The small group of Spanish conquerors, led by Francisco Pizarro, managed to kill Inka Ataalpu, which paralyzed the will to resist his people, and the Great Empire Inca ceased to exist.

What was America until its official opening? Multipoint, mysterious and very unusual.

1. Scientists believe that the ancestors of the first Indians settled in America 30 thousand years ago. Today it is customary to say that they inhabited the mainland more than 20 tribes that lived in different parts.

2. The most militant tribes of the Indians - Iroquois - lived on their own constitution, which was "recorded" with the help of shells and beads.

3. The hairstyle "scalp strand" was not such a "lush" as modern Iroquais. The head of the Indians smoothly shaved, leaving only on the back of a knot knot knot into the tight.

4. The ritual masks of Iroquois are unique. There are no two characters. The only "characteristic feature" is a crochet's nose. It was this profile that the Giant from Indian legends had, who swore to protect the northern people.

5. For all the brutality of the Iroquois men, the women of the tribe owned the land, and, accordingly, they could order her, and also elected the leader, whom he could, if desired, could shift. It is believed that it was in one of the Iroquest tribes - Seneca - and originates the feminist movement.

6. Mogaves - Another tribe of the Iroquois - was famous for its courage, as well as a unique ability - the absence of acrofobia. Due to the lack of fear of height later, these indigenous people were attracted to the construction of New York skyscrapers.

7. Roads built by Incas, exceeded the quality of Roman and European. And the Russian, apparently, and suppressed.

8. Mapuche was not cannibals, although the tradition was holy - stun the prisoner with a battle, cut his heart and eat. It was believed that this is how the courage and the courage of the defeated warrior will acquire a "new home".

9. Disputes around the unique language of Aimara Indians from the West of South America will not stop so far. Grammar times inverted with their heads. When they talk about the future, they indicate back, and when we reflect on the past, then describe the situation that we perceive as a future. In general, in an attempt to understand what is happening in their consciousness, it is easy to stir up.

10. The Titicaca Tititive Lake in the Spaniards and Kechua tribes were called "Mamakota" - "Mother Water". On one of the numerous islands of the lake, you can find the remains of the burial towers - Chulpas - a height of up to 12 meters. Their authors are Aimara, who lived in the Doinki era.

11. Palpa is a desert plateau in the south of Peru - attracts all lovers of world mysteries to a unique collection of geoglyphs - huge drawings that are visible only from a bird's eye view. There are more than 200 versions of their origin. For one of them, the "relief layout" held the people of Parakas, who lived in the territory of modern Peru to the Doinkovskaya Era. They learned to embalm the departed long before the Egyptians, but did not invent writing, so the information about them is extremely scarce.

12. Literally the name of another horsepower pelemenne - Tuscarora, once who lived in the territory of modern East Carolina, means "Konopley's collectors."

13. Social hierarchy in Dookolumbovskaya America will not meet often. For example, in the natch tribe. Every morning, the leader was a big sun out of his luxurious home and pointed to Heavenly brother the Sun, what a way to do it - from east to the west. The greatest honor of the time "King" stayed on the bed and led Michmichguli - "merciless". So "Lord" called their tribesmen.

14. Every winter, with a full moon, the Indians of the Nutka, who lived in the north-west of America, conducted "Trevalu" - the rite of initiation of young warriors. The young men were dressed in wolves and passed complex tests for agility and courage.

15. Tathematical dolls Rush, which are time imperted, will definitely meet modern travelers in the north-east Arizona. According to the legend, it was the perfume of the mouse kacins who saved the ancestors of Hopi with a sinking Atlantine, moved them at the "flying shields" (outwardly very resembling half of the pumpkins) on the southern shores of America.

16. The violasting tribe living in the jungle of Amazonia, and today hunts the ancestor's weapons - spears and a fuch tube, "sparkling" from it from her Kurara, cooked by his own recipe. Vorayni believe that their people occurred from Jaguar, so the hunt for this cat has always been taboo.

17. One of the most powerful tribes of North America - Gurona - fully lost its language. Their ancestors began every new decade with the "Fira of the Dead", whose climax was becoming transferred by the general grave of the ancestors who died over the past ten years, to a new place.

18. Generic leaders Mogican - Sachema - inherited power on the maternal line. When determining military leaders, a more democratic method was operating - elections.

19. Team almost did not punish their children, believing that they are a gift of the Great Spirit. They had special people to hand themselves special people - "Men-Ghosts" who diligently portrayed angry spirits. Whether such a pedagogical technique has worked, unfortunately, it is not known.

20. The heraldic symbol of one of the most numerous peoples of the northern part of Decolumbovy America - the Tribe of Ojibva - is the eagle.

21. One of the most sinister rituals of the Indian Schuar and Achuard was "TSants" - drying the head of the enemy to the size of the fist. Purpose? To deprive the consuming soul. The process was documented on the video only once - in 1961.

22. For 10 thousand years, the modern territory of Wisconsin inhabited menomini. The tribe management was performed by representatives of five fraternities. Bears solved civil disputes, eagles - military, wolves mined food, cranes were engaged in construction, including Masterili Canoe and Capposh. Finally, the moose was grown, collected and stored rice.

23. The Indian tribe of screams living to colonization in the south-east of the United States has gained from the North American peoples with a statist figure and high growth.

24. Timuka lived in the north of the Florida Peninsula. Men of this tribe wore high hairstyles to, according to researchers, visually increase their growth. The body of Timukua, including children, decorated numerous tattoos, each of which was applied for a certain deed.

25. Olmeki - one of the oldest civilizations of Decolumbovy America disappeared over one and a half thousand years before the appearance of Aztecs. It is believed that all other great peoples of the Preolonional era went from Olmekov: Toltec, Aztec, Maya, Sapoteki. One of the main mysteries of Olmekov is the "stone heads". Despite numerous studies, it is still not possible to accurately establish where civilization originated and how exactly evolved.

26. Many pre-column peoples of the Andes worshiped the co-chief of the world named Viracoo.

27. According to one of the legends, Virac Own arranged a flood of shuttlecock, as a result of which all Titicaca Lakes were destroyed. Alive only two remained. They were the progenitors of the new civilization. Nothing reminds?

28. Along the river rivers stretching in the East, the North and in the center of the United States in 200-500 AD. Running, the so-called, Hoopwell exchange system - a route that allowed various Indian tribes to trade successfully.

29. One of the largest historical cultures of Mogolon was in the south-west of modern US. According to scientists, their descendants may well be the Hopi Indians.

30. The prehistoric Indian culture of Anasazi presumably arose in the 12th century BC. To date, the village of Taos (New Mexico) has been preserved, built in the period from 1000 to 1450. AD Taos community and today do not complain strangers and is famous for conservative views. So, in the houses are not allowed to use electricity and water supply.

When the first Europeans fell to the American continent, they encountered a civilization, which was very different from everything that they had previously had to see. Local residents did not have the idea of \u200b\u200bmany concepts, long ago and firmly rooted in the old world. The peoples of Decolumbovoy America did not use the wheel, did not make iron tools and did not go horses.

The more surprising is the fact that the Indians, as we called from Europe, managed to build several fairly developed civilizations. They had cities, states, long paved roads between settlements, writing, astronomy, as well as unique artistic artifacts.

Civilizations of Precucumbian America arose independently of each other in two geographic regions - in mesoames and in Andes. Up to the Spanish conquest, these areas were the centers of the intellectual and cultural life of the continent.

Mesoamerica

This geographical area covers the territory of Central and South Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The first people appeared here at 12 millennia to our era. Cities and states arose in the third millennium BC. Since then, before the start of Spanish colonization in Mesoamer, several developed crops arose.

The earliest was the civilization of Olmekov, who lived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. They had a huge impact on the traditions of all subsequent peoples that settled this region.

Culture Olmekov

The most ancient art of Decolumbovy America is represented by very unusual and mysterious artifacts. The most famous monument of civilization of Olmekov are gigantic heads made from basalt boulders. Their sizes range from one and a half meters to 3.4 meters, and they weigh from 25 to 55 tons. Since Olmekov had no written writing, the purpose of these heads is unknown. Most scientists are inclined to the version that these are most likely portraits of ancient rulers. This indicates the details of the hats, as well as the fact that the faces of sculptures are not like each other.

Another direction of Olmek art is jade masks. They were performed with great skill. Already after the disappearance of Olmek civilization, these masks were discovered by the Aztecs that were collected and stored these as valuable artifacts. In general, the culture of Precucumbian America was formed under the strong influence of this ancient people. Figures, figurines and sculptures of Olmekov are found for hundreds of kilometers from the territories once populated by them.

Civilization Maya.

The next great culture of mesoames arose about 2000 to our era and existed to the era of European colonialism. It was Maya civilization, left behind a huge variety of works of fine art and architectural monuments. The highest rise of the Mayan culture fell for the period from 200 to 900 AD. In this era of Decolumbov, America was experiencing a flourishing of urban planning.

Frescoes, bas-reliefs and sculptures of Maya are made with great grace. They rather accurately convey the proportions of the human body. Maya had writing and calendar, they also created a detailed map of the starry sky and knew how to predict the trajectory of the motion of the planets.

Fine art Maya.

Color images are poorly saved in a humid climate. Therefore, not so many Maja's wall paintings came to this day. Nevertheless, fragments of such images are universally found in the ancient cities of this nation. The preserved fragments indicate that the art of Precucumbia America did not inferlude the best works of the classic civilizations of the old world.

Maya reached high mastery in the manufacture of ceramics, including painted. From clay, they sculpted not only dishes, but also figurines depicting gods, rulers, as well as scenes from everyday life. Maya made decorations from precious stones and engaged in carving on wood.

A variety of sculptures and bas-reliefs have been preserved, which reflects the history of Precucumbian America of that period. Maya artists often left the important events of public life imprinted in stones. In many images there are inscriptions, which helps historians in the interpretation of the plots presented on them.

Maya architecture

The culture of America during Maya was experiencing his flourishing, which could not but affect the architecture. In the cities, in addition to residential buildings there were many specialized buildings. Being passionate as astronomers, Maya built observatory to observe the heavenly objects. They also had a ball playground. They can be considered precursors of modern football fields. The balls themselves did from the juice of rubber tree.

Maya erected the temples in the form at the top of which was the sanctuary. Special platforms that have reached four meters in height and intended for public ceremonies and religious rites are also built.

Teotiuacan

On the territory of modern Mexico there is an abandoned city of the ancient Indians with excellent preserved buildings. Nowhere, the architecture of Decolumbovy America has not reached such heights (in the literal and figurative sense), as in Teotihuakan. Here is the pyramid of the Sun - a giant construction of a 64 meter high altitude and with a base of more than 200 meters. Previously, on his top stood a wooden temple.

Nearby is the pyramid of the moon. This is the second largest structure of Teotihuacan. It was built after and dedicated to the great goddess of land and fertility. In addition to two large, the city has several smaller quad-tier steps.

Images in Teotihuakan

Almost all buildings in the city have frescoes. The background in them is usually red. Other colors are used for the image of the characters and other pictures. Plots of frescoes for the most part symbolic and religious, illustrating the myths of Decolumbovy America, but there are also scenes of daily activities. There are also images of rulers and battle warriors. There are many sculptures in Teotihuakan, including those that are elements of architecture of buildings.

Culture Toltec

Today, little is known about what Decolumbov was in the period between the sunset of the Mayan civilization and the emergence of Aztecs. It is believed that at this time, Toltec lived in mesoamerica. Information about them. Modern scientists draw mostly from Aztec legends in which real facts are often intertwined with fiction. But archaeological finds still allow you to get some reliable information.

The capital of Toltec was the city of Tula, located on the territory of the current Mexico. In his place, the remains of two pyramids were preserved, one of which was devoted to the God of Ketzalcoatu (the Pernavom Snake). At its top there are four massive figures depicting Toltec soldiers.

Culture Aztec

When the Spaniards sailed to Central America, they met a powerful empire there. It was the state of Aztec. We can judge about the culture of this people not only by architectural monuments. Thanks to the Spanish chronicists describing the civilization seen by them, information about the poetic, musical and theatrical art of Aztecs has been preserved.

Aztec poetry

The poetic art of Decolumbovy America, apparently, had long tradition. In any case, by the time of the appearance of Spaniards, Aztecs had already poetic contests carried out with a large crowd of the people. In poems, as a rule, metaphors, words and phrases with a double meaning were present. There were several literary genres: lyrical poetry, military ballads, mythological testes, etc.

Fine art and Aztec architecture

The capital of the Aztec Empire was tenochtitlan. In its development, architectural forms were dominated, which invented preceding civilizations of Precucumbian America. In particular, a 50-meter pyramid rumped out over the city, resembling similar Maja facilities.

The drawings and bas-reliefs of the Aztecs are depicting both scenes from everyday life and a variety of historical and religious events. There are pictures of human sacrifices, which were held during religious festivals.

One of the most unusual and mysterious Aztec artifacts is the Sun Stone - a large round sculpture, a diameter of almost 12 meters. In the center it is depicted by the God of the Sun, surrounded by the symbols of the four eras. A calendar is drawn around the deity. It is believed to serve as a sacrificial altar. In this artifact, the culture of Precucumbian America reveals several of its faces - astronomical knowledge, cruel rituals, artwork merge into a single whole.

Inca culture

The peoples of Decolumbovy America reached a high level of development not only in the central part of the continent. In the south, in Andes, the unique civilization of the Inca flourished. This people were geographically torn off from meso-American cultures and developed apart.

Inca reached high mastery in many art types. Huge interests are their patterns on the tissues called Tokapu. Their destination consisted not only to make clothes more elegant. Each of the pattern elements was also a symbol denoting any word. Located in a certain sequence, they formed phrases and suggestions.

Music Incov

Music Art of Decolumbovy America is partly preserved in Andes, where the descendants of the Incans live to this day. There are also literary sources of colonization times. Of these, we know that the inches used a variety of brass and percussion instruments. Music accompanied religious rituals, many songs were associated with the cycle of field work.

Machu Picchu

Incas also became famous for a unique city built high in the mountains. It was discovered in 1911 already abandoned, so his present name is not known. Machu Picchu in the language of local Indians means "old vertex". Buildings in the city are stacked from stone. Blocks are so accurately adjusted to each other that the skill of the ancient builders surprises even modern specialists.

Culture of North America

The Indians who lived north of the current Mexico were not erected by stone buildings, such as the Pyramid of the Sun or Machu Picchu. But the artistic achievements of the peoples of Decolumbovy America, who lived in Raoyna and Missouri, are also quite interesting. In this region, many ancient Kurgans have been preserved.

In addition to simple mounds in the form of a hill, in the Valley of the Mississippi River there are stepped platforms, as well as mounds, in the outlines of which figures of various animals are guessed, in particular snakes and crocodiles.

Effect of Art of Decolumbovka America on modernity

Indians remained in the past. But the current culture of America carries an imprint of ancient preconnectional traditions. So, the national costumes of indigenous peoples Chile and Peru are very similar to the clothes of the Inca. In the paintings of Mexican artists, stylistic techniques characteristic of the Fine Art of Maya are often found. And in the books of Columbian writers, fantastic events are bugged into the realistic story with the ease of Aztec poetry.

Abstract on the topic

Civilization of Precucumbian America

PLAN

1. First American peoples

2. Maya tribes - Phenomenon of public and economic development

3. Civilization Incov

3. Aztecs on the American continent

Literature

1. First American peoples

In comparison with the currently studied civilizations of the Ancient East, Ellala and Rome, the history of the ancient cultures of America is known to a much lesser extent. Sometimes the culture of America is declared non-evaluated to the level of civilization, since they were not characterized by the agricultural engineering of artificial irrigation, metallurgical technologies, means of land and maritime communication, the wheel and sail were not known, there was no developed silhlor-tonic writing, scientific knowledge was not formed.

Indeed, the culture of America was distinguished by a significant originality, they developed in a different natural-geographical environment. The main grain crop was Mais, the breeding of which did not require significant labor costs. At the level of the hoe technology for processing the Earth, almost not changed over the Millennium, yields were reached by 500, inconceivable in Africa or Asia. Hunger and malnutrition, which brought to epidemics and mortality in the old world, were absent in America, overcame by Maisian chewing. From large pets, residents of America were known only Lama, which did not give milk, could not be used to ride the riding, for the transportation of goods. Therefore, America did not know the rider troops and the corresponding privileged class.

Speaking of long-term dominance of stone workers and war, about the slow development of metallurgy, and not reached iron treatment, it should be noted that there were unique deposits in the Andes and Corderars, where metals were in the molten state, which did not require the invention and creating complex smelting furnaces . The limitations of cultural space, the absence of intra-radical seas did not create an incentive for the development of land and maritime communications.

The first famous historians of the culture of America is Olmekskaya. Olmeki inhabited area tobasco on the territory of the current Mexico. Already in the II thousand BC. They knew developed agriculture, built settlements. Prior to perfection, stone processing technology was brought. Olmek altars are preserved, cut down in the rocks; There were gigantic stone heads of the "Negroid" type, who left scientists in bewilderment; It has reached our days Olmek fresco painting. Olmeci the first of the American tribes began to use signs to record numbers, created an ideographic letter, calendar. They differed rare knowledge of astronomy, homeopathy. It was Olmeki that opened the game to the ball, partly reminding basketball; The ball was thrown into the ring, but not with his hands, but the body - shoulders, hips, buttocks; Players put on masks and bibs. It was a ritual game associated with the cult of fertility; The head was dried off. Olmeki, unlike other tribes, used overhead beards, practiced a skull deformation, head shave, tooth feeding. They were widespread the cult of jaguar. At the head of the company stood priests-astrologers.

It remains a mystery culture of Teotihuacan. Not known ethnic and language affiliation of its creators. This is a huge cult center for America, the "city of the gods", an area of \u200b\u200b30 square kilometers. The majestic pyramids of the Sun and the Moon rose in it; Great many sculptural sculptures of various gods. The main god was Cetzalcoatl in the image of the feat of the snake. At the top of the Sun Temple, there was the most majestic fetish of the solar shine - a round monolithium weighing 25 tons and a diameter of 3.5 meters, which is considered a calendar. In IV-V. The culture of Teotihuacan reached the greatest heyday, and in the VII century. "The city of the gods" was abandoned, and the reasons for his launch remain unknown.

2. Maya tribes - Phenomenon of public and economic development

The first significant civilization in Central America became Mayan. Maya belonged to the Mayan language family, they occupied most of the territory of the current Mexico. Already by VIII century. Maya created a strong centralized state. His capital was the city of Mayanpan, surrounded by a powerful wall, a length of 8 kilometers. There were 4,000 buildings in the city, 12 thousand inhabitants lived.

The head of the state stood a halach virken ("real man") or Ahab ("Mr."). His power was hereditary. There was a state council - Ah Kuch Kab, in which the priests and dignitaries were. The nearest assistants of the ruler were Chims - a soreman who was worn on his shoulders and Nako - who was responsible for sacrifices. The state was divided into the provinces, at the head of which they stood the Bataba, the relatives of the ruler; They had civil, military and judicial authority. Batubam in the provinces submitted "Folk Houses" (Pollna), Master of singing (ah x xleobe). The basis of the power of the Khalach Viknik and Batabov was the numerous hired army. Warriors (Holkany) received a reward. The commander-in-chief, who also called the title of Nak, was to adhere to the rules of strict ascetic, refrain from intimate communication with women, which was thought, weakened militancy.

Mayan law was distinguished by cruelty. Most crimes were punished with death. The death penalty was appointed for blasphemy, insulting the dignity of the ruler; Behind the married infidelity, the most cruel execution was imposed: the offender of the husband was hit by arrows, crushed the head with a stone, embroidered intestines through the navel; The wrong wife was also executed, although the husband could pardon her, and then she was subjected to a public shame. Rape caught death if the rapist did not marry the victim. For Sodomy, they burned out, which was considered the most serious punishment that had deprived of hope for the acquisition of eternal life. Practices have been practiced. Let's say the dignitaries and officials for official crimes were tattooed, which was covered by both cheeks from the chin to forehead. For thefts paid to slavery, the duration of which was determined by the amount of damage. There was a ban on marriages between the persons of one totem, one last name.

The Maya society was very differentiated. The highest position was occupied by Almekhenob ("those who have a father and mother"), know. Following them stood Ahkinob ("Children of the Sun"), the priests, who were the keepers of knowledge, chronology, calendar, historical memory and rituals. The bulk of the population was Ah Chebal Vinicob ("lower"), LEMBA Vinicob ("Workers"), and Yalb Vinicob, ("Proshirotina"); They were personally free, used the lands, but could not independently dispose of manufactured products. The lowest position of the Mayan society was occupied by Pentacobobs, slaves; The sources of their replenishment were captives, debtors, criminals. They were intended for numerous sacrifice on the occasion of the death of Mr., chief or ruler, as well as in various other cases.

The basis of the economy was agriculture. The only instrument of the earth processing remained hoe. Private property was not known. The whole land was considered to be belonging to the God of the Sun, on behalf of which the halach virique did. There was no money, a simple product was practiced. The entire product produced was kept in state barns and issued by officials on strictly established consumption standards corresponding to the situation in society. This gave reason to call the Mayan economy of "socialist".

In addition to agriculture, the Mayan had a craft and trade, whose centers were the cities, especially port.

Despite the fact that Maya learned how to handle copper, gold and silver relatively late - in the VIII-X century, they had a fairly developed technique. Maya built complex aqueducts, often underground, waterborne tanks and other hydraulic structures that allowed adjusting river spills, condensate rainwater, etc. Maya belongs a priority in creating a stone arch, which allowed them to build majestic, stepped pyramids. They left thousands of pyramids, hundreds of cult centers, observatory, playgrounds for the ball, predecessor of modern football, theater sites, etc. The most outstanding monuments of Mayan culture are Chichen-Itsa, Palenca, Mayan. To x in. Maya mastered forging technologies, casting, welding, mild metal chasing - copper, gold and silver. They were familiar with gilding technology. Maja's gold discs, which were fetishes of the sun received particularly fossion.

Maya knew the production of paper bark paper. They created a hieroglyphic letter, which consisted of several hundred signs. Deciphering the Mayan hieroglyphic offered Y. Knorozov, but still reading Mayan Codes is more difficult.

Maya used a twenty-round account system borrowed from Olmekov; They knew the number "zero". Maya has developed a perfect calendar, which took into account the cycles of the Sun, Moon and Venus. Maya calendar included 365,2420 days, which exceeds the accuracy of a modern European calendar; The discrepancy with the astronomical year was 1 day for 10,000 years. Maya was determined by the period of movement of the moon at 29,53086 days, making an error by 0.00025. Mayan astronomers knew other planets, zodiac, calculated their synodic turns.

The bright attraction of Mayan culture is the theater. Theatrical platforms are preserved, surrounded by rows for the audience. Such is, for example, the "Moon Platform". He led the theater Ah-Kuch Zublal. Set comedies, farces; We used the success of the speech of choirs and illusionists.

Maya are one of the few ancient peoples of America, who left rich literature. The most outstanding monument of literature is "Frequently - Wuh." Preserved "Annals of Kakchinelle".

Civilization of Precucumbian America Incas

Introduction

Scientists are in-depth studying three, the most striking, civilizations whose history has hundreds of years - these are the ancient civilizations of Aztecs, Incans and Maya.

Each of these civilizations left for us a lot of evidence of its existence, according to which we can judge about the era of their flourishing and a sudden decline or partial disappearance at all.

Each culture carries the studied and still studied huge cultural reservoir, expressed in the creations of architecture, writing, in the remains of handicraft art, as well as in the language that has come to us.

But the fate of these cultures is only a preface to a huge book, all the sheets of which, it would seem, have long been escaped and lost. What was to the great ancient-American states ruthlessly conquered by the Spaniards? What kind of peoples inhabited America to the same Inca or Aztecs?

Faced every time with the ancient culture of Latin America and not rarely with modern, we find a lot of interesting things in it and even more unsolved and surrounded by the halo of mysticism. What is one myth about the fabulous country "El Dorado". Many fragments of the distant era of the existence of Inca civilizations, Aztecs and Maya, unfortunately, are forever lost, but it remains much, with which we directly contact, but it also gives us a way to a lot of things, sometimes inexplicable, to us, contemporary people regarding the art as a whole those distant worlds.

The problem of studying these ancient cultures until recently was to "closedness for the eyes and minds of scientists of the whole world" Lat itself. America. With large obstacles and intervals in the intervals, work was carried out related to excavations and search for architectural treasures. Only recently, with the exception of literary information, expanded access to territories and places related to the habitat of the ancient tribes and peoples.

Among the ancient civilizations of America, you can allocate Aztecs, Maya and Inca. The roots of these great civilizations are lost in the depths of the centuries. Much remains unknown about them, but it is known that they have achieved a high level of development. Maya, Aztecs and Inci had huge achievements in astronomy, medicine, mathematics, architecture and structure of roads.

The history of the civilization of the Incov

Inca (more correctly in Inca) - the creators of one of the most ancient civilizations in South America. Initially, the Indian tribe of the Language family of Kechua, inhabited in the XI-XIII centuries in the territory of modern Peru, later the dominant layer, as well as the Supreme Ruler in the TauantinSuyu (XV) state formed by them. They reached a highly developed social system, not even picky by the wheel. Maintain the integrity of the geographically extended state helped a highly developed road system. Incas conducted complex surgical operations, owned the art of mummification. Stone structures were built without using cement, while their buildings kept such earthquakes, at which later Spanish structures were destroyed to the foundation. And, nevertheless, having a powerful centralized state was conquered by a small handful of Spaniards.

The story of the Inca begins with a legend, which from the mouth was passed among the Incas - once the first Inca - Manco Capack and his sister-wife Mama Oklo, fulfilling the sacred will of his great father's father, got out of the waters of the protected lake Titicaca to create a huge country where they will worship their divine father who gave them a magical rod, which was supposed to find the best place for the construction of the city, which will have to become the capital of the new Great Empire. Empire Sun.

That is how, from the legendary first Inca, the Son of the Sun and began the dynasty of the rulers of the Inca, each of which all expanded the limits of the empire. There are twelve successors of the legendary first incons. Their kingdom lasted almost two hundred years, while in the horizon of history did the Inca Pachakty arose, on the biography, it was safe to write novels and put feature films. He was the younger son of the governor - the inks of the city of Cusco. It is with him that the creation of a new history of the Incas is connected - according to the legend, Pakachly ordered to destroy all previous "documents", as unworthy of the Great Empire Incas. Many even his name - Pakualuli - translate as the Incue name "The End of Old and the Beginning of the New Epoch", and all that the previous incops have done before, almost without a trace on the fly, we have only the names of the date and legends that have come out through third hands. But, as compensation for disappeared history, Pakachly commanded in detail all his acts. So in the future, all his heirs did.

In the retelling of his descendants, whose blood was already mixed with the noble Spanish, giving gradually the beginning of the new nation, in 1438, the first year of his rule, the Empire Inca gained a new capital and a new story. The empire even had a new position of the official historian - they usually became someone from the relatives of the ruler, carefully, with zeal, describing his new campaigns and victorious battles. It was then that the Inca's army began to seize the shores of Lake Titicaca. Inca seized thousands of flocks Lam and Alpac. It was not only meat, as well as transport and clothing. It is no closer to Pakachuli announced these herds property of the ruler. It was the beginning of the zloty century inks.

After his death, he was replaced by his son - Inca Tupak Japaca, who became a great commander and a lucky emperor-conqueror. A nephew came to shift - Wain Kapack. It is these three Inkan Vladyk that created the Great Empire of Incas, on the lands of which more than ten million people lived. During his short flourishing, she surpassed the military power of the famous Roman Empire.

Incas were smart rulers planning their actions for decades ahead. So the seizure of neighboring territories was whether bloodless, without a massacre and fires. Incas were escaped even to their future potential possessions, preferring, unlike the Spaniards, the living villages of the ruined desert lands.

Incans did not have money and therefore the state took all the care of warehouses and clothing, laying the need for his shoulders, in time to supply subjects to everyone necessary for life in all secluded corners of this huge empire. And this in the Inca really turned out, even the simple inhabitants of the empire never remained with indigestible without food and clothing. In the Incan Empire, there were special reserves - in case of war, faulty, natural disasters, and even to help poor, elderly and cripples. In special storages lay the reserves of Mais, clothes, weapons and many other on the decade ahead. The reserves that the Incas did not have time to use and which mostly went to ungrateful Spaniards. Inics even had a similarity of future science of statistics - the entire population was divided into age groups, and the load on each corresponding to its capabilities was calculated.

The Inca Empire combined such, it would seem incompatible things as the deification of the Great Inca and some rules of socialism, the Iron discipline reigned in the state - the work was obligatory, everything was necessary. Even all crops and harvest began with a personal example of the Great Inca in Cusco. To perform heavy work (in mines, planting Coki and public construction) and services in the Incan army, a special forced service was prescribed, called Mita. She was carried by healthy men in the heyday, and she lasted three months a year.

When the Supreme Inca died, the descendant of the "Divine Sun", then according to the tradition, his body was embarrassed and the mummy left in his palace. The new Vladyka was forced to build a new palace to himself, and only his sister could be a legitimate wife of the Supreme Inca, and all other hundreds of his women were only concubines, of which the young beauty-novels were considered the most beautiful - "Bride of the Sun". For their choice, a special state official traveled around even the most distant places of the empire, choosing among the ten-year-old and most perfect girls, who then trained the art of cooking food, and then from the girls again chose the best, which became "sun brides." They should have kept their virginity, which "had the right to break" only the great Inca himself.

The trouble that destroyed the empire came from the inside - when the ruler Wain Kapack suddenly died, then his senior legitimate son of Wascar entered the throne. But in another city, the power of the ATAULPA craved, and in the struggle for the throne Inca, more than 150 thousand people died, most of the relatives of both rulers were destroyed and the best commander was killed. And then the last ruler of the Great Empire Inca Ataualpa was captured by the Francisco Pissaro squad. The emperor of the Great Empire was captured to a ruthless person who was recently all the despised illiterate simple Spanish swine scene. And this man managed to knock the lord of almost a whole continent, forcing him to pay the monstrous redemption, but taking the gold, Pissaro still violated his word and "condemned" the unnecessary ruler of the Inca on death.

Golden jewelry from the daily redemption were gorgeous, not having such skihood and design were beaten in melting. The Indians again and again climbed the fight against strangers - but now everything was useless. When some of them fought with the Spaniards, other tribes and the city of Spaniards helped, hoping with the help of someone else's unprecedented weapons and horsepow horror to seize the throne of the Great Inca and destroy competitors, avenge the killed relatives. The reduction of accounts between the Incas has gone too far - no one believed anyone. Many Incans leaders in the fight against the Spaniards were capable of pupils - began to adopt their tactics. So, by beating the Horses from Spaniards, the Indians started their cavalry and even artillery, forcing the captured Spaniards to shoot from their own sudidic guns. But this could no longer help - too many greedy strangers were on the ground of the Inca. So in a few decades the Great Empire Incas became only a story.

Even before the incons reached its power, several other crops flourished in the Andean region. The first hunters and fishermen appeared here at least 12,000 years ago, and by 3000 BC. e. Fishing villages tied up all this anhydrous coast. In fertile valleys at the foot of the Andes and green oases in the desert there were small rural communities.

Millenniums per ramp of territory penetrated larger social groups of people. Overcoming high mountain peaks, they began to settle on the eastern slopes of the ridge, using the same irrigation methods that they developed on the coast for irrigation of their fields and harvest. Around the temple complexes arose settlements, and artisans produced increasingly complex pottery and fabrics.

Archaeologists classify the products of Andese artisans on the temporary and geographical period of their distribution. To do this, use the term "horizons" to identify the main stages of stylistic uniformity disrupted by some features, from the point of view of aesthetics and technology.

Early horizon: 1400-400. BC.

Early intermediate period: 400 BC - 550 AD.

Medium Horizon: 550-900. AD

Late intermediate period: 900-1476. AD

Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572. AD

The fall of the Empire Incov

Francisco Pissero in 1502 arrived in America in search of happiness. Seven years he served in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Caribbean, participating in military companies against the Indians.

In 1524, Pissaro, together with Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luke organizes an expedition on the unopened territories of South America. But it does not manage to find anything interesting.

In 1526, the second expedition took place, during which Pissaro imputed gold from local residents. During this expedition, three Incans were captured by the Spaniards, in order to make translators from them. This expedition turned out to be very heavy, their share fell and illness and hunger.

In 1527, Pissaro falls into the city of Incov Tumbes. From the locals, he learns about a large number of gold and silver adorning gardens and temples in the depths of their lands. Understanding that military forces need to receive these wealth, Pissaro goes to Spain and refers to Karl V for help. He tells about the inconspicuous treasures of the Inca, which can be quite simple to get. Karl V gives Pissaro title of the governor and the captain of the governor on all the lands, which he will be able to conquer and control.

Even before the beginning of the conquest of the Spaniards, the Inci suffered from the emergence of Europeans on their continent. Black pieces mowed whole families from the naughty immunity to it.

At about the same time, Wine Kapack (Sapa Inca) dies. The highest state office should move to someone from sons from the main wife. He chose that of the sons who, according to the monarch, could better cope with the duties. In Cusco, the capital of the Inca, the new Sap Inca proclaims the new Sap - Wascara, which means "sweet hummingbird".

The problem was that the last years of his life the previous Sap Inca spent in Quito. As a result, most of the courtyard lived in Quito. The city turned into a second capital, dividing the tribe leaders into two rival groups. The army quartered in Quito gave preference to another son of Waire Kapack - Ataalpe, which means "wild turkey". He spent most of his life next to his father on the battlefields. It was a man of a sharp mind. Later, the Spaniards were surprised by the speed with which he mastered the game of chess. At the same time, he was merciless, the proof of this could serve the fear of the courtesy to attach his anger.

Ataalpa showed loyalty to the new Sap Inca. But he refused to arrive at the brother's courtyard, perhaps fearing the fact that Wascar sees a dangerous opponent in him. In the end, Sap Inca demanded the presence of a brother next to him at the court. Refusing invitation, Ataalpa sent ambassadors with expensive gifts instead. Wascar, possibly under the action of the courts hostile to his brother, subjected to brother's people torture. By killing them, he sent his army to Quito, ordered by force to deliver Ataalpu in Cusco. Ataalpa urged his warriors faithful to his arms.

The Army Cusco at first did not even manage to take a dismissed brother. But he managed to escape and join his. In the battle of Ataalpa won those who captivated him. Wascar collects the second army in urgently and sends it to his brother. The recruits with a bad learning could not be compared with the veterans of Ataalp, and were broken in two day fights.

As a result, Ataalpa captures Wascara and joined Cusco with the triumph, after which the cruel disgrace was accomplished above the wives, friends and advisers of a unlucky brother.

In 1532, Pissaro with Almagro returned to Tumbes together with 160th well-armed adventurists. On the site of the blooming city they caught only the ruins. He suffered greatly from the epidemic, and then from the Civil War. For five months, Pissaro moved along the coast, on the path of Grabia Imperial warehouses.

As a result, Pissaro goes to the yard ataalp. Nine of his people, frightened by the prospect of being in the mountainous terrain, in the possessions of the Inca turned back.

The Spaniards were surprised by the Inca Roads, paved by stone slabs, with trees planted around the edges, creating a shadow, as well as channels laid out by stone.

Having learned about the movement of white people inside his country, Ataualpa invites them to visit them. According to the ambassador, he realized that the Spaniards look and configured friendly. During the meeting with the Ambassador Pissero made gifts to the monarch and spoke a lot about the world.

Pissaro placed his people in the open space, on the main square of Kahamark. He sent Hernando de Soto to testify his respect to Ataualpe, so that he tried to seduce him with his proposal, meet personally.

Ataalpa reproached the Spaniards for the looting of its warehouses and for the dismissive attitude to some Indians on the coast. What the Spaniards began to praise their military art and offered to take advantage of their services. Ataalpa agrees to apply Pissaro's visit to Kahamarka.

During this meeting, Hernando de Soto, wanted to scare Ataualpu and almost hit him on his horse, having stopped from him in close proximity, so drops of saliva rampage fell on the clothes of Inca. But Ataalpa did not flinch. Later he ordered the execution of those courtesy, who showed fear.

Pissaro following the example of Cortez, who won the powerful empire of Aztecs with the help of the abduction of the emperor, began to prepare his ambush.

Atoualpa nights sent 5,000 warriors to overlap the road north of Cahamarka. According to the plan developed by him, as he later confessed to the Spaniards, he wanted to capture the living Pissero and all his warriors to sacrifice the sun - Inti, and leave their horses for divorce.

At dawn Pissaro placed its people in buildings around the square. Waiting was vividly for the Spaniards, since the ten-fold numerical superiority of the Inca scarecrow and suppressed. Later, as one of the eyewitnesses admitted, "many Spaniards are ignorant due to their horror rushed into pants."

At sunset to the square approached the imperial procession. Ataalpu carried 80 servants on wooden stretchers, encrusted with gold and from all sides decorated with feather parrots. Monarch in clothes with golden threads and all in jewelry, recresented, holding a golden shield in his hands with a heraldic image of the sun. There were also dancers and the accompanying musicians. His retinue numbered more than 5,000 soldiers (the main forces, about 80,000 soldiers, were outside the city). They all came without arms.

On the square, they saw only one Dominican monk in Sutan with a cross in the same Bible in the other hand. The Royal Council in Spain ruled that the pagans need to provide the opportunity to adopt Christianity voluntarily, without bloodshed, and conquistadors decided not to violate the letter of the law. The monk explained the meaning of the Christian faith to the ruler of the Inca, and the translator explained to him that he was asked to accept the religion of alien. "You say that your god accepted death," answered this Ataalpa, "and my still lives," he stressed, showing the sun at the horizon.

Ataalpa took a prayer prayer extended by him. As far as he understood, the Spaniards appreciated this thing as the Indians "Uaka", the talisman in which the spirit of the gods was acquired. But this subject seemed to him to a toy compared to their huge stone "Uaka", who worshiped Incas, so he threw him to the ground. According to eyewitnesses, after that, the monk turned to Pissaro and told him and his people: "You can attack them after this. I let you go all your sins in advance."

Pissaro filed a signal to the attack. Two cannons gave a volley along the crowd of the Indians. Spanish riders, left the buildings in full service and attacked the unarmed warriors-inks. Behind them under the sound of pipes were followed by the infantry with combat tide - "Santiago!" (The name of the saint helps, by conviction of the Spaniards, wander over the opponent).

It was a cruel massacre of unarmed Indians. Pissaro hardly pulled out ataalpu from her. Within a few hours of 6,000 soldiers, the Inca died in Kahamark and around it, but not one Spanish was not killed. In the number of few wounded and Pissaro himself, who received an injury from his own soldier, when he tried to break through to the royal enemy to capture that alive.

Many researchers tried to understand why Ataualpa had made such a fatal mistake by going to Spaniards with unarmed warriors. Perhaps the leader did not even consider such an option of the course of events when such small detachment would try to attack his huge army. Or believed in the speech of the Spaniards about the world.

In captivity Ataualipus allowed to maintain all the royal privileges. All his wives and servants were near him. They were Velmazby and performed his orders. In less than a month he learned to speak Spanish and even write a little.

Realizing that white people are shy gold, he decided to pay off, offering for his freedom to fill the rooms in which he was, gold, as well as twice "fill with silver Indian hut." Instead of the liberation of Ataalpa, such a proposal signed his death sentence. By ordering all the gold in Cusco, and having delivered it to the Spaniards, he only deceived their passion for the precious metal. At the same time, fearing that his brother will be able to offer more gold for his freedom, he ordered him to execute him. Incas did not perceive gold and silver as something valuable. For them, it was just a beautiful metal. Gold they called "then the Sun", and silver "tears of the moon." For them were valuable fabrics, since there was a lot of time on their manufacture.

The Spaniards began to suspect that Ataalpa prepares a conspiracy against them. This gave rise to panic and fear in their ranks. Pissero for a long time opposed the mood of his compatriots. But as a result, Panic broke his decisive attitude.

Ataalpa began to realize the imminent of his death. His religion guaranteed him eternal life with the proper execution of the rite.

At a meeting of the Council, headed by Pissaro himself, was decided to burn ataalpu. When the Spaniards told the leader of his decision, he burst into tears. The destruction of the body meant deprivation of immortality.

Monk before death once again tried to turn the pagan in the Christian faith. Understanding that if he adopted Christianity, he will not burn him, and he suffer with the help of a garment (hoop with a screw, for a slow suffocation of the victim), he agreed to pass the rite of initiation, assuming that the body would be transmitted to the mummification. But the Spaniards were deceived here. After the leader was strangled, they burned his clothes and part of the body on the bore. The rest of them betrayed the earth.

Pissaro understood what kind of benefits the local ruler was promulit under Spanish control. He stopped the selection on the son of Waire Kapack - Manco Inqua. When the Spaniard of Profit in Cusco was met as goodwires, restored the legal ruling branch of the Inca, although all the mummies were reliably improved to their appearance.

The conquistadors did not differ in generosity and in every way humankled manco, showing a native attitude towards the customs of the Inca. The worst happened when Pissaro went to the ocean coast, with the aim of the founding of the new capital of Lima. The main he left his brothers Gonzalo and Juan. Gonzalo treated the manko with undisguised contempt. By kidding his beloved wife, he abused her.

The uncertainty, creative by the Spaniards, led to the fact that the Manco flatly refused to cooperate and attempted to leave Cusco. The Spaniards returned it to the capital chained in chains. In conclusion, we were subjected to different kind of humiliation.

As a result, Manco persuades one of the Francisco brothers, Hernando, who quite recently arrived in Cuzco from Spain, release him temporarily from prison so that he could pray in the sanctuary, for which he promised to give the Golden Statue depicting his father. As soon as the Manko got out of the limits of Cusco, he called his people to methe. The case was over the siege of Cusco, which lasted for almost a whole year. During this siege among the Indians there were traitors both in Cusco and beyond that secretly dragged food to the invaders. Among them were even relatives of the Mankchen himself, who were afraid of violence for their former support for Europeans, from the new ruler. The hopelessness of the siege became clear when reinforcement arrived from Spain. Some supporters of Manco will even fall from him, realizing that a good time is missed.

After the failure of the siege of Cusco Manco, 2000 of his compatriots with him in dense jungle with him. There, in a short time, the new city of Vilkabamba erected. He held an area of \u200b\u200babout two square miles and numbered about three hundred houses and sixty monumental structures. There were comfortable roads and canals.

From this city, the Inca sometimes made raids on the conquerors, attacking the guard posts. In 1572, the Spaniards decided to commit suicide with this last stronghold, as evidence of the former power of the natives. Reaching Vilkabamba, they found only desert ruins on the site of the city. Defenders, before leaving the city burned it. The Spaniards continued the pursuit, penetrating farther further and further into the jungle. As a result, the last leader of Inca Tupac Amar was captured by them. He was brought in Cusco and cut off his head on the city square. So the dynasty of the rulers of the Incans was stopped.

The result of the fifty-year-old stay of the Spaniards was the reduction of the indigenous population - for three fourths. Many died of diseases delivered from the old world, and many of the hard labor.

A huge amount of gold and silver was taken to Spain. Art objects, as a rule, melted before export. The most beautiful products were delivered to Karl V yard, then they were exhibited for universal Furnishing in Seville. When Karl began to experience a shortage in funds for military campaigns, it was ordered to overpay these outstanding works of Incile art.

Conclusion

Studying the Incas, their culture, becomes clear and visible to the wealth of their traditions and the monolithicity of the experience gained over their existence.

And yet it is worth deeply thinking about those inks? Based on the fact that scientists of the world cannot give a clear answer to many phenomena of this ancient civilization, and most importantly, cannot explain the level of its development in those times. In fact, it is surprising that in the era, when Europe only dreamed of many discoveries in the field of different sciences, there, on the American continent, there were already such civilizations that have long been stepped over the barrier of many scientific achievements and developed much faster rates than This was done Europe. The fact that in the world of ancient civilizations of America, the primitive of the morals bordered with extraordinary awareness in many sciences, the appearance of many of which in the society of this type did not fit in the minds of the minds of the then Europeans, and indeed, and now it is even more difficult for us to understand this paradox of the ancients. Civilizations.

A person always drives a sense of lack of knowledge, and he will never stop in the study of various phenomena if there is still one drop of incomprehensible. Apparently such is the nature of the human mind.

The lack of real evidence and explanations of those or other phenomena of an ancient culture itself gives rise to all new and new research searches towards the subject of study, because otherwise there can be no.

The ancient civilizations of America remains pantry for all areas of the scientific world. Ethnographers find a lot of little studied or not studied in general tribes and peoples living in hard-to-reach areas of the Amazon River basin. Historians and archaeologists through archaeological finds and other evidence discoveries unknown episodes of the history of the ancient world of America for themselves. The evidence of this can be the fact of attention of scientists and pilgrimages of tourists in the city of Machu Picchu and Cusco, the ancient capital of the Empire Inca.

Bibliography

Materials from the site were used to prepare this work. /Archive/history.allTheUniverse/

Introduction - - - - - - -1

The history of the inks civilization - - - - - - - -2

1. Early horizon: 1400 - 400 gg. BC. - - - - - - - 5

   Early intermediate period: 400 BC - 550 AD. - - - - - - - 6

   Medium horizon: 550 - 900 gg. AD . - - - - - - - 7

   Late intermediate period (coastal): 900 - 1476. AD - - - - - - 8

   Late intermediate period (mountain areas): 900 - 1476. AD - - - - - 9

   Late Horizon: 1476 - 1532. AD - - - - - - - 10

   Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572. AD - - - - - - - 11

Army Incov- - - - - - - 12

Religion - - - - - - - 13

1. Hierarchy of the clergy in the Inca - - - - - - - 13

   Theology, roots running in the natural history of the world - - - - - - - 15

   Response to the "living" stone - - - - - - - 16

   Metal work art - - - - - - - 17

The fall of the Empire Incov - - - - - - - 18

Conclusion - - - - - - - 23

Bibliography - - - - - - - 24