Prose. World of prose

In an ancient Greek prose of the heyday, prose genres reached: philosophical prose (Plato, Aristotle, etc.), spectacular prose (demosphen), historical prose (Herodotus, Fuchidide, xenophon), biographical prose (Plutarch). The artistic prose was represented by the genre of an adventurous-love novel that appeared in the first centuries, or, as the Greeks called him, "Love Tale." The first famous Greek novel is the "story of the love of Heries and Kaliroi" Hyriton (I century. N. E.), the most significant "Ethiopic" of Heliodor "," Daphnis and Chloe "Long.

Plato. In the literature of the V-IV centuries BC. e. An outstanding place occupies a philosophical prose. Especially significant in the literary relations of Plato's philosophical dialogues (427-347 BC). We reached 41 the work of Plato, of which 13 were recognized as unnecessary (some of them were written by his students as part of the activities of the Academy established by him). "APOLOGY Socrates" (speech, allegedly uttered by Socrates at the Court), the only thing written in the form of a dialogue. We also reached the 13th letters of Plato. In relation to the collection of "Definitions", also included in the Corpus of Platonic Works, the authorship of Plato is now rejected. Disputes on the authenticity and chronology of the works of Plato spawned t. N. Platonovsky question.

As a student of Socrates (approx. 470-399. BC), who did not write his philosophical thoughts and put them in artfully constructed conversations with students, as if independently came to the right conclusions (the method, etc. Socratic conversation), Plato brought into his works the image of Socrates, passes from one dialogue to another, hitting the intellectual power in a conversation with any interlocutor.

In small "reduction dialogues", Plato examines individual questions: friendship ("Lysis"), truthfulness and deceit ("Hippius Small"), justice ("Alkiviad I"), etc. They depict the situation in which the conversation unfolds, the dialogs imitate conversational speech with her interruptions, repetitions, etc. In the dialogues of the second type (Fedon, Fedr, Pier and a number of others) is becoming more generalized, the doctrine of ideas, the material world as a reflection of ideas, about The immortality of the soul, about the three parts of it - a reasonable, volitional (or passionate) and sensual (or lustful), about the resettlement of the souls - Mempsichoz, about knowledge as remembering - Anamnes and others. He widely uses artistic means for presenting philosophical ideas. So, to explain the difference between ideas and things, Plato in the VII book "States" draws an image of the cave, on the wall of which you can see the shadows from the items beyond. The occurrence of love it represents as a result of the separation of two-fend androgyn into two halves, which should look for each other to reunite ("Fedr"). Instead of the free conversation of the dialogues of the first type in these works, the idea of \u200b\u200bSocrates develops strictly logically, less attention is paid to refuting opponents and more the very essence of the philosophical teaching. In the dialogs of the third type (theette "," Parmenid "," Sofist "," Politician ") artistic imagery is inferior to the interpretation of the main philosophical categories. Domestic parts disappear, artistic outlines of speaking characters. In the dialogues of the fourth type Plato, setting out the changed look at the main philosophical problems, again resorts to artistic means, to mythological imagery, etc. In the dialogue of "Crete", Plato is the first to legend about the Atlantis in the form of a historical story, resembling a fantastic utopian novel.

The genre of the philosophical dialogue, developed by Plato, had a huge impact on the literature and philosophy of subsequent centuries (we can talk about the "personal model" of Plato).

Literature of ancient Rome

Ancient Roman literature is literature on latin, the first precedes to us are monuments of which relate to the III century BC. e. (Early known only on indirect evidence). At an early stage, the influence of Greek culture was decisive for the formation of the culture of ancient Rome, although during this period some Romans (for example, Caton Senior) in opposition to the genus individualization, known to the hedonism put forward a requirement for the "nravam of the ancestors", harsh and heroic.

Development of the comedy genre

Although after transfers to the Latin language, Homer's poems on Roman soil arose his epic creativity (Pooms of Nevii and Annia), the first major achievement of the literature of ancient Rome is associated with the activities of the Comdigators of the Float and Terentation.

Float.Tit McComples (approx. 250-184) was, possibly a dancer-mime in Atellne - the People's Italian Comedy (Float - translated "Floor", i.e. dancing in flat shoes). Of the 21 comedies, which still in antiquity were recognized by the undoubtedly owned float, 20 and one in passages were preserved. The genre that was developed by the Float - Palliaiati (i.e., a comedy from Greek Life), which has grown out of the imitation of the Middle and Newly Asident Comedy, primarily by Mendra, in conjunction with the Italian Atellana. The Float wrote for the Plums, his task - to captivate and laugh a simple people, hence the rude humor, the source of comic - many ridiculous episodes associated with changing clothes (including a woman in "Casina"), spying, scuffle, etc. Plavt represents slave more resourceful and lucky than his lord (in the spirit of people laughter culture), Lacks a whole gallery of characters endowed with vices: boasting ("boastful warrior"), I care ("pot"), Parasita ("Kurkulion"). In his works, the FLATE to enhance intrigue tension resorts to contamination (connects the plots of several Greek comedies), composes neologisms from Latin and Greek morpheme, proverbs and sayings, instead of 6-stop jamba and 8-stop chorea, who enjoyed Menander, introduces a variety meters, putting verse depending on the content of a specific scene.

Terentities. Public Terentics AFR (195-159) was a slave, then by the freedman, wrote 6 comedies in the genre of Palliates. In four of them, the sources were the plays of Menandra. To find new texts of this her idol, terency went to Greece, but on the way back died as a result of shipwreck. Terentities moved away from the square laughter of the Float, his comedy is softer by tone, psychologically. His favorite motive is a random recognition ("mother-in-law"). Comedy Terentation is written by simple and correct style, so Latin language was studied in the Middle Ages.

Golden Age of Ancient Roman literature

So it is customary to call the I century BC. E. To which the highest achievements in the field of poetry (Katul, Vergilius, Ovidi, Horace) and prose (Cicero, Julius Caesar), the formation of Golden Latin.

Poetry. Justice (lat. Youth, young) is the most notable poetic group led by Gahai Valery Katull. Julity, with suspicion, belonging to the establishment of the sole power, Julia Caesar, went into the sphere of intimate feelings, were transferred from large epic genres to small forms of poetry - epylons (small epic poems), elegions, epigram.

Catull (OK. 87-54 BC. E) In the collection of 116 poems, first of all, appears primarily as a lyric that infecting his beloved Claudo, the sister of the tribuna of Kalodia Palodia, under the name of the lesbian, reminiscent of the Sappo:

We will, lesbia, live while alive,

And love until the soul loves;

Old ropes roping gossip

Let not be a penny for us. (Translation of A. Feta)

Poems about lesbian tell about all the peripeties of the love feeling of the poet, about rapprochement and bells of lovers. But in his epigrams directed against Julius Caesar and his supporters (especially against some Mamurra from the city of formy), Katull can show high citizenship, be exclusively, to inapplicable, sharp, use the reception inventive (lat. "Branch speech").

Lucretia. The same period includes the philosophical poem Lucretia (approx. 94-55. BC) "On the nature of things", in which the materialistic philosophy of the Greek thinker epicura (IV-III century BC) is set out. Lucretia is confident that knowledge of the nature of things eliminates a person from the superstitions and fear of death. Therefore, in the first three books of the poem, it sets out the doctrine of atoms, of which the world is consisting of democritus and epicuris, and further detailed about astronomy, geology, history human culture (highlighting stone, bronze, iron AgeWhat was confirmed by the archaeologists of the XIX century, taking these names from Lucretia for the scientific designation of the epoch in the development of mankind). The poem is written by a gecmeter, climbs with the poems of the Gesiod, but demonstrates huge progress in human knowledge.

Caesar. Guy Julius Caesar (100-44 BC. Er) An outstanding politician and commander of ancient Rome, the first to receive the title of Emperor, one of the founders of the Latin Literary Prosaic language from the Senate. His "Notes on the Gallea War" (52/51 BC er) in 7 books and "Notes on civil War"(44 g. BC) in 3 books - wonderful monuments of simple and noble literary style. His tragedy "EDIP" and a number of other works (pamphlets, the poem "Path", letters, speech, aphorisms, treatise "On analogy", dedicated to Cicero, "and others) before us did not reach us.

Cicero. Mark Tully Cicero (106-43 BC. Er) is the greatest orator of antiquity. We reached us 58 speeches of Cicero (and excerpts from another 17 speeches), treatises and dialogues of philosophical, didactic, political content (its work on spectacular art, where the foundations of rhetoric are systematically presented), about 900 letters.

Vergili. Higher achievement in the area poetic creativity In the "Age of August" (the second half of the first century BC) was the work of publicing Vergil Marona (70-19. BC. E.). The collection of "buculates" includes the ecotogs (shepherd poems consisting of the shepherd dialogs outlined by a hexameter written under the influence ancient Greek Poet Focrites, creator of this genre). The 4th ecologist was particularly significant, which in the Middle Ages was considered as the prediction of the coming of Jesus Christ. Therefore, Vergil was considered as one of the forerunners of Christ (which is why in " Divine Comedy."Dante Vergilia accompanies the poet on his journey not only on hell, but also to fit and part with him in the earthly paradise). The "buclables" brought versgil fame, he became the head of the literary circle, which the patronish of the patron of the patron of the Metzenate is a notable and rich supporter of Octaviana - the future emperor of August.

"Georgiki" - the didactic poem on the proceedings of the agriculture, written in the 30s. In its nature and form (use of a hexameter, etc.) it resembles the "works and days" of the Gesiod. The ideal of Vergil, embodied in the poem, Patriarchalen, is associated with rural, not urban life.

"Eneida" - the greatest work Vergil and, in a certain sense, all Roman literature. She wrote for a number of years and was completed by the poet in the year of his death. Having taught the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" of Homer, Vergil as a hero chooses not one of the Greeks, and their opponent - the Trojan of Enai, after the defeat, like Odyssey, making a journey and the shelter in Italy. The use of this myth had a political character: Emperor Augustov led his genus from the son of Eney Iul. With all the similarity with the Homer Epos, "Aneida" - the author's work, which is reflected in the composition (calculating the introduction of inserted epillios, a kind of poetic novel), in the demonstration of the high education of the author, in the workshop of the hexameter, the emergence of psychological motivation of the activity of heroes (especially in the description of love for Ena and the death of Didona, the Carthaginian queen). Over the centuries, "Eniida" was a model for imitation in the field of epic poetry.

Horace. In a circle, patronized by the patron of the patronage, included another great poet of ancient Rome - Quent Horace Flycc (65-8 years. BC). For the first time Horace, he paid attention to his epods written in the oppression of archille. Epodes - a work written in a mixed rhythm (for example, with alternating dactilic and yambic dimers). At Horace, these are verses dedicated to our time, in which you can meet both praise (patron, august) and sharp criticism (for example, freedoms that penetrate power due to tricks).

Behind the collection of 17 epodes was followed by two books of satire written by a gecmeter and for a number of traits to bring together with diatics - genre developed by philosopams - novains (live conversation on philosophical topics). Satires are not only criticized by various vices, striking Roman society (greed and envy, motorcycle and power), but also a certain author's ideal is approved: care in private life, Communication with Nature, which cannot be found in the city, Patriarchal Uk.

In 23 BC e. The three books of "OD" are emerging (38 OD in the 1st, 20 - in the 2nd, 30 - in the 3rd), in 13 G. BC. e. Horace added to them the 4th book (15 OD), where, obeying the Emperor Augustus, he fought the feats of his steps, Tiberius and Druza. In the gifts used 12 sizes borrowed by Hoodie in Alkeya, Sappo, Anacreonta and other ancient Greek lyrics. ODDs are built as an appeal (to man, muse, any subject). ODD brought Horace the greatest glory In centuries, especially the 30th Oda of the 3rd book "To Mellengery". Already Ovid in the final "Metamorphosis" sets out the same thoughts very close to the farm text. The first words of this ODA ("EXEGI Monument (UM)" - "I'll Evrodi") Pushkin elected the epigraph to his "monument". The source for Horace was an elegance of Feognide, addressed to Kirn, but there are more ancient example of this ODA - the ancient Egyptian poem "praise Pisksham", from where the image of the pyramid came to the Horace: Creativity retains the memory of the poet with strong pyramids.

From the messages, the Horace written by a hexameter (20 of the Messages in the 1st Book, 3 - in the 2nd) is especially important last - "Message to Pisons", otherwise called "On the Art of Poetry", where the regulatory poetics of Horace, which played a significant role in Development of classicism poetics. Horace requires comply with the unity of the form and content, simplicity and integrity of the chosen style, which cannot be mixed with other styles, presents the requirement of high professionalism to the poet.

Ovidi. Public Ovid Zon (approx. 43 BC. E. - 18, N. E.) became famous for his "love elegions", where he made up Roman poets Katulla, Tabulla, the Propacy, and others. Heroine Elegy, called Cornean named ancient Greek The poets who defeated on the poetic competitions of Pindar himself, whose mentor was, it was different from the lesbian Katullah with a complete absence of individual traits. With a poetic gloss inherent, but it is cold and sometimes ironically, Ovid describes "science of gentle passion", continuing this topic in the parody-doedactic poems "Science of Love" and "Medicine from Love". A completely different, sincere tone marked the last works written in the link (Toma, now Constanta in Romania), where he sent Emperor Augustus, - "Sorrowful Elegances" and "Letters with Ponta".

The most outstanding work of Ovid is a poem in 15 "Metamorphosis" books. Ovid chose the motive of transformations, which he traced in the myths about the gods and heroes from the occurrence of Cosmos from chaos before turning Julia Caesar to the star, based on the resettlement of the souls - Methempsichoz's resettlement from Pythagora. The songs of the poems that set the myths about the transformations of Narcissus in the flower, the statues of Pygmalion Galatei into a living woman, etc., became a source for inspiration of many writers, artists, composers of the next epochs. Ovidi, which filled out from myths the idea of \u200b\u200bvariability, as it was predicted the offensive of a new transitional - phase in the development of culture, marked stability, both in reality and in sensations of people.

Roman literature I-II centuries n. e.

From the works of this period, the tragedy of the Luce of Anna Seinea The younger (4 g. BC. E. - 64. N. E.) "Medea", Oedip "," Fedra "and others, in which a new understanding of Qatarsisis (separation of fear and compassion, fixing the source of these feelings is not for one character, and for the villains, on the one hand, and for innocent victims - on the other); His "moral letters to Lucillia", where the program of the staic practication of life, up to date and today; witty and evil "epigrams" Mark Valery Marciala (approx. 40 - between 101 and 104) in 12 books; 16 Satir in Hecmeters Dezima Yuni Jumental (approx. 60 - approx. 140), one of the most perfect in shape and significant on critical attitudes to vices for samples of the genre; novel Petronia The arbitrator (mind 66) "Satirikon", which came in passages; "History" and "Annals" Cornelia Tacita (approx. 55 - approx. 120) - one of the greatest historians of antiquity; Roman Lucia Apuleya (Rod. Ok. 124) "Metamorphosis" ("Golden Donkey"), in which a combination of entertainment and esoteric (hidden) religious-philosophical content is found.

Literature of middle ages

The concept of "Middle Ages" appeared in the XV century, when Italian humanists (L. Bruni, etc.), realizing the past as a story divided by periods, was identified by the era of antiquity (antiquity) and their era - "New Time", and the Millennium, Lying between these two epochs, called "Medium Aevum" ( lat. Middle Ages later began to say "Middle Ages"). From the point of view of the Humanists of Renaissance, and later the enlighteners of the XVIII century, the Middle Ages - the gloomy era of the death of a high ancient culture, the era of the barbarism and the Zasille of the Church, a real failure in European history. Only at the end of the XVIII - early XIX. Century, in many respects influenced by I. G. Gerder and Romantics, scientists saw in the Middle Ages the venue stage of the development of society, in medieval literature and art a kind of depth and beauty was discovered.

Traditionally it is believed that the Middle Ages began in 476, when the Western Roman Empire was flooded under the Nachis Barvarov. The modern point of view is completely different: the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages took several centuries, approximately from the III in the VI-Oh. In the light of the historical and theoretical approach, it became obvious that late antiquity should be considered as a transitional period in the development of literature.

Literature of late antiquity as a transitional period

In the first centuries, our era in the literature existed a downward and upward line. The first was associated with ancient tradition, based on pagan mythology and ancient philosophy, which during this period experienced a severe crisis. In the literature of Late Antiquity, this crisis is also clearly discovered, primarily in such manifestations as Escapeism (escape from social importance), formalism (unconditional preference for formal experiments to develop new literature content), rhetorism (subordination of literature by rhetorical rules, consideration of poetic activity as academic work When mastering rhetoric), complimentaryness (reflection of the dependence of writers from the rulers and rich patrons in compliments to the strengths of this world, which is saturated with the literature of this period, i.e., the waste from the actual function of writing activities).

Avsonius. As a confirmation of these characteristics, we choose the famous poet of the IV century, when the literature reached a new take-off (the period of Silver Latin, reminding the Romans about the Golden Latin, Horia, Ovid, Cicero and other writers of the I century BC. E.), - Dezima Magna Avsonia (approx. 310 - 394). The most famous work of Avsonia is the poem "Moserel". The poet is removed from the places where "on the plain lie, not murgery, poor corpses," and on the ship floats along the Moserell River (Moselle, the influx of Rhine), describing the excellent gecmeter (by the verse of Homer's poems) everything that sees around: River turns, vineyards , captured intense, mesh rowers. Several pages he pays descriptions of fish floating in the river, not forgetting to report their gastronomic qualities. We have one of the first samples of the genre of a descriptive poem, which will be revived only in the XVIII century, and from this point of view Avsonium - undoubted innovator and big master. But the lack of deep maintenance in this famous poem, not only the answers, but even the formulation of questions about the most sore issues of modernity is obvious. Avsonium was fond of formalistic delights. So, he sent Proconsul to Pakatu, hoping to delight this one, the collector "Technophey" ("craft jokes") - "The useless fruit of my idleness," as he himself wrote down, where "poems, starting and cumming up one Both the same "," Poems that only end with one-sorts "," Prayer Ropalic "(in which the line consists in series from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5-sophisticated words, for example, in Russian translation:" God Father, an immortal god existence , // Slot's hearing to the purity of non-weld prayers ")," Wedding Center "(Centoon - genre of formal poetry: drawing up a new poem from lines of the work of another poet; Avconiy ranges from the lines of" Aneida "chaste and high-level versgal. Disclaimed narration about wedding night ) - All these are examples of formalism in poetry.

Porfiry: genre of a poetic square. An even greater sophistication was distinguished by the poet of the IV century Porphiri Optacian, writing poetic squares. In verses of this genre, the number of rows corresponds to the number of letters in the string. Palindromes were used in poetic squares (texts that are equally read in both directions). The earliest sample of the poetic square belongs to the IV century:

(Translated: "The surveillance driver holds with difficulty wheels." Palindrome is used here: the text is equally read in four directions (from the beginning and from the end horizontally, from the beginning and from the end vertical). This poetic square, obviously, seemed so surprising that he was considered as a talisman, at least two centuries later remembered him and even wrote on the walls of Christian churches. Poetic squares of Porphyria, presented to them to the emperor Konstantin in 325, is much more difficult: the line is several times longer, so Palindrome was much harder to make up. Some letters Porfiry painted red paint, making up a drawing (peacock in the poem "Peacock", the fountain in the poem "Fountain", etc.), and if you read only red letters, one more poem was opened, often in Greek. With such a formal complication, the content in fact could not be serious.

Early Christian literature. Along with the descending line in the transition period between the antiquity and the medieval, the ascending line of literature was developed, which were not inherent in the names of the crisis. These are the literature of early Christianity.

"New Testament"he tells about the birth, death and resurrection of the Son of God's Jesus Christ, who has redeemed his death on the cross of the sins of the genus of the human and established a new Union ("covenant") with the God of all mankind (and not just the Jewish people, as in the "Old Testament").

The "New Testament" in canonical form, approved (as well as the Canon of the Old Testament) by Alexandrian Bishop Afanasius Great (295-373), which told an outstanding role in world culture, literature, includes four Gospels (gospel): Matthew , from brand, from Luke (synoptic - i.e. similar in the text) and from John, as well as "Acts of Apostles" (first of all Paul), 21 Messages (Epistolar form of teaching): 14 from Paul, 2 from Peter, 3 from John, 1 from James, 1 from Judah (not to be confused with a traitor Juda); The final canon work is "Apocalypse (Revelation) of John the Bogoslov". The "New Testament" was formed in the 2nd half of the I century - the first half of the II century mainly in Greek and came only in this language, although artificial transfer to colloquial Palestine I century - Aramaic - revealed disappeared into greek translation The rhythmic organization of text, alliteration, associations, rhymes, the game of words, other features that detect the folk nature of the initial text of a number of sections.

In the second century, the Bishop of Irene argued the divine origin of the Gospel. The text of the New Testament, separated from the apocryphic gospels and other non-canonized sources, became sacred for millions of Christians since the IV century and remains such up to this day. The sacred was perceived by different peoples and the translations of the "New Testament" on the Syrian (II-III century, etc. Peshishta), Latin (collective, so-called. Italy, then St. Jeronim, end of the IV century, so H. Vulgate) , Armenian, Georgian (V century), Staroslavansky (Kirill and Methodius, IX century, and subsequent Slavic translations), German (M. Luther and Reformed "Zurich Bible", XVI century), English ("Bible Jacob I", XVII century ), Russian (Synodal Translation, 1876) and other languages \u200b\u200bof the world. Biblical texts memorized from early childhood, constituted the most center of Thesaurus. Through the prism of the "New Testament" perceived the whole world around. Therefore, the influence of the Bible on the literature has an unprecedented nature. The "New Testament" gave the writers of the idea ( Christ is love to the neighbor, non-resistance of evil violence), the system of images (Jesus Christ, Our Lady, Apostles, John Baptist, Pontius Pilate, Judas, Cross, Maria Magdalene, Bethlehem Star, "animal number" 666, etc.), genre samples (parable , Life, vision, preaching, message), plots (birth, baptism, crucifix, resurrection, phenomena of Christ, the fate of the apostles, etc.), the image of thinking, the language to be imitated not only religious, but also secular writers. The authors of the "New Testament" - Matthew, who included the "Nagorno Sermon" of Christ, Mark, Luka with his deep knowledge of Greek culture, John as the Creator of the Fourth Gospel and Apocalypse, Apostle Paul and above all (judging by the above statements) Jesus Christ - possessed the great literary, oratorical gift.

Apologists. TERTULLYAN.Apologists were called writers-defenders of Christianity in the period of persecution of it in the II-III centuries. The most famous quint septimia Florence Terertullian, nicknamed violent (160 - after 220). 31 of its work has been preserved, including "protection from pagans", in which all the antique philosophy is denied, literature, as a whole, a culture based on paganism. In the treatise "Against Gnostics of Hermogens", the main ideas of Gnosticism, who approved the two of the world, the struggle of goodness of goodness with as powerful forces of evil is rejected. In the "refutation of heretics" the wrongness of Yersiewards is justified by the fact that they are younger than the apostles and, therefore, further from Christ - the source of truth. This argument played a huge role in the history of literature: to proof their rightness, many authors attributed their works of contemporaries of Christ and the Apostles.

In the treatise "About the Body of Christ", we read: "Crucify the Son of God - not ashamed, because it is shameful. And the Son of God died - it is quite reliably, because it is ridiculous. And the buried, he was risen - this is true, for it is impossible. " In this fragment, V Chapter, which received the name "Credo" in the Middle Ages, presents a special type of paradox - an alogic paradox, which cannot be resolved at the level of human thinking. This literary reception Used by Terertullian to prove the primate of faith. In the Middle Ages, the Turrtullian was attributed to the phrase, extremely concisely expressing this thought: "I believe, for absurd."

Augustine blissful. Averalius Augustine, nicknamed blessed (354-430) - the most authoritative of the western fathers of the church. The transition of the era in which he lived was reflected in his life in the most direct way. His father was a pagan, mother - Christian. In his youth, Augustine became interested in antique rhetoric and philosophy, his idol was Cicero. For many years, Augustine was a supporter of Manicheania, studied astrology. Having moved to Mediolnum (Milan), in 387 he adopts Christianity. His great father He became the Holy Ambrose Mediolsky, who joined Christianity and Neoplatonism in his views. Under his influence, Augustine condemned the maniken, rejected the idea of \u200b\u200bevil as an independent substance and considered it as a lack of good. He was rejected and astrology with her idea of \u200b\u200bpredestination, opposed Pelagianism - one of the early Christian heresies. Pelagiy believed that there was no original sin that God had a man with freedom of will, and every person was free to choose the way he wanted, but in that light God would repay everyone in justice, and he denied the original sin. In contrast to Pelagians and astrologers, Augustine nominated the idea of \u200b\u200bgrace: God in his arbitrariness elevates someone (sends them grace) and lifter others, regardless of the good or evil deeds of human. In a well-known contradiction with this idea, the Teaching of Augustine on Asceticism, which he outlined in his main treatise "On the Grad God" in 22 books, where the rud of the Earth (Empire) is opposed to (the souls of people, united by the Christian Church). In the human body dialing of the body (earthly) and soul (heavenly) from the body, it is necessary to get rid of the heavenly and silent. In 397-401. Augustine wrote a "confession" in 13 books - a story about his life addressed to God. He writes this book for believers, showing on his own example, which you can be a big sinner, violate many commandments, but, sincerly indulging in God, get rid of sinful thoughts. The path of salvation lies through repentance, from here specific traits The genre of confession introduced into the literature Augustine. In his work, bright descriptions of personal life events and their philosophical and religious understanding are combined. Subsequently, the genre of confession was developed (including in secular literature) and gave the world such outstanding works as "confession" J.-zh. Rousseau and "Confession" L. N. Tolstoy. Augustine opens the principle of confessionality, which testifies to strengthening the copyright in art and later, in connection with the development of the principle of psychologism, forms a whole system of well-developed artistic means to describe the inner world of man. Augustine was recognized as one of the main authorities in Christianity, which explains the enormous role of his ideas and style in the subsequent development of literature.

Medieval literature in Latin

Latin, turning into a dead language, has become, nevertheless, binding thread between antiquity and medieval. It was the language of the church, interstate relations, jurisprudence, science, education, one of the main lists of literature. Antique authors were used as material studied in a medieval school.

In the medieval literature in Latin, it is customary to distinguish three lines of development: the first (actual medieval, official, church) is presented in clerical literature, the second (associated with an appeal to the ancient heritage) was brighter than everything in Carolingovsky revival, the third (arising at the junction of Latin scholarship and Folk laughter) was reflected in the poetry of Vagatants.

Clean literature.A significant reservoir of medieval literature - clerical (church, religious, spiritual) literature. In some cases, it is represented by outstanding names, such as: John Cattle Eriugen, Abelar, Francis Assisi, Bonaventure, Albert Great, Thomas Akvinsky. But often the names of the writers are not preserved, since the principle outlined by the Terertullian, according to which the oldest, the oldest, the more closer to the truth, forced them to attribute their writings to authoritative figures of the first Christians. So, for example, he received a brilliant author of the V - the beginning of the 6th century (maybe Peter Iver), in the treatise "On the Heavenly Hierarchy" first introduced heavenly forces as located on the hierarchical staircase (and transferred this idea to the priests in the treatise "On church hierarchy": Hierarchy as a transmission of pure light with clean mirrors). In the treatises "On Divine Names" and "Mysterious Theology", he developed the doctrine of the Great Analogy, about the symbol, laid the foundations of the teachings on the Unified Chain of Genesis. In an effort to give their essays a credibility, he gave them for the works of Grek Dionysius, baptized by the apostle Pavl. This author is now referred to as Pseudo-Dionisia.

Medieval clerical literature in Latin developed new genres: Vision (narration about the soul travel during sleep military world), Life (story about the birth of the holy, first exploits, miracles in life and after death), religious anthem, message, commentary on the Holy Scriptures, confession, etc. They were based on samples of texts included in the New Testament. Clean literature is distinguished by rhetoric, didactism, priority, exaltation.

A characteristic example is written in the XII century in Ireland in Latin "Vision of TNurgeal". The soul of the knight of TNurgendal, who did not honor God's church, during a three-day sleep makes a trip to hell, where sinners sees the flour, and in silver hail, where the souls of the righteous live. Having received a good lesson, she returns to the body of the knight, and he becomes the most conscientious parishioner of the Church. "Vision of TNUGDAL" - a prototype of Dante "Divine Comedy".

Caroling Revival.King of Franks, and from 800 g. The emperor of the Medieval Roman Empire Karl Great (768-814) set the goal of "Renovatio Romani Imperii" ("Revival of the Roman Empire"), for which, in particular, gathered under his yard in Aachen the most educated people Europe and founded the Academy following the ancient example. At the head of the Academy, Anglo-Saxes from York Alquin (730-804) got up, Westgoth was working from Spain Theodulf, Frank Einhard (by one of best biographies Early Middle Ages - "Life of Charles Great"), Langobard Pavel Deacon (the creator of the "Langobard History"), Archbishop Augustógus Master and other outstanding writers. They refused their "barbaric" names and were called by the names of great ancient authors: Alquin became Horatim, Angilbert - Homer, Muadwin - Namon (that is, Ovid), etc. They revived antique meters (Hekzameter, Elegy Distimi, Yambic Dimet, and T d.), stanza (archilukhov, sapphic, alkeyev, etc.), Genres of Eclooga ("Winter's wording with spring" Alquin), Epitaphy ("Epitaph Sofia niece" Pavel Diacon), Palegic, Messages (Albin Alcuin, "To Laughtger-Clearyuk" Valahfried Strabo), Basni ("On the Lost Horse" of Theodulf, attributed to Pavel Diaconu "Basnie about Lev and Lisece"), etc., Paliological imagery (FEB, Cupid, Bakhus, Aheron, etc.), literary Characters (for example, Peremon and Daphnis from the III and VIII Ecloggy Vergil in the "Spring Winter Winter" alkuin), Descriptions in the Spirit of Assonia ("into the glory of the Larsk Lake" Pavel Diacon, "On Garden Care" Valahphrid Strabo). But the content of their works is already purely medieval: questions christian faith, fight against Arian heresy, loyalty to the Christian rulers, the life and exploits of the saints, etc. It is not by chance that the topic of carnal love is so characteristic of antiquity, is replaced by the theme of friendship (for example, in the Alcaine Albin's "Albin Corridon", the message of Valahfried Strabo -clirika "). The late representative of Caroling Revival Valahphrid, the teacher of the grandson of Charles the Great - Charles Lysogo, processed the prosaic vision written by Abbot Gaito, and his "Venten's Vision" became the first sample of the medieval genre of vision, the prototype of Dante Divine Comedy. The existed very long caroling regeneration was the first example of "small revival" in the medieval culture of Europe.

Poetry of Vagatants. In Latin, the vagantes poetry (Vagantes - Lats. Tramps), or Goligadov, is one of the few examples of the written fixation of the Middle Ages laughter's culture. Initially, the authors of the songs were students who came from the university to the university (teaching in all universities of Europe was conducted in Latin), fucked monks, etc., but at the heyday of the poetry of Vagatov (XII-XIII century), among them, you can find large figures churches. The most remarker

We all studied prose at school in literature lessons, and who can now give an answer to the question about what is a prose? Maybe the fact that prose is called oral or written speech, you remember, but for sure they forgot that the works in prose are not divided into commensurate segments (more simply - poems). Unlike poems, the rhythm of prosaic works is the ratio of syntactic structures (proposals, periods).

The prose originated in times antique literature. Since the XIX century, the prose has become leading in literature.

Let us explain what applies to prose. Prose is called ordinary speech, simple, not measured, without sizes. However, there is a measuring prose, similar to its sound to the ancient Russian songs.

Prose also has forms. So, it was originally a journalistic, business, scientific, religious-preaching, memoir-confessional forms developed.

Stories, stories and novels belong to artistic prose and differ from the lyrics with their emotional restraint, intellectuality, philosophical principles.

From the define at the beginning of the article it is easy to understand that the prose is the opposite of the poem. But then what is a poem in prose? This text is very foldable, but without rhyme, almost always romantic content. Many poems in prose wrote I.S. Turgenev.

Prose genres

Traditionally, the number of literary genres belonging to prose includes:

• Novel. Roman is called the narrative work, large in volume and with a complex, developed plot.
• Tale. This is a genus Epic poetry similar to a novel who tells about some episode from life. In a lesser extent, than in the novel, it is told about the life and moral heroes, it is shorter and maintained.
• Novel. Novella call a small literary narrative genre. In volume it is comparable to the story, but distinctive lard It is the presence of genesis, history and structure.
• Epic. Epic work, monumental in shape affecting crowded issues.
• Story. It is a small form of fiction. The volume of text is small, since the story does not cover a large period of time and describes any particular event in a particular time interval.
• Essay. This is an essay of prosaic form on any topic. In terms of volume, the composition is strictly not designated. In the essay, the author expresses his individual impression and opinion on a specific issue.
• Biography - all of us famous form Saying the history of life and human activity.

Origin

Despite the seeming evidence, a clear distinction between the concepts of prose and poetry does not exist. There are works that do not have a rhythm, but broken into lines and related to verses, and on the contrary, written in rhyme and with rhythm, however, related to prose (see Rhythmic Prose).

History

The number of literary genres traditionally attributed to prose includes:

see also

• Intellectual Prose
• Poetic prose

Notes

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Watch what is "prose" in other dictionaries:

Proser ... Russian verbal emphasis

URL: http://prza.ru ... Wikipedia

See Poetry and Prose. Literary encyclopedia. At 11 tons; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friece, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929 1939 ... Literary encyclopedia

- (Lat.). 1) A simple way of expression, simple speech, not measurable, in contrast to poetry, poems. 2) boring, ordinary, everyday, everyday unlike perfect, higher. Dictionary of foreign words, which are part of the Russian language. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (life, life, life); Daily, fiction, humanity, weekdays, everyday little things are a dictionary of Russian synonyms. For the prose, see everyday dictionary of the synonyms of the Russian language. Practical directory. M.: Russian I ... Synonym dictionary

Prose, prose, mn. No, wives (Lat. Prosa). 1. Nesti-cathemical literature; ant. poetry. Write prose. "Over them inscriptions and in prose and in verses." Pushkin. Modern prose. Prose Pushkin. || All practical, not fiction (statute). ... ... Explanatory Dictionary Ushakov

Art * Author * Library * Newspaper * Painting * Book * Literature * Fashion * Music * Poetry * Prose * Public * Dance * Theater * Fantasy Prose a different novel is too bad to cost him ... but it happens that other ... Summary encyclopedia of aphorisms

prose - s, g. Prose f. lat. Prosa. 1. Not organized rhythmically speech. Bass 1. Drunk men and excrement of different animals are in kind; But I would not wish to read the living descriptions or in verses or in prose. 1787. A. A. Petrov Karamzin. // ... Historical Dictionary Galticisms of the Russian Language

- (Latin Prosa), oral or written speech without dividing on commensurate segments of poems. Unlike poetry relies on the correlation of syntax units (paragraphs, periods, proposals, colons). Originally developed business, ... ... Modern encyclopedia

Prose around us. She is in life and in books. Prose is our everyday language.

The artistic prose is not a size (a special form of organizing sounding speech), an unimpressed narration.

Prosecical work is written without rhyme, which is his main difference from poetry. Prose arts are both artistic and non-counted, sometimes they intertwined among themselves, such as in biographies or memoirs.

As arose prose, or epic, work

The prose came to the world of literature from ancient Greece. It was there that poetry appeared first, and then the prose as a term. The first prosaic works were myths, legends, legends, fairy tales. These genres were determined by the Greeks as non-counted, landed. These were religious, domestic or historical narrationswho received the definition of "prose".

In the first place there was a highly artistic poetry, the prose was in second place, as some kind of opposition. The situation began to change only in the second half of the prose genres began to develop and expand. They appeared novels, stories and novels.

In the XIX century, the prose writer pushed the poet to the background. Roman, Novella became the main artistic forms in the literature. Finally, prose art She took her rightful place.

Prose is classified in size: on a small and large. Consider the main art genres.

Work in prose of large volume: types

The novel is a prosaic work that is distinguished by the length of the narrative and a complex plot, developed in the whole, and the novel may have side plot lines, in addition to the main one.

The novelists were Onor de Balzac, Daniel Defo, Emily and Charlotte Bronte, Erich Maria Remark and many others.

Examples of prosaic works of Russian novelists can compile a separate book list. These are works that have become a classic. For example, such as "Crime and Punishment" and "Idiot" of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, "Dar" and "Lolita" Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokova, "Dr. Zhivago" Boris Leonidovich Pasternak, "Fathers and Children" of Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, "Hero of Our Time" Mikhail Yurevich Lermontov and so on.

The epic is in terms of volume more than a novel, and describing large historically events or meets common issues, more often than.

The most significant and well-known epic in Russian literature - "War and Peace" of Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy, "Quiet Don" Mikhail Alexandrovich Sholokhov and Pyotr First Alexei Nikolayevich Tolstoy.

Prosaic product of small volume: types

Novella is a short work comparable to a story, but having a greater saturation of events. The story of Novella takes the beginning in oral folklore, in parables and legends.

Themenests were Edgar by, Herbert Wells; Gi de Maupassan and Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin also wrote novels.

The story is a small prosaic work, which is distinguished by a small number of actors, one storyline and a detailed description of the details.

Stories richly Bunin, Pouustovsky.

Essay is a prosaic work that is easy to confuse with the story. But still there are significant differences: a description of only real events, the lack of fiction, the combination of literature of artistic and documentary, as a rule, affecting social problems and the presence of greater descriptions than in the story.

Essays are portrait and historical, problematic and traveling. They can also mix together. For example, a historical essay may also contain portrait or problematic.

Essay is some impressions or author's arguments due to a specific topic. It has a free composition. This type of prose combines the functions of a literary essay and a journalistic article. There may also have something in common with the philosophical treatise.

Medium Prosaic Genre - Tale

The story is located on the border between the story and the novel. In terms of volume, it cannot be attributed to any small, nor to great prosaic works.

IN western literature The story is called a "short novel". Unlike the novel, there is always one storyline in the story, but it also develops fully and fully, therefore it cannot be attributed to the story genre.

There are many of the examples of the leader in Russian literature. Here are just some: " Poor Lisa»Karamzin," Steppe "Chekhov," Nonzvanov "Dostoevsky," County "Zamyatina," Life of Arsenyev "Bunin," Stationander "Pushkin.

In foreign literature, it is possible to name, for example, Rena Shatubrita, "Baskerville Dog" Conan Doyle, "The Tale of Mr. Zommer" Zyuskinda.

Along with the development of poetry in Ionia, the prose originated from ancient times. Originally recorded documentary data on the life of state cities, laws, lists of administrative persons, the names of the winners on competitions. The most ancient prose texts are not preserved. In the oral tradition, the prose is remembered much worse than the musical and rhythmic verse of a lyrol-epic artwork.

Athens at the turn of the VII-VI centuries. BC. And many Ionian cities, like the Greek cities-colonies in Italy and Sicily, experienced a period of stormy growth of the economy, culture, science and philosophy. Many great names have been preserved from VI W.: Mathematics, musician, Pythagora philosopher, first philosopher dialectic Heraclit, philosophers Fales, Anaximandr (compiler of the first geographic map Greece) and others. Preserved prosaic fragments of their writings.

Along with philosophical works began to be created in the VII-VI centuries. BC. And the first scientific records and essays on medicine, astronomy, mathematics and history. Historical records, historical works VI. The nature of the transfer of various legends, descriptions of other people and peoples is often worn. The Greeks called Prosaikov authors, especially historians, logographers (1Ogoz - Word and Garsho - I write). Logographed from the Mileta (Rod. About 540 BC) amounted to two treatises: "Description of the Earth" (the countries known to the Grekam and their peoples) and the "pedigrees" - historical and mythological work, in which there are Already a new attitude to myths. Hektei calls them "funny" and seeks to find their natural explanation. In these historical records, stories are very often introduced, in which heroes are not the characters of mythology, but historical faces and even sometimes simple people. This type of stories in antiquity did not have a special name and can be named Novella. The life of Crazy, Solon, one of the seven Great Mudreets of Greece, the life of tyrants of the Samoshsky polycrat, Perianderra Corinthian, Pi-Sistrata Athenian gave themes for such Novel.

In the VI century And the fable as a special genre appears - the criticism of the injustices of the life of the lower folk hero. The actors of the Basni are most often beasts and birds depicting the vices of people. The ancient tradition invariably built the plots of the fastened genre to fables, folded by a hem-of-gendar Esop, a Frigian slave, ugly, but wise and insightful person. Among them are known to all "wolf and lamb", "crow and fox", "Fox and grapes", "ant and cicada", "frogs, asking for a king" and many others. The image of Ezopa was formed in the VI century. According to legend, he was released on the will, lived at one time at the courtyard of the Lidius king Carce, was accused of the sacrence of Delphic priests and reset them from the cliff. Prosic Basen collections for later, right up to Byzantine, are also widely known as "Ezopova Bassen".

Historiography: As is well known, the first written literary monuments of antiquity are poetic texts - epigrams created in the VIII century. BC. Prosaic inscriptions refer to VII century. These are office entries: lists of officials, winners on competitions, lists of decisions, contracts, and so on. It should, however, mention the Greek written monuments of the end of the II millennium BC. (Crito-Myckene writing). After a long break in the VII century. BC. Reggerer appear service prosaic records, but already in the new alphabet. Literary prosaic records arise a little later, in the VI century, in Ionia, at the homeland of the Homer Epos. At the beginning of the VI century. Egypt began to express Vonia Papirus hardly, and soon the first written written writings in prose appeared, the need for which coincided with the opening of a cheap and convenient writing material. The origin of prose in Ionia is associated with the development of science and philosophy that arose on the basis of rich empirical information that was required to systematize and combine for urgent practical purposes. Therefore, since the beginning of its existence, the Greek literary prose, which possessed high artistic advantages and intended for the widest audience, was inseparable from science, which has not yet been mediated among the other forms of ideology. Hence the peculiar division of Greek prose, taken by antique philologists, on historiography, including essays on geography, philosophy, complemented by medicine, and oratory prose.

Demosphen (384-322) also left a memory of himself as an outstanding speaker. In their political views, the speaker - a supporter of democracy, which is associated with independence. His speeches allow researchers to recreate many provisions of democratic theory: its understanding of the state, laws, social relationship, wars. Demosphine's dedication to democratic ranks did not rule out a critical attitude towards its disadvantages. Demosphen rather sharply indicates the passivity of citizens who do not want to fight for their rights, on the growth of apoliticalness, the inability and reluctance to act quickly and decisively, the tendency to infinite words, that is, on everything that weakened the position of therapy and was on the hand of Macedonia. The great orator of Demosphen possessed hundreds of receptions to the audience, some of them reached the present day. These speech techniques have such a force that several thousand years ago pushed the people to political coup in the state. To date, one of the most famous speech techniques are demosphena.

· Appeal to listeners directly. Most of their speeches demosphen began with the phrase "citizens of Athenian", which strengthened the attention of the audience.

· With the technique, the question-answer text seems bright and rich, thereby forcing the listener to listen further.

· Demosthenes in his protrusions inserted a few rhetorical issues in his protrusions, so that the audience could quickly realize exactly what he was talking about and what he wants to convey the speaker.

· Large importance in the text has a competently inserted antithesis. Contrasting is powerful on a person who compares as it was and how it became possible at the subconscious level.

· The biography of the speaker says that sometimes, speeches Demosthene lasted a whole day, but throughout the time he could keep the attention of the audience. For example, combinations of such synonyms as "listen and decide" make it a more dynamic, enliven it and send a listener to specific actions.

· Upon completion of his brilliant speeches, Demosthenes often did not make conclusions, leaving this privilege to his listeners, but it is worth saying that this technique is one of the most difficult and requires constant work.

· To keep the interest of the audience, try using exclamation words. A sharp transition from monotonous speech to exclamation is similar to the feeling of a sudden injection.

· For a variety, use in the text of the metaphor, but should not abuse this technique.

· Use the acceptance technique, and you will see that a huge crowd listens to you as one.

· Calls to gods or oaths allow you to pave an invisible bridge, woven from trust from speaking to its audience.

Oratoric art does not tolerate mediocrity, so before you start learning, ask yourself the question is ready to go until the very end, despite all the obstacles that will meet your way.

HISTORIOGRAPHY

Prose from the time of birth in the VI century. BC, in the future gradually developing, in a number of regions literary creativity From the end V and in IV centuries. Widely represented by B. greek literature. Literary prose V-IV centuries. represented by outstanding names in the field of historiography, eloquence and philosophy.

Herodotus.

The "father of history" called the ancient Herodotus from Galicarnassa. The life and creativity of the famous Greek historian Herodotes took place during the last victories of the Greeks over the Persians, during the brilliant achievements of the Athenian culture of the century of the pericles.

Herodotus - Hot Patriot Athens - Born in 484 BC. In the lowland city of Galicarnas. He lived in the times of victorious growth of democratic ideas after the Greek-Persian wars. Several times he was in Athens.

Herodotus died in hard times the beginning of the Peloponnesian war; Apparently, away from their homeland - in the funius, the Athenian colony in the south of Italy (approx. 426). Preserved the gravestone dedicated to Herodotus, in the ancient description of Fury:

The coffin of the remains of Herodota, Liksova Son. The best historian from all who Ionian wrote, grew up in Dorian's deception, but to avoid amenh, made Fourie, he is a new trembled itself.

Herodotus traveled a lot on the Mediterranean, deeply studied Egypt, was more than once in the south of Italy. Gerodotus works, divided later on nine books, named after the names of the music, not only have an important historical meaningbut also represent a big artistic interest. The composition "and with t about r and and" Herodota resembles an epic poem in prose. As the main theme is taken by the heroic struggle of the Greeks with Persians; The progressive idea of \u200b\u200bthe superiority of the Greeks - Warriors-Patriots, Free Citizens, perfectly trained in military case, is especially strong in this topic - over Horde Hordes of Rabolen Persians.

In the "History" of Herodota, along with scientific observations and geographical descriptions, there are many legendary-mythological testers coming from ancient logographicists - historians of the VI century, folk tales-novel, giving the "history" of Herodress literary and artistic specificity. Often a narrative in the outfit of famous antiquity people (Sage Solon, King Krez, tyrant polycrat and other heroes) performed drama. At the same time, Herodotus holds a steadily basic idea - fate and gods cruelly punished "proud" man. The harsh law of the infancy of life drops human happiness. People must fear the envy of the gods.

The "History" of Herodotus is brightly given scenes of decisive combat Greeks with Persians (KN. VIII-IX). Herodotus draws a picture of Salamina battle, describes the dangers and distress of the Athenian. According to the established plan of the Allied Strategy, they threw their native city by leaving the neighboring island of Salamin.

Greek superiority idea military equipment And military-patriotic resistance brings her herodood with his great predecessor - Eschil, the author of the classical tragedy of "Persians". In Athens of the first half V c. BC. The democratic forces of the Polis received a mighty growth after a brilliant victory over Persians in 480-479. These victories were naturally necessary to affect art, theater, in poetry and prose of the great Greek people. However, in his works, neither Herodota nor Eschil tells the language of blind hatred to the barbarars - Persians, but most of all emphasize the tyranny nature of the state system of Persians, the despotism of Kerks and the wisdom of Darius, who condemns his son for attacking Ellin.

Herodotus adds in detail many facts and legends, the activities of Femistokla, Mardonia, Kerxa himself and Daria are given. The complex and difficult situation of the struggle of parties in Athens and the further development of democracy are vividly outlined.

The whole second book of "History" Herodotus is devoted to the description of what he saw and heard during his trip to Egypt. Herodotus is amazed by the power and beauty of the Nile; Wonderful descriptions of its shores and spills.

The richest material gives the Book II on the structures of the Egyptians, about the laws, customs, on embarrassment - road and cheap, on plants and animals of Egypt, about papyrus and their processing, even on the nras and characteristics of crocodiles or ibis. But most of all in II and in the first books of "history" of Herodotus amazed extensive legendary material about the life of tribes and heroes and half-philantal legends. Herodotus (like Sophokl) often talks about the harsh punishment, sent to the Gorders for arrogance, writes that "for great crimes followed and the great karas" (II, 120) draws a lot of tragic scenes ... Sometimes punished finding salvation. The classic example of this is crooked, salt and Cyrus (I, 86-89). In the tale of the son of Mandans, the daughter of Astiaga Midiysky, it is narrating about the fate of Kira, abandoned by the child (I, 108-122) to death, but saved by the shepherd (Wed "King Oedip" Sofokla).

In the work of Herodota, as well as other V c writers, some rationalistic features affected. So, Herodotus writes: "On the pedigree of individual gods, from the age of whether they existed, and what kind of image has one or another God, Ellina has learned something, so to speak, only from yesterday or from the day before yesterday" (II, 53 ).

Historians highly appreciate Herodota as the first author - witness the life of the ancient Black Sea region. Herodotova Scythia is a valuable source for historical science, brightly depicting the expanses of the Black Sea and its inhabitants. In IV, the book (about Scythia) indicates the relationships of the Scythian peoples with the Greeks and Persians, given a lot of legendary and mythological legends about the heroes and the leaders of the Scythian tribes. Comparing Borisphen (Dnipro) with Neil, Herodotus praises the fourth Scythian River - Borisphen (IV, 53):

"This river, as I think, not only from Scythian rivers is the most generously endowed with the benefits, but among other rivers, except for the Egyptian Nile ... Borisphen is the most profitable river: beautiful fat pastures extend to the shores; it is found in it in Large quantities best Fish; Water is pleasant to the taste for drinking and transparent ... Sowing Borisphen's shores are excellent; And where the land is not sowed, high grass spreads. In the mouth of Borisphen, it means that indecent number Salts "(Stratanovsky).

Many interesting information about the life of the Scythians can be leaning out of 10-89 chapters IV of Herodota. The city of Olvia is "Happy" - ancient colony of a mile, rich, well-fortified Greek policy on the high right bank of Hipanide (South Bug). Scientists express the opinion that Herodotus led their observations and collected data on Scythia, being most likely to Olvia.

The next time after Herodot, the famous Greek historian was Fucdide.

Fucidide.

"Fukidide-Athenian wrote the story of wars between the Peloponnes and Athenians, as they conducted against each other. He began to work to his immediately from the moment of the war in the confidence that this war would be a war important and the most attracted one of all previously" (Fuchidide ". HISTORY OF THE PELOPONNESSK WAR ", TH. I, 1, ZEKLEKHOV).

So begins his work Fucdide - one of the famous Greek authors of the end V c. BC, historian and brilliant master of attic prose.

He was born in Attica about 460-455, belonged to a well-known and rich genus. In the first years of the Peloponnesian war, Fuchidid was elected a strategist and as the commander of the squadron took part in the war with Spartans. I failed: in time did not help the city of amphipol taken by Spartans. He was accused of state treason and about twenty years spent in exile.

At the end of the Peloponnesian war, in many data, Fukidid returned to his homeland: Died about 396. The history of the Peloponnesian war he managed to bring only to 411

Fuchidide is a sincere patriot of Athenian democracy, highly appreciated Pericla, glorified the culture of Athens. IN political views Fukidid and in his concept of the historical process affects the era of the pericla with her high levels Science, art and philosophy of Anaxagora and Democritus, the era of rationalistic criticism of the myths (Euripid) and the development of sophistic schools. Fukidide sought to systematic critical verification of sources and clarifying causality, patterns of events. Historical science believes Fukidide with an antique historiography.

Unlike predecessors, the interests of Fukidide lie in modern times. The review of the previous periods serves as the purpose of analyzing and showing the features of the modern events of the Peloponnesian war. The following observations of Markellina, one of the main biographers of Fukidida, are interesting: "According to the nature and syllable, Fukidide is Majestine ... It does not use or irony, nor ucherds, nor the district turnover of speech. In fact, did not like to impose in the mouth or the pericla, nor the archid, nor Nikia, nor Brasida, people with an elevated and noble way of thoughts, decorated with glavy heroes, figures of irony and other tricks, as if they did not have the courage to expose others to open, accuse directly and say everything they wanted. That's why Fuchidid and left speeches idlese , devoid of figures, so that in this respect he followed the appropriate requirements of art. "

Fucdide himself so characterized his creative reception artistically built speech speeches famous figures Peloponnesian War:

"The speeches are drawn up with me as, in my opinion, every speaker, converted always with the circumstances of this moment, most likely could talk about the present situation ..." ("History of the Peloponnesian War", I, 22).

Fucdide was aware of the importance of compliance with accurate, strict chronology in history. He writes (V, 20): "Rather, investigate events by period of time, without giving preferences to transfer names of officials of officials ... for which past events are indicated."

He picked up an ancient chronological chronological system when, at the head of each historian described by the year, the name of the eponym, an official who gave the name of the year was placed. Fucdide lays out of its history "time periods", summer and winter, two main parts of a sunny year.

Within the dating of events in the summer winter campaigns, Fukidov we encounter more detailed expressions:

"... In the midst of the summer, at the time of ripening of bread, at that time, when the bread begins to spycle ... To the rising Arctic ... Shortly before harvesting grapes ...", etc.

The presentation of events on the exact chronological system was a big step forward. From all the events of the history of Greece, the Peloponnesian war in chronological relationship is known to us better than any other. Fuchidide has always strived for accuracy in the presentation and critical analysis of the material:

"As for the events that took place during the war, I did not consider my task to record what I learned from the first oncoming, or what I could assume, but I recorded events, the witness of which was myself, and what heard from others , after accurate, as far as possible, the studies of each fact, individually taken (I, 22). "

Modern historiography rightly considers Fukidid to the first time by the scientist-historian and the ancestor of historical criticism.

Xenophon.

a) biographical information.

Xenophon (about 430-350 BC) - historian and philosopher who lived in an era of decline of Athens. Athensian by birth, laconophil for political convictions, xenophon is widely known for its "Anabasis" - a history of returning to his homeland from Persia 10,000 Greeks, mercenaries Kira Jr..

The life of xenophon is a stormy, complete adventure. In his youth, he was a student of the Athenian philosopher Socrates, who was dedicated to the world's best writings. In 401, Xenophon goes to the service of the Satrak of Malaya Asia, Kiru younger, conceived to overthrow from the Persian throne of his elder brother, Artaxerks. But this complex and boldly built political adventure ended tragically for conspirators: Kir himself was killed, the commanders of the Greeks-mercenaries were changed changed.

With terrible difficulties, most of the Greeks-mercenaries returned to the shores of Ponta Evsinsky. Xenophon continued on the side of Sparta against Athens; He was condemned for treason to the native city, and he lived in Sparta for many years, in the Spartans given to him in Skilunte. When the Athenians were connected with Sparta to fight against FIV, xenophon was able to return home, but soon he died, surviving his son who died for Athens.

b) perfect and hero in the writings of xenophon.

Creativity Xenophon is extremely diverse. He is the author of notes about Socrates ("Memorabilia"), the first adventurous-historical novel ("Anabasis"), the first nomanized biography of "Education of Kira" ("Kiropedia"), "History of Greece" began IV century. BC. (After the disaster of the Peloponnesian war), many philosophical-in-or-lyitic treatises. It was the latitude of the interests of Xenophon who combined the observation of the historian, the philosophical pointedness of the thought and skill of the artist, makes it possible to consider his ideal of excellent and funds, which this person is drawn.

Xenophon develops a classic understanding of the beautiful, identifying it with useful and vital. Hence the approval of the unity of the beauty of physical and spiritual, that is, Ka Locagati. The image of the perfect hero, a man of noble, bold, wise, generous, more than once is drawn by xenophone in his books. This is a senior kir ("Kiropedy"), Cyrus Jr. ("Anabasis"), Spartan Tsar Assilai ("Agecilai"). As such an ideal hero, the Xenophon itself is, comprehensively distinguished its activities of the owned troops of Kira Jr. ("Anabasis"). The author's narrative from a third party, as if improving and quite disinterested, with a complete impression of objectivity depicts Xenophon of Athenian, who arrived at Kiru in Sardia at the invitation of his friend to the procnus and after the question of the Delphic Oracle on the Council of Socrates.

Xenophon here is a sample of modesty, so that before the III book we almost do not meet his name. Even taking over the command of the army, he always remembers that he is the younger compared to Hirisof, and gives him a leadership (III, 2, 37). It is unquestioning on the most dangerous business (III, 4, 42), never mentions the superiority of Athens, deeply honorable Spartans warriors. He is deprived of korestolubia and refuses the rich gifts of the Fraciza Sevf (VII, 6, 12). The sense of duty for him is primarily. Therefore, he does not leave for Athens, until he himself gives the army Spartan Fibron (VII, 7, 57). Always kind, he takes the guilt of his friend (VI, 4, 14), comes to the aid of the soldiers lying from the cold and snow (IV, 5, 7).

Piously never changes him, and he brings victims to Zeus, Apollon, Artemide, Hercules, the Sun, the God of the River (IV, 3, 17) and even the wind (IV, 5); Believe omen, dreams and oracles (IV, 3, 8; III, 1, 11; III, 1, 5). This is an experienced strategist, with a great ability to go with the army through the mountains and rivers among hostile alien (IV book). At the same time, this is the strict head for which the most important thing is order (III, 1, 38) and the inspirational unity of the troops (VI, 3, 23).

Xenophon also acts as a skillful speaker who owns all the types of speeches. He calls on and inspires the soldiers (III, 1, 15-26), then exhorts allies (VII, 7, 8-48), it is defended from the accusations of enemies (V, 7, 6-34), and always acts with impeccable logic proof of. As a result of one such speech, Fracian Sevf, who tried to deprive the warriors of the conventional board, issued them 1 talent of money, 600 bulls, 400 sheep, 120 slaves and hostages.

It can be said on the basis of "Anabasisa" that Xenophon is in it the hero, whom he himself loved and in Kiru's senior, and in Kiru younger, and in Tsar Mesila. If Xenophon created the ideal of the sovereign in the "Kiropydia", then he caught the type of the ideal leader in the "Anabasis". The portrait of military calocation is drawn in the "Anabasis" with classical clarity and certainty.

c) "beautiful" and "good" in aesthetics of xenophon.

The harmonious combination of physical and internal perfection permeates all the relationship of xenophon to the beautiful, which is full surrounding man reality.

Xenophon attracts wonderful things made by man's hands, that is, those on which his taste, skill, artistic opportunities. Xenophon admires gold cups, bowls, weapons, jewels, clothing ("Anabasis", VI, 4, 1-9; "Kiropedy", V, 2, 7). In the "Anabasis", depicting his estate, the temple near him, the surrounding landscape (meadows, wooded mountains, fruit gardens), xenophon acts simultaneously as an artist and as a skillful owner. He loves all the living, prompt, flexible, beautiful and perfectly performing his role, its destination. Wonderful, for example, descriptions of dogs, "strong in appearance", "commensurate", "lungs", with a "fun look", "cheerful temper", "attractive for contemplation" ("Kineghetik"), and horses ("on horseback riding "). Xenophon with Uznoda draws colorful processions, the festivities in the radiance of the gold of the weapon and purple of the clothes ("kiropedy", VIII, 3, 9-16).

Thus, the sensually visual and contemplative-expedient beauty is put forward here to the fore.

For xenophon, the idea of \u200b\u200blife order is also important. "There is nothing so useful in the world, so beautiful as an order," he writes ("Economy", VIII, 3). The order is not only something useful and pleasant, not only a joyful sight. He is the subject of delight. Ishomas, the hero of "economy", tells Socrates on "excellent and in high degree Samples "on the ship (VIII, 11-16). With admiration he draws order in the home environment, where everything has its place and beautiful view: raincoats, bedspreads, copper dishes, tablecloths, kitchen pots. "All items already, maybe because it seems more beautiful that they are put in order" (VIII, 19-20). Here, as we see, the cosmic mind and harmony of the nature of the District-Tovsky ideal are replaced by a purely human order of life. It can be said that in the aesthetics of the Distortian period "Order" and "Stroy" there is a natural structure of things, while at the classical xenophon they are installed by a person and are consciously carried out to life. It is also important that all the "good", "good", "good" at xenophon often has no moral meaning, but the one in which the beauty of a person manifests itself, in his "virtues" often more aesthetic motives than ethical .

According to Xenophon, "those people whose works are widespread from the soul and from the body ugly and Khamskoye and growing to virtue" ("Kineghetik", XII, 9). Even the hunt, "teaches a planned work and gives rise to excellent knowledge," and therefore the great virtue (there, XII, 18). People do bad because they do not see the "bodies of virtue" (ibid., XII, 19-22). Better than xenophon, it is difficult to express a classic attitude to beauty. Beauty is the body of virtue, that is, the physical virtue implemented. Hence the idea of \u200b\u200bthe usefulness of beauty and love, developed by Xenophone ("PIR", VIII, 37-39), as citizens see that a person in love is striving for virtue, and this virtue acquires the "increasing glitter of glory" (there, VIII, 43).

Beauty and the corresponding love to her have a huge objective meaning. Beauty is the beginning of friendship, human unity and universal virtue (ibid., VIII, 26-27). Therefore, for Xenophon, the main value is "love for the soul, to friendship, to the noble feats" (ibid., VIII, 9-10).

We see, in such a way that xenophon, this warrior, a philosopher, historian and writer, was one of the expressants characteristic of classical Greece an understanding of the perfect and beautiful in objective reality, in all spheres, it would seem ordinary life, executed order, harmony, harmony and benefit.

Pier Platon.

What is the author's thought? Briefly analyze the work before presenting it summary. Plato's Pier - Dialogue, the main topic of which is to reason about love and good. According to a number of evidence, he in antiquity had a subtitle "Speech about love", "On the Good" and others. It is impossible to say for sure when this work was created. It is believed that its most likely dating is 379 years BC. e. Platonic philosophy is long before the creation of this dialogue put forward a doctrine about ideas. Platon was quite simple to explain what the essence of material things is. It was much more difficult to formulate an idea. human soul . The book "Pier" (Plato), which is interested in the brief content of us, is just devoted to clarifying this issue. The philosopher believes that the idea of \u200b\u200ba man's soul is in the eternal pursuit of good and beauty, in love with them. Completing the analysis of the Dialogue of Plato "PIR", we note that it consists of a short entry and imprisonment, as well as from the seven speeches of the participants in the feast, with the help of which the main thought is revealed. Plato in joining his dialogue describes a meeting of Apollodore with a chance. The latter asks Apollodora to tell about Pira, which was given about 15 years ago in the house of Agafon's poet. There was talk about love on this Pira. Apollodor says that he himself did not participate in it, but can convey the dialogues that were conducted there, from the words of Aristogether, one of the participants. Next, Apollodor talks about how Aristodem accidentally met with Socrates on the street. The philosopher walked for dinner to Agafon and decided to invite him with him. Paution, one of those present at the feast, after he began to offer participants to say in honor of the God of Love Erota. Fedre's speech in his speech Fedr said that Eros, according to Parmenide and Hesiod's assurances, is the oldest of the deities. He does not even have parents. The force given by Eros is not comparable to any other. The in love will not throw a subject of passion for the arbitrariness of fate, and the favorite is noble in that he is devoted to a loving. Speech Aristofana. Meanwhile, Icota Aristofan passes, and he takes the floor. It is his speech further describes Plato ("PIR"). The summary of the words of the Comediography comes down to the myth-wrought out of them that the people who inhabited the land in ancient times were Andrognee - at the same time women and men. They had 4 legs and arms, 2 faces that looked in opposite sides, 2 pairs of ears, etc. When such a person was in a hurry, he moved, rolling with the wheel on 8 limbs. Since Androgins were very strong and outraged by their desires of Zeus, he commanded Apollon to Kump on 2 half of each of them. Women's and men's halves were scattered on the ground. However, the memory of the former communication gave rise to the desire to seek each other in people in order to restore the former completeness. Aristophane concludes that EroT - the desire of half to each other to restore their nature and integrity. However, this is possible only if they are of the gods, because in case of wicked, the gods are able to cross people into even smaller parts. Go to the speech of the Agafon and present its summary. "PIR" Plato is a dialogue that happens in the house of this particular person. Agafon speech speech on the feast after Aristofana holds a verse by Agafon, the owner of the house. With poetic fervor, he praises the following properties of erotic: body flexibility, tenderness, eternal youth. According to Agafon, the God of Love does not tolerate any violence in the passion caused by him. Feeling rude in someone's soul, he forever leaves her. Eros gives courage, reasonableness, justice, wisdom to man. Agafon believes that love is the most worthy of the leaders. It is behind him that all people should follow. Spere Socrates The book "Pier" (Plato) is perhaps the most interesting speech of Socrates. The words spoken by Agafon caused a stormy reaction of the audience. Socrates also praises her, however, so that in his speech is captured and a restrained contradiction to the poet. The philosopher ironically notices that a commendable speech is attributing it to the subject of a huge number of excellent qualities, without thinking about whether this item has them or not. The philosopher declares that he intends to speak only the truth about Erote. Socrates in his speech resorts to the Majortic - a dialectical method, favorite. The author describes how, leading a dialogue with Agafon and asking for the questions, skillfully interconnected, the philosopher gradually forces the interlocutor to refuse that he just said. Conclusion After speech alkivide, a small conclusion is presented, which completes the "PI" dialogue. A brief content does not represent much interest in terms of philosophy. It is told about how guests of the feast gradually disagree. This ends the sum described by us. Plato's Pier is a work that many philosophers are addressed today.