Bakhtin Francois Rabl and folk laughter culture. Creativity Francois Rabl and People's Culture of the Middle Ages

03.03.2020

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Mikhail Bakhtin

Creativity Francois Rabl and Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Introduction

Formulation of the problem

Of all the great writers of world literature, Rabl has the least popular, the least studied, the least understood and appreciated.

Meanwhile, the slave belongs to one of the very first places in a number of great creators of European literature. Belinsky called Rabela ingenious, "Voltaire of the XVI century", and his novel is one of the best novels of the former time. Western literary critics and writers usually put the Rabla - according to his artistic and ideological strength and in his historical meaning - immediately after Shakespeare or even next to him. French romance, especially Shatubin and Hugo, attributed him to a small number of the greatest "geniuses of humanity" of all times and peoples. He was considered and considered not only a great writer in the usual sense, but also a sage and the prophet. Here is a very indicative judgment about the discount of the historian Mishal:

"Rabel collected wisdom in the folk elements of old provincial adventures, sayings, proverbs, school farms, from the mouth of fools and jesters. But, refraarting through it buffoonery, reveals in all its greatness of the genius of the century and its prophetic force. Everywhere where he still doesn't find it foresides He promises he directs. In this forest of dreams under each leafle, the fruits that will collect future. All this book is "Golden Branch" (here and in subsequent quotes italics mine. - M. B.).

All this kind of judgment and evaluation is certainly relative. We are not going to solve the questions here about whether it is possible to put a Rabel next to Shakespeare, whether he was above the servant or lower, etc. But the historical place of the Rabel in a number of these creators of new European literatures, that is, in a series: Dante, Bokcchcho, Shakespeare , CERVANTES, - Anyway, is not subject to any doubt. Rabel significantly identified the fate of not only French literature and the French literary language, but also the fate of world literature (probably not to a lesser extent than Servantes). Not subject to doubt that he is democratic Among these prosecutors of new literature. But the most important thing for us is that it is closer and more substantially connected with folk sources, moreover, specific (Michel lists them quite correctly, although not fully); These sources identified the entire system of its images and its artistic worldview.

It is this special and, so to speak, the radical nationality of all the images of the Rabla and explains that exceptional saturation of their future, which Mishal completely emphasized in the judgment. It also explains the special "non-modelness" of Rabel, that is, the inconsistency of its images to all those who dominated from the end of the XVI century and to our time canons and standards of literature, no matter how much their content change. Rabel did not correspond to them in an incomparably greater extent than Shakespeare or Cervantes, who were not answered only by relatively narrow classic canons. Rabel's images are inherent in some kind of special principled and indestructible "unofficiality": no dogmatism, no authoritarianism, no one-sided seriousness can get along with the Rabellesian images, hostile all sorts of completeness and sustainability, any limited seriousness, every prepaidity and residence in the field of thought and worldview.

From here - the special loneliness of the Rabel in the following centuries: it is impossible to approach it, neither one of those large and fastening roads, on which artistic creativity and the ideological idea of \u200b\u200bbourgeois Europe for the four centuries separating it from us. And if during the centuries we meet many enthusiastic connoisseurs of Rabel, then we have no complete and expressed understanding of it anywhere. Romance, who opened the Rabl, as they opened Shakespeare and Servantes, did not manage it, however, to reveal and further enthusiastic amazement did not go. I repel and repel. The most huge most of him simply does not understand. In essence, the images of the Rabel also until today remains a mystery.

Allow this mystery can only be through a deep study people's sources Rabla. If the Rabel seems like such lonely and at no one among the representatives of the last four centuries of history, then against the background of the revealed folk creativity, on the contrary, - rather, these four centuries of literary development may seem something specific and not similar and Rabel Images will be at home in the millennia of the development of folk culture.

Rabl is the most difficult of all the classics of world literature, as it requires a significant restructuring of the entire artistic and ideological perception for his understanding, requires the ability to renounced many deeply rooted requirements of the literary taste, revising many concepts, the main thing - it requires deep penetration into little and superficially Learned areas of people laughter creativity.

Rabel is difficult. But his work, correctly opened, sheds the reverse light for the millennium of the development of folk laughter culture, whose greatest expressant in the field of literature he is. Illuminating the value of the Rabel is enormous; His novel should be the key to a little studied and almost not understood by the grand treasures of popular laughter creativity. But first of all it is necessary to master this key.

The task of this introduction is to deliver the Middle Ages and Renaissance of the People's Lighting Culture, to determine its volume and give the preliminary characteristics of its originality.

Folk laughter and his forms are, as we said, the least studied area of \u200b\u200bfolk art. The narrow concept of nation and folklore, who was held in the era of predocutantism and completed mainly by Herder and Romantics, did not at all accommodate in their framework of a specific popular culture and folk laughter in all richness of his manifestations. And in the subsequent development of folklore and literary criticism, the people laughing in Square did not become the subject of any terrible and deep cultural and historical, folkloclist and literary studies. In the extensive scientific literature dedicated to the rite, myth, lyrical and epic folk creativity, the rowing point is given only the most modest place. But at the same time, the main trouble is that the specific nature of folk laughter is perceived completely distorted, since it is attached to him completely alien to him and the concepts of the laugh, which established in the conditions of bourgeois culture and aesthetics of the new time. Therefore, it is possible without exaggeration to say that the deep peculiarity of the people's laughter's culture is still not revealed at all.

Meanwhile, the volume and significance of this culture in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance Epoch were huge. The whole unwarked world of rowing forms and manifestations opposed the official and serious (according to its tone) of the culture of the church and feudal medieval. With all the diversity of these forms and manifestations - the square festivals of the carnival type, separate rigging rites and cults, jesters and fools, giants, dwarfs and freaks, rigorous sorts and rank, huge and diverse parody literature and much more - all of them, these forms, They possess a single style and are parts and particles of a single and holistic people-laughter, carnival culture.

All diverse manifestations and expressions of folk laughter culture can be divided into three main types of forms into their character:

1. Ritual-entertainment (Carnival-type festivals, various squares raising acts, etc.);

2. Wonderful laughter (including parody) works of different kinds: oral and written, in Latin and on folk languages;

"Francois's Creativity and People's Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance"(M., 1965) - Monograph M.M.Bakhtina. There were several copyrights - 1940, 1949/50 (shortly after protection in 1946 the dissertations "Rabl in the history of realism") and the text published in 1965. To the monograph adjoin the articles "Rabl and Gogol (the art of the word and folk laughter culture)" (1940 , 1970) and "add-ons and changes to" Rabl "" (1944). The theoretical provisions of the book are closely related to the ideas of the Bakhtin of the 1930s, dedicated to the romance polyphony, paroding, chronotope (Article "Forms of Time and Chronotop in Roman", 1937-38, the author intended to be included in the monograph). Bakhtin also spoke about the Rabalazian cycle, which should have to enter the article "To matters of verse theory", "to the philosophical foundations of the humanities", etc., as well as the article "Satira", written for the 10th volume of the "literary encyclopedia" .

Roman Rabl is considered by Bakhtin in the context of not only the previous millennium and ancient culture, but also the subsequent European culture of the new time. Three forms of the people's laughter culture are distinguished, to which the novel goes back: a) ritual-entertainment, b) verbal-laughing, oral and written, c) genres of familiar-square speech. Laughter, Bakhtin, Mirosozhetal, He seeks to argue a fatal integer and performs in three hypostatas: 1) Festive, 2) Universal, in which laughing is not outside the world's ridiculous, as it becomes characteristic of the new time satire, and inside it, 3) Ambivalent: It is merged into it, the acceptance of a non-changeless change (birth - death) and a mockery, mockery, praise and brand; The carnival element of such laughter breaks all social partitions, reduces and elevates simultaneously. The scientific resonance received the concept of carnival, grotesque generic body, relationships and interconnections of the "top" and "Niza", opposing the aesthetics of a classic canon and grotesque, "non-canonian canon", ready and unfinished existence, as well as laughter in his statement, reviving and heuristic sense ( In contrast to the concept A. Bergeson ). For bakhtin, laughter is a contact zone, communication.

The carnival laughter's element, according to Bakhtina, opposes, on the one hand, officially serious culture, on the other - the critical-denying beginning of the satir of the last four centuries of European culture, in which grotesque, scary, masks, madness motifs, etc. Lose an ambitious character, undergoing the roll from sunny fearlessness to night, gloomy tonality. From the text of the monograph it is clear that laughter is opposed not to any seriousness, but only threatening, authoritarian, dogmatic. Genuine, open seriousness is cleared, replenished by laughter, not afraid of a parody nor an irony, and prettiness in it can coherent with freedom.

The laughter aspect of being, as Bakhtin recognizes, can be conflict with Christian Mirosal: Gogol, this conflict has acquired a tragic character. Bakhtin notes the whole complexity of such a conflict, fixes the historical attempts to overcome it, "understanding, at the same time, the utopianity of hopes for its final resolution both in the experience of religious life and in aesthetic experience" (Coll. Op., Vol. 5, p. 422; Comment I.L.Popova).

Literature:

1. COLD. cit. In 7 tons, t. 5. Works of the 1940s - Nach. 1960s. M., 1996;

See also lit. to art. Bakhtin M.M. .

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Mikhail Bakhtin
Creativity Francois Rabl and Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance

* * *

Introduction
Formulation of the problem

Of all the great writers of world literature, Rabl has the least popular, the least studied, the least understood and appreciated.

"Rabel collected wisdom in the folk elements of old provincial adventures, sayings, proverbs, school farms, from the mouth of fools and jesters. But, refraarting through it buffoonery, reveals in all its greatness of the genius of the century and its prophetic force. Everywhere where he still doesn't find it foresides He promises he directs. In this forest of dreams under each leafle, the fruits that will collect future. All this book is "Golden Branch"1
Michlielet J., Histoire and France, v. X, p. 355. " Golden branch"- a prophetic golden branch, awarded by Sibille Eneu.

(here and in subsequent quotes italics mine. - M. B.).

The task of this introduction is to deliver the Middle Ages and Renaissance of the People's Lighting Culture, to determine its volume and give the preliminary characteristics of its originality.

All diverse manifestations and expressions of folk laughter culture can be divided into three main types of forms into their character:

1. Ritual-entertainment (Carnival-type festivals, various squares raising acts, etc.);

2. Wonderful laughter (including parody) works of different kinds: oral and written, in Latin and on folk languages;

3. Various forms and genres of familiar-square speech (curses, boob, oath, folk blusons, etc.).

All these three types of forms reflecting - with all their heterogeneity, a single laughter aspect of the world, closely interrelated and divert with each other.

Let us give a preliminary characteristic of each of these types of launching forms.

* * *

Carnival-type festivals and associated breadfings or rites took a huge place in the life of a medieval person. In addition to carnavals in their own sense with their multi-day and complex area and street acts and marchs, special "Festa Sturkov" ("Festa Stultorum") coped with a "Festa Stultorum"), and there was a special, consecrated tradition of free Easter Laughter ("Risus Paschalis" ). Moreover, almost every church holiday had its own, also consecrated by tradition, the popular lifting side. Such, for example, the so-called "Temple Holidays", usually accompanied by fairs with their rich and a variety of systems of square passions (with the participation of giants, dwarfs, freaks, "scientists" of animals). The carnival atmosphere dominated the days of Mystery and Sodi. She also reigned on such agricultural holidays as Vintage (Vendange), held in cities. Laugh was usually accompanied by civil and domestic ceremonies and rites: jesters and fools were their unchanged participants and parody duplicated various moments of a serious ceremonial (glorifying winners in tournaments, the ceremony of transmission rights, dedications in knights, etc.). And household pirushki did not work out without elements of a laughter organization, for example, election for the time of Pera Korolev and kings "for laughter" ("Roi Pour Rire").

All the ritual-entertainment forms that have been organized on the laugh and consecrated traditions were distributed in all countries of medieval Europe, but they differed in special wealth and complexity in Romance countries, including in France. In the future, we will give a more complete and detailed analysis of the ritual-spectacular forms in the course of our analysis of the Rabel-shaped system.

All these ritual-entertainment forms, as organized at the beginning laughter, extremely sharply, can be said in principle, differed from serious Official - church and feudal-state - cult forms and ceremonials. They gave a completely different, stressed unofficial, extincing and non-state aspect of peace, man and human relations; they, as it were, built on the other side of the official second World and Second Lifewhich all medieval people were more or less involved in which they are within lived. It's a special kind redness, without taking into account the cultural consciousness of the Middle Ages, nor the culture of revival can not be correctly understood. Ignoring or underestimating the laughing of the People's Middle Ages distorts the picture and the only subsequent historical development of European culture.

The double aspect of the perception of peace and human life existed already in the earliest stages of culture development. In the folklore of primitive peoples next to serious (on the organization and tone), cults there were breadcrumbs, ridiculed and the challenge of the deity ("ritual laughter"), next to serious myths - the myths of breadless and faded, next to the heroes - their parody twins-dubers. Recently, these laughing rites and myths begin to attract folklinist attention. 2
See very interesting analyzes of laughing doubles and considerations on this issue in the book E. M. M. Mestelinsky "The origin of the heroic epic" (M., 1963; in particular, on p. 55-58); Bibliographic instructions are given in the book.

But in the early stages, in the conditions of a challenge and dissenting social system, the serious and laughter aspects of the Divine, peace and man were, apparently, the same sacred, equally, so to speak, "official". This is sometimes maintained in relation to individual rites and in later periods. So, for example, in Rome and at the state stage, the triumph ceremonial in almost equal rights included and the glorification and ridicule of the winner, and the funeral chin - and mourning (glorifying) and the ridicule of the dead man. But in the context of the established class and state system, the full equality of two aspects becomes impossible, and all the breadtime forms - one before, others later go to the position of the informal aspect, are subject to a known rethinking, complication, deepening and become the main forms of expression of people's globalism, folk culture. These are the carnival type of the festival of the ancient world, especially the Roman Saturnlia, such and medieval carnivals. Of course, they are already very far from the ritual laughter of the primitive community.

What are the specific features of the rigging ritual-spectacular forms of the Middle Ages and - first of all - what is their nature, that is, what kind of their existence is?

This, of course, not religious rites seems to be, for example, the Christian liturgy with which they are associated with remote genetic relationship. The organizing carnival rites of the laughter start absolutely frees them from any religious church dogmatism, from mysticism and from reverence, they are completely deprived of a magical and prayerful nature (they do not force anything and do not ask anything). Moreover, some carnival forms are directly a parody of church cult. All carnival forms are consistently extincing and non-delicious. They belong to a completely different sphere of being.

According to its visual, specific sensory nature and in the presence of strong game They are close to artistic and shaped forms, precisely to theatrical spectacular. And indeed - theatrical-spectacular forms of the Middle Ages in a significant part of its part of their part of the popular carnival culture and to a certain extent were included in its composition. But the main carnival core of this culture is not at all purely artistic Theatrical-entertainment form and is generally not included in the art area. It is located at the boundaries of art and life itself. In essence, this is the life itself, but decorated by a special game manner.

In fact, the carnival does not know the separation on the performers and the audience. He does not know the ramp even in its infancy form. Rampa would destroy the carnival (as well as back: the destruction of the ramp would destroy the theater spectacle). Carnival does not contemplate, - in it live, and live everythingbecause in the idea of \u200b\u200bmy vomnooden. While the carnival is committed, no one has another life except carnival. There is nowhere to go away from him, because the carnival does not know the spatial boundaries. During the carnival, it is possible to live only in his laws, that is, according to the laws of carnival freedom. The carnival is universal in nature, it is a special state of all over the world, his revival and an update to which everyone is involved. Such is the carnival in his idea, by his essence, which was alive, felt all his participants. This idea of \u200b\u200bthe carnival was more clearly manifested and realized in the Roman Saturnali, who thought as a real and complete (but temporary) return to the land of Saturns of the Golden Age. The traditions of Saturnalia were not interrupted and were alive in the medieval carnival, which is fuller and cleaner of other medieval festivals embodied this idea of \u200b\u200bthe universal update. Other medieval festivals of carnival type were in certain relations limited and embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bcarnival in a less complete and clean form; But she was present in them and was felt like a temporary way out of the usual (official) lifestyle.

So, in this respect, the carnival was not an artistic theatrical-entertainment form, but as if the real (but temporary) form of life itself, which was not just played, and which lived almost in fact (for the term of carnival). This can be expressed like this: in the carnival, life itself plays, playing - without a stage platform, without a ramp, without actors, without viewers, that is, without any artistic-theatrical specificity - another free (free) form of its implementation, its revival and updating on The best principles. The real form of life is here at the same time and its regenerated ideal form.

For laughing culture, the Middle Ages are characterized by such figures like jesters and fools. They were as if constant, enshrined in the usual (i.e., uncooked) of the carriers of the carnival principle. Such jesters and fools, as, for example, the Tribule under Francis I (it appears in the Roman Roman), were not at all actors who were playing on the stage of the ride of the jester and fool (as a later comic actors who performed the role of Harlequin, Hansvursta and others on stage .). They remained jokes and fools always and everywhere, wherever they appear in life. As jesters and fools, they are carriers of a special life form, real and ideal at the same time. They are on the borders of life and art (as it were in a special intermediate sphere): these are not just eccentrics or stupid people (in the domestic), but these are not comic actors.

So, in the carnival, life itself plays, and the game for a while becomes life itself. This is the specific nature of the carnival, a special kind of its being.

Carnival is the second life of the people organized at the beginning of laughter. it his holiday life. Festival is a significant feature of all rowed ritual-spectacular forms of the Middle Ages.

All these forms and externally were associated with church holidays. And even a carnival, not dedicated to any event of sacred history and any holy, adjacent to the last days before the great post (therefore, in France, he was called "Mardi Gras" or "Caremprenant", in the German countries "Fastnacht"). An even more significant genetic connection of these forms with the ancient pagan festivals of the agricultural type, which included a laughter element in their ritual.

Festival (all) is very important primary form Human culture. It should not be removed and explained from the practical conditions and goals of social labor or is an even more vulgar form of explanation - from the biological (physiological) need in a periodic rest. The festival has always had a significant and deep semantic, minor-precision content. No "exercise" in organizing and improving the socio-labor process, no "game in labor" and no rest or passage in labor by themselves never can become festive. So that they become festive, they should join something from the other sphere of being, from the sphere of spiritual and ideological. They should receive a sanction not from the world tools and the necessary conditions, and from the world higher goals Human existence, that is, from the world of ideals. Without this there is no and there can be no festivity.

The festival is always significant to time. It is always based on a certain and specific concept of natural (cosmic), biological and historical time. At the same time, the festivities at all stages of their historical development were associated with crisis, critical moments in the life of nature, society and man. Moments of death and rebirth, shifts and updates have always been leading in festive minigration. It is these moments - in specific forms of certain holidays - and created a specific holiday festivity.

In the conditions of the class and feudal-state system of the Middle Ages, this festivity of the holiday, that is, his connection with the highest goals of human existence, with revival and updated, could be carried out in all its undistuable completeness and purity only in the carnival and in the popular side of other holidays. The festivity here became the form of the second life of the people who join the utopian kingdom of universality, freedom, equality and abundance.

The official holidays of the Middle Ages - and church and feudal-state - did not take anywhere from the existing world order and did not create any second life. On the contrary, they were sanctified, sanctioned the existing system and secured it. Communication with time has become formal, shifts and crises were attributed to the past. The official festival, in essence, looked only back, in the past, and this past was consecrated existing in the present system. Official holiday, sometimes even contrary to his own idea, argued the stability, invariance and eternity of the entire existing world order: the existing hierarchy, existing religious, political and moral values, norms, prohibitions. The holiday was the celebration of the previously finished, winning, dominant truth, which was the eternal, unchanged and continuous truth. Therefore, the tone of the official holiday could only be monolith serious, the launch began was alien to its nature. That is why the official holiday has changed genuine Nature of human festivity, distorted her. But this genuine festivity was indestructible, and therefore had to tolerate and even partially legalize her out of the official side of the holiday, to give her folk square.

In contrast to the official holiday, the carnival tried as if temporary exemption from the dominant truth and an existing structure, temporary cancellation of all hierarchical relations, privileges, norms and prohibitions. It was a genuine holiday of time, the holiday of becoming, shifting and updates. He was hostile to any perpetuation, completion and end. He looked at the unfinished future.

Of particular importance was the cancellation during the carnival of all hierarchical relations. On official holidays, hierarchical differences were understated underlined: they were supposed to be in all regals of their title, rank, merit and occupy a place corresponding to their rank. The holiday was consecrated inequality. In contrast to this, everything was considered equal on the carnival. Here - on the carnival area - the special form of free familiar contact between people, divided into ordinary, that is, out of parliamentary, the life of insurmountable barriers of the estate, property, official, family and age position. Against the background of the exclusive hierarchy of the feudal-medieval system and the extremelysis and corporate disunity of people in conditions of common life, this liberal informarian contact between all people felt very acute and was a significant part of the total carnival worldview. Man as if reborn for new, purely human relations. Alienation temporarily disappeared. The man returned to himself and felt like a man among people. And this genuine humanity relationship was not only the subject of imagination or abstract thought, but really carried out and worried in live material and sensual contact. Ideal-utopian and real temporarily merged into this one in kind of carnival minigration.

This temporary ideal-real abolition of hierarchical relations between people created a special type of communication on the carnival area, impossible in ordinary life. There are also special forms of space speech and an area gesture, frank and free, who do not recognize any distances between communicating, free from ordinary (extra-warning) ethics and decent standards. There was a special carnal-square style of speech, the samples of which we will be in abundance at Rabel.

In the process of centuries-old development of a medieval carnival prepared by the millennia for the development of more ancient rigging rites (including on the ancient stage - Saturnalia), a special language of carnival forms and symbols was developed, a very rich language and capable of expressing a single, but complex carnival minority of the people. Moskness This, hostile to everything ready and completed, all claims for inviolability and eternity, required dynamic and variable ("proteic"), playing and unsubstantiated forms for their expression. Paphos of shifts and updates, the consciousness of the fun relativity of the dominant truth and the authorities, all forms and symbols of the carnival language are penetrated. It is very characteristic of the peculiar logic of "images" (À l'Envers), "on the contrary", "inside out", the logic of the incessant movements of the top and bottom ("wheel"), faces and the tasks, are characterized by a variety of parody of parodies and travese, reductions, profanation , Shutovsky highlighters and debates. The second life, the second world of folk culture is constructed to a certain extent as a parody of the usual, that is, an extraordinary life, as "the world inside out." But it is necessary to emphasize that the carnival parody is very far from a purely negative and formal parody of the new time: denying, the carnival parody simultaneously revives and updates. Naked denial is generally completely alien to folk culture.

Here, in the introduction, we only beat the exclusively rich and peculiar language of carnival forms and symbols. To understand this semi-forgotten and in many ways is already dark for us language - the main task of all our work. After all, it was this language that I used the Rabl. Not knowing it, it is impossible to truly understand the roblaseian image system. But the same carnival language in different ways and in varying degrees were used and Erasmus, Shakespeare, and Servantes, and Lope de Vega, and Tirsto de Molina, and Guevara, and Kestedo; They used him and the German "literature of fools" ("Narrenliteratur"), and Hans Sax, Fishart, and Grimeshelsgause, and others. Without the knowledge of this language, a comprehensive and complete understanding of the Revival literature and Baroque is impossible. And not only fiction, but also renaissance utopies and the Renaissance worldview itself were deeply imbued with carnival maidos and often enjoyed in its shapes and symbols.

Several preliminary words about the complex nature of carnival laughter. These are primarily festive laughter. This, therefore, is not an individual reaction to a single single (separate) "funny" phenomenon. Carnival laughter, firstly, vomnooden (Nationality, as we said already, belongs to the nature of the carnival), laugh everything, it is laughter "on the world"; Secondly, he universalne, he is aimed at all at all (including on the participants of the carnival), the whole world seems to be funny, perceived and comprehended in its launch aspect, in its fun relativity; Thirdly, finally, this laughter ambivalenten: He is a cheerful, smoking and - at the same time - mocking, ridicule, he denies and claims, and bury and revives. Such carnival laughter.

We note an important feature of the people's festive laughter: this laughter is directed on the laughs themselves. The people do not exclude themselves from the world's becoming a whole world. He is also unfinished, too, dying, born and updated. This is one of the essential differences in the national festive laughter from the purely satirical laughter of the new time. Pure satirism, who knows only the denying laughter, puts himself out of a ridiculous phenomenon, opposes himself, - this destroys the integrity of the laughing aspect of the world, funny (negative) becomes a private phenomenon. The folk ambivalent laughter expresses the point of view becoming a whole world where it is also laughing.

We emphasize here a particularly mineosaper and utopian character of this festive laughter and its focus on higher. In it - in a substantially rethinking form - there was still a ritual ridicuity of the deities of the oldest rigging rites. All the cult and limited lifted here, but left all-hours, universal and utopian.

The greatest carrier and the end of this People's carnival laughter in the world literature was Rabl. His creativity will allow us to penetrate the complex and deep nature of this laughter.

The correct formulation of the problem of people laughter is very important. In the literature, there is still a rude modernization of him about him: in the spirit of the laughing literature of the new time, it is interpreted either as a purely denying satirical laughter (the slave is declared with a clean satirist), or as purely entertaining, mindlessly cheerful laughter, devoid of all mineososter depths and strength. Ambivalence is usually not perceived by it.

* * *

We proceed to the second form of the Middle Ages laughter's folk culture - to the verbal laughing works (in Latin and on folk languages).

Of course, this is not a folklore (although some of these works on folk languages \u200b\u200band can be attributed to folklore). But all the literature was imbued with carnival ministry, widely used the language of carnival forms and images, developed under the cover of legalized carnival vitality and - in most cases - was organizationally connected with the festivals of the carnival type, and sometimes it was directly made as if the literary part of them 3
Similarly, it was the case in ancient Rome, where the liberty of Saturnalius, with which she was organizationally connected with the laidudience.

And laughter in it is an ambivalent festive laughter. All she was a festive, recreational literature Middle Ages.

Carnival-type festivals, as we said, occupied a very large place in the life of medieval people even in time: the large cities of the Middle Ages lived a carnival life of a total of up to three months a year. The influence of carnival ministry on the vision and thinking of people was insurmountable: it forced them to be abandoned from their official position (monk, cleric, scientist) and perceive the world in his carnival-laughing aspect. Not only Scholars and small clerics, but also high-ranking clergymen and scholars of theologians allowed themselves fun recreations, that is, a rest from awe of awe, and "monastic jokes" ("Joca Monacorum"), as one of the most popular works of Middle Ages was called. In their cells, they created parody or sedigodynial scientists treatises and other lifting works in Latin.

The laughter of the Middle Ages developed a whole millennium and even more, since it began to be related to Christian antiquity. For such a long period of its existence, this literature, of course, has undergone fairly significant changes (the literature in Latin changed least changed). Diverse genre forms and stylistic variations were developed. But with all the historical and genre differences, this literature remains - to a greater or lesser extent, the expression of people's carnival minigors and uses the language of carnival forms and symbols.

Very widely widespread sedia and purely parody literature in Latin. The number of manuscripts of this literature that came to us is huge. All official church ideology and rituals are shown here in a laughing aspect. Laughter penetrates here in the highest spheres of religious thinking and cult.

One of the oldest and most popular works of this literature - the "Cyprian's Supper" ("Coena Cypriani") - gives a peculiar carnalist-feast of the entire Holy Scripture (and the Bible and Gospel). The work was consecrated by the tradition of free "Easter laughter" ("Risus Paschalis"); By the way, it is also heard about the distant essays of the Roman Saturnali. Other of the most ancient works of laughing literature - Vergilius Maro Grammatic ("Vergilius Maro GramMaticus") is a sediary scientist tract in Latin grammar and at the same time a parody of school wisdom and scientific methods of early Middle Ages. Both of these works, created almost at the most turn of the Middle Ages with the ancient world, reveal by the lathe latin literature of the Middle Ages and have a decisive influence on its tradition. The popularity of these works survived almost to the Renaissance.

Introduction FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

Chapter first. Rabl in the history of laughter

Chapter Second. Square in the Roman Roman

CHAPTER THREE. People's festive forms and images in the Roman Roman

Chapter fourth. Personal Images

Chapter Fifth. Grotesque image of the body at the Rabela and its sources

Chapter Six. Images of material and bodily niza in the Roman Roman

Head seventh. Rabel images and modern reality

Application. Rabl and Gogol.

Notes

Introduction FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

Of all the great writers of world literature, Rabl has the least popular, the least studied, the least understood and appreciated.

"Rabel collected wisdom in the folk elements of ancient provincial lawlessness, sayings, proverbs, school farms, from the mouth of fools and jesters. But, refraarting through this jungle, reveals in all its greatness of the genius of the century and its prophetic force. Everywhere, where he still does not find, he foresees, he promises, he directs. In this forest of dreams under each leaf, the fruits are buried, which will gather the future. The whole book is a "golden branch" (here and in the next quotes italics mine. - MB).

All this kind of judgment and evaluation is certainly relative. We are not going to solve questions about whether it is possible to put the Rabel next to Shakespeare, whether he is higher than Cervantes or below, etc. But the historical place of the Rabel in a number of these creators of new European literatures, that is, in a series of: Dante, Bokcchchcho, Shakespeare, Cervantes, - Anyway, is not subject to any question. Rabel significantly identified the fate of not only French literature and the French literary language, but also the fate of world literature (probably not to a lesser extent than Servantes). It is also not subject to doubt that he is a democratic new literature among these poverty. But the most important thing for us is that it is closer and more consistent with others is associated with folk sources, moreover - specific (Michele lists them quite true, although not fully); These sources identified the entire system of its images and its artistic worldview.

You can only resolve this mystery through the deep study of folk sources Rabla. If the Rabel seems like such lonely and at no one among the representatives of the last four centuries of history, then against the background of the revealed folk creativity, on the contrary, - rather, these four centuries of literary development may seem something specific and not Similar, and the images of Rabel will be at home in the millennia of the development of folk culture.

The task of this introduction is to deliver the Middle Ages and Renaissance of the People's Lighting Culture, to determine its volume and give the preliminary characteristics of its originality.

Folk laughter and his forms are, as we said, the least studied area of \u200b\u200bfolk art. The narrow concept of nation and folklore, who was held in the era of predocutantism and completed mainly by Herder and Romantics, did not at all accommodate in their framework of a specific popular culture and folk laughter in all richness of his manifestations. And in the subsequent development of folklorestics and literary studies The people laughing in the square did not become the subject of any terrible and deep cultural and historical, folkloclist and literary studies. In the extensive scientific literature dedicated to the rite, myth, lyrical and epic folk creativity, the rowing point is given only the most modest place. But at the same time, the main trouble is that the specific nature of folk laughter is perceived completely distorted, since it is attached to him completely alien to him and the concepts of the laugh, which established in the conditions of bourgeois culture and aesthetics of the new time. Therefore, it is possible without exaggeration to say that the deep peculiarity of the people's laughter's culture is still not revealed at all.

All diverse manifestations and expressions of folk laughter culture can be divided into three main types of forms into their character:

1. ritual-entertainment forms (carnival type festivals, various areas of rowing acts, etc.);

2. Wondering lifting (including parody) works of different kinds: oral and written, in Latin and folk languages;

3. Various forms and genres of familiar-square speech (curses, febrile, oath, folk blusters, etc.).

All these three types of forms reflecting - with all their heterogeneity, a single laughter aspect of the world, closely interrelated and divert with each other.

Let us give a preliminary characteristic of each of these types of launching forms.

Carnival-type festivals and associated breadfings or rites took a huge place in the life of a medieval person. In addition to carnavals in their own sense with their multi-day and complex area and street acts and marchs, special "Festa Sturkov" ("Festa Stultorum") coped with a "Festa Stultorum"), and there was a special, consecrated tradition of free Easter Laughter ("Risus Paschalis" ). Moreover, almost every church holiday had its own, also consecrated by tradition, the popular lifting side. Such, for example, the so-called "Temple Holidays", usually accompanied by fairs with their rich and a variety of systems of square passions (with the participation of giants, dwarfs, freaks, "scientists" of animals). The carnival atmosphere dominated the days of Mystery and Sodi. She also reigned on such agricultural holidays as Vintage (Vendange), held in cities. Laugh was usually accompanied by civil and domestic ceremonies and rites: jesters and fools were their unchanged participants and parody duplicated various moments of a serious ceremonial (glorifying winners in tournaments, the ceremony of transmission rights, dedications in knights, etc.). And household pirushki did not work out without the elements of a laughter organization, for example, election for the time of Pera Korolev and Kings "For Laughter" ("Roi Pour Rire").

All these ritual-entertainment forms, as organized at the beginning of laughter, are extremely sharply, it can be said in principle, differed from serious official - church and feudal-state-cult forms and ceremonials. They gave a completely different, stressed unofficial, extincing and non-state aspect of peace, man and human relations; They, as it were, built on the other side of the entire official second world and the second life, which all medieval people were more or less involved in which they lived within certain times. This is a special kind of two, without taking into account the cultural consciousness of the Middle Ages, nor the culture of revival can not be correctly understood. Ignoring or underestimating the laughing of the People's Middle Ages distorts the picture and the only subsequent historical development of European culture.

But in the early stages, in the conditions of a challenge and dissenting social system, the serious and laughter aspects of the Divine, peace and man were, apparently, the same sacred, equally, so to speak, "official". This is sometimes maintained in relation to individual rites and in later periods. So, for example, in Rome and at the state stage, the triumph ceremonial in almost equal rights included and the glorification and ridicule of the winner, and the funeral chin - and mourning (glorifying) and the ridicule of the dead man. But in the face of the established class and state system, the complete equality of two aspects becomes impossible and all launching forms - one earlier, others later go to the position of an informal aspect, are subjected to a known rethinking, complication, deepening and become the main forms of the expression of publicity, folk culture. These are the carnival type of the festival of the ancient world, especially the Roman Saturnlia, such and medieval carnivals. Of course, they are already very far from the ritual laughter of the primitive community.

What are the specific features of the rigging ritual-spectacular forms of the Middle Ages and - first of all - what is their nature, that is, what kind of their existence is?

According to its visual, concrete sensual nature, and on the presence of a strong playing element, they are close to artistic and shaped forms, precisely to theatrical spectacular. And indeed - theatrical-spectacular forms of the Middle Ages in a significant part of its part of their part of the popular carnival culture and to a certain extent were included in its composition. But the main carnival core of this culture is not at all a purely artistic theatrical and entertainment form and is generally not included in the art area. It is located at the boundaries of art and life itself. In essence, this is the life itself, but decorated by a special game manner.

In fact, the carnival does not know the separation on the performers and the audience. He does not know the ramp even in its infancy form. Rampa would destroy the carnival (as well as back: the destruction of the ramp would destroy the theater spectacle). The carnival does not contemplate, "they live in him, and everyone lives, because in the idea of \u200b\u200bHis he is intensely. While the carnival is committed, no one has another life except carnival. There is nowhere to go away from him, because the carnival does not know the spatial boundaries. During the carnival, it is possible to live only according to his laws, that is, according to the laws of carnival freedom. The carnival is universal in nature, it is a special state of all over the world, his revival and an update to which everyone is involved. Such is the carnival in his idea, by his essence, which was alive, felt all his participants. This idea of \u200b\u200bthe carnival was more clearly manifested and realized in the Roman Saturnali, who thought as a real and complete (but temporary) return to the land of Saturns of the Golden Age. The traditions of Saturnalia were not interrupted and were alive in the medieval carnival, which is fuller and cleaner of other medieval festivals embodied this idea of \u200b\u200bthe universal update. Other medieval festivals of carnival type were in certain relations limited and embodied the idea of \u200b\u200bcarnival in a less complete and clean form; But she was present in them and was felt like a temporary way out of the usual (official) lifestyle.

For laughing culture, the Middle Ages are characterized by such figures like jesters and fools. They were as if constant, fixed in the usual (i.e. necarphic) life, carriers of the carnival principle. Such jesters and fools, as, for example, the Tribule under Francis I (it appears in the Roman Roman), were not at all actors who were playing on the stage of the ride of the jester and fool (as a later comic actors who performed the role of Harlequin, Hansvursta and others on stage .). They remained jokes and fools always and everywhere, wherever they appear in life. As jesters and fools, they are carriers of a special life form, real and ideal at the same time. They are on the borders of life and art (as it were in a special intermediate sphere): these are not just eccentrics or stupid people (in the domestic), but these are not comic actors.

So, in the carnival, life itself plays, and the game for a while becomes life itself. This is the specific nature of the carnival, a special kind of its being.

Carnival is the second life of the people organized at the beginning of laughter. This is his holiday life. Festival is a significant feature of all rowed ritual-spectacular forms of the Middle Ages.

The festival (any) is a very important primary form of human culture. It should not be removed and explained from the practical conditions and goals of social labor or is an even more vulgar form of explanation - from the biological (physiological) need in a periodic rest. The festival has always had a significant and deep semantic, minor-precision content. No "exercise" in organizing and improving the socio-labor process, no "game in labor" and no vacation or passage in labor themselves can never become festive. So that they become festive, they should join something from the other sphere of being, from the sphere of spiritual and ideological. They should receive a sanction not from the world of funds and the necessary conditions, but from the world of the highest goals of human existence, that is, from the world of ideals. Without this there is no and there can be no festivity.

The festival is always significant to time. It is always based on a certain and specific concept of natural (cosmic), biological and historical time. At the same time, the festivities at all stages of their historical development were associated with crisis, turning points in the life of nature, society and humans. Moments of death and rebirth, shifts and updates have always been leading in festive minigration. It is these moments - in specific forms of certain holidays - and created a specific holiday festivity.

The official holidays of the Middle Ages - and church and feudal-state - did not take anywhere from the existing world order and did not create any second life. On the contrary, they were sanctified, sanctioned the existing system and secured it. Communication with time has become formal, shifts and crises were attributed to the past. The official festival, in essence, watched back only back, and this past was consecrated existing in the present system. Official holiday, sometimes even contrary to his own idea, argued the stability, invariance and eternity of the entire existing world order: the existing hierarchy, existing religious, political and moral values, norms, prohibitions. The holiday was the celebration of the previously finished, winning, dominant truth, which was the eternal, unchanged and continuous truth. Therefore, the tone of the official holiday could only be monolithically serious, the launcher was alien to its nature. That is why the official holiday has changed the true nature of human festivity, distorted it. But this genuine festivity was indestructible, and therefore had to tolerate and even partially legalize her out of the official side of the holiday, to give her folk square.

In the process of centuries-old development of a medieval carnival prepared by the millennia for the development of more ancient rigging rites (including on the ancient stage - Saturnalia), a special language of carnival forms and symbols was developed, a very rich language and capable of expressing a single, but complex carnival minority of the people. Moskness This, hostile to everything ready and completed, all claims for inviolability and eternity, required dynamic and variable ("proteic"), playing and unsubstantiated forms for their expression. Paphos of shifts and updates, the consciousness of the fun relativity of the dominant truth and the authorities, all forms and symbols of the carnival language are penetrated. It is very characteristic of the peculiar logic of "the appearance" (Al`Envers), "on the contrary", "inside out", the logic of the incessant movements of the top and bottom ("wheel"), faces and ask, are characterized by various types of parodies and travese, reductions, profanities, Shutovsky highlighters and debates. The second life, the second world of folk culture is constructed to a certain extent as a parody of the usual, that is, an extraordinary life, as "the world inside out." But it is necessary to emphasize that the carnival parody is very far from a purely negative and formal parody of the new time: denying, the carnival parody simultaneously revives and updates. Naked denial is generally completely alien to folk culture.

Here, in the introduction, we only beat the exclusively rich and peculiar language of carnival forms and symbols. To understand this semi-forgotten and in many ways is already dark for us language - the main task of all our work. After all, it was this language that I used the Rabl. Not knowing it, it is impossible to truly understand the roblaseian image system. But the same carnival language in different ways and in varying degrees were used and Erasmus, Shakespeare, and Servantes, and Lope de Vega, and Tirsto de Molina, and Guevara, and Kestedo; They used him and the German "literature of fools" ("Narrenliteratur"), and Hans Sax, Fishart, and Grimeshelsgause, and others. Without the knowledge of this language, a comprehensive and complete understanding of the Revival literature and Baroque is impossible. And not only fiction, but also renaissance utopies, and the Renaissance worldview itself was deeply imbued with carnival ministry and often enjoyed in its shapes and symbols.

Several preliminary words about the complex nature of carnival laughter. This is primarily a festive laughter. This, therefore, is not an individual reaction to a single single (separate) "funny" phenomenon. Carnival laughter, firstly, Nationallyoden (Methodology, as we said already, belongs to the nature of the carnival), everything is laughing, it is laughter "on the world"; Secondly, he is universal, he is aimed at all at all (including on the participants of the carnival), the whole world seems to be ridiculous, perceived and comprehended in its laugh aspect, in his cheerful relativity; Thirdly, finally, this laughter is ambitant: he is a cheerful, smoking and - at the same time - mocking, ridicuing, he denies and claims, and bury and revives. Such carnival laughter.

The greatest carrier and the end of this People's carnival laughter in the world literature was Rabl. His creativity will allow us to penetrate the complex and deep nature of this laughter.

We proceed to the second form of the Middle Ages laughter's folk culture - to the verbal laughing works (in Latin and on folk languages).

Of course, this is not a folklore (although some of these works on folk languages \u200b\u200band can be attributed to folklore). But this literature was imbued with carnival ministry, widely used the language of carnival forms and images, developed under the cover of legal carnival valnes, and - in most cases, was organizationally connected with the festivals of the carnival type, and sometimes it was directly as it were like a literary part of them. And laughter in it is an ambivalent festive laughter. All she was a festive, recreational literature Middle Ages.

In the further development of laughter Latin literature, parody rooms are created literally at all moments of church cult and creed. This is the so-called "Parodia Sacra", that is, the "sacred parody", one of the peculiar and still insufficiently understood phenomena of medieval literature. We have reached us quite numerous parody liturgy ("Liturgy of Drunitsa", "Liturgy players", etc.), parodies for gospel readings, on prayers, including the sacred ("Our Father", "Ave Maria" and others) , on Litania, on church hymns, at Psalms, they reached the various evangelical properties, etc. Also, parody wills were also created ("Pig Exchange", "Testament"), parody epitaphs, parody decisions of cathedrals and others. This literature is almost unreflected. And she was consecrated by the tradition and to some extent tolerating the church. Part of it was created and talked under the auspices of the "Easter laughter" or "Christmas laughter", part of the same (parody liturgy and prayers) was directly related to the "Festival of Fools" and, possibly, was performed during this holiday.

In addition to these, there were other varieties of latency Latin literature, for example, parody disputes and dialogs, parody chronicles, etc. All this literature in Latin assumed some degree of scholars (sometimes quite high). All this was an echo and round of an area of \u200b\u200bcarnival laughter in the walls of monasteries, universities and schools.

Latin laughter's literature Middle Ages found its completion on the highest Renaissance stage in the "praise of nonsense" Erasm (this is one of the greatest trends of carnival laughter in all world literature) and in the "letters of dark people."

No less rich and even more diverse was the laughter's literature of the Middle Ages in the folk languages. And here we will find phenomena similar to "Parodia Sacra": parody prayers, parody sermons (the so-called "Sermons Joieux", i.e. "Merry sermons", in France), Christmas songs, parody ghost legends, etc. But they prevail here Secular parodies and travelers, giving a laughter aspect of the feudal system and feudal heroic. Such are the parody epic epites of the Middle Ages: animals, jester, plutovskiy and stupid; Elements of parody heroic epic at Cantasthoriyev, the appearance of rowing doubles of epic heroes (comic Roland) and others. Partial knightly novels are created ("Mul without Uzda", "Okasen and Nicholet"). Various gensel rhetoric genres are developing: all sorts of "debate" of carnival type, disputes, dialogues, comic "laudatory words" (or "glorification") and other carnival laughter sounds in the phable and in a peculiar laughter's lyrics of Vagatants (stray shkolyari).

All these genres and works of laughing literature are associated with carnival square and, of course, much wider than Latin laughter, carnival forms and symbols are used. But more closely and the most directly related to the carnival area of \u200b\u200bthe Menificen's laughter's drama. Already the first (from those who came to us), the comic play of Adam De La Alya "Game in the Arbor" is a wonderful model of a purely carnival vision and understanding of life and peace; In its infancy, many moments of the future of the world Rabel are contained. To a greater or lesser extent, carnalized Miracle and morality. Laughter penetrated into the Mysteries: Dyablery Mysteries wear a sharply pronounced carnival character. The deeply carnible genre of the late Middle Ages are hundreds.

We only touched upon here only some of the most famous phenomena of laughing literature, which can be spent without special comments. To set the problem of this enough. In the future, in the course of our analysis of creativity, Rabel, we will have to still stop both on these and many other less well-known genres and works of the Middle Ages.

We proceed to the third form of expression of the folk laughter culture - to some specific phenomena and genres of the familiar-square speech of the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

We have already spoken earlier that on the carnival area in the context of the temporary abolition of all hierarchical differences and barriers between people and the abolition of certain norms and prohibitions of the usual, that is, an extraordinary, life is created a special ideal-real type of communication between people, impossible in ordinary life. This is a free familiar-area contact between people who does not know any distances between them.

A new type of communication always creates new forms of speech life: new speech genres, rethinking or abolishing some old forms, etc. Similar phenomena are known to everyone and in the conditions of modern speech communication. For example, when two come into close friendships, the distance between them decreases (they "on the short leg"), and therefore the forms of speech communication between them change dramatically: the familiar "you" appears, the form of appeal and name (Ivan Ivanovich turns into Vanya or vanka), sometimes the name is replaced by the nickname, the faded expressions used in a tender sense appear, it becomes possible mutual ridicule (where there is no short relationship, only someone "third" can be, you can deal with each other on the shoulder and even Belly (typical carnival gesture), speech etiquette and speech prohibitions are weakened, obscene words and expressions appear, etc., etc. But, of course, such familiar contact in modern life is very far from free familiar contact on folk carnival area. He lacks the main thing: Multitiousness, festivity, utopian comprehension, and world-grade depth. In general, the householdization of some carnival forms in a new time, while maintaining an external shell, loses their inner meaning. We will simply note here that the elements of the ancient rites of the twinthitress are preserved in the carnival in a rethinking and in-depth form. Through the carnival, some of these elements were included in the life of the new time, almost completely losing their carnival understanding here.

So, a new type of carnal-square familiar appeal is reflected in a number of phenomena of speech life. Let us dwell on some of them.

For the familiar-square speech, quite frequent use of curses are characterized, that is, the faded words and whole fading expressions, sometimes quite long and complex. The curses are usually grammatically and semantically isolated in the context of speech and perceived as complete integers, like sayings. Therefore, you can talk about curses as a special speech genre of the familiar and square speech. According to its genesis, the crossiest is not homogeneous and had different functions in conditions of primitive communication, mainly a magical, spell. But for us they are of particular interest to the vigorism-impassment of the deity, which were a necessary component of an ancient rowing cults. These rugs-efforts were ambivalent: reducing and killing, they simultaneously revived and updated. It is these ambitious impassions that determined the nature of the speech genre of curses in the carnal-square communication. In the conditions of the carnival, they were subjected to significant rethinking: completely lost their magic and in general, the practical nature, they acquired gestivity, versatility and depth. In such a transfigured form of curses made their contribution to the creation of a free carnival atmosphere and the second, laughing, aspect of the world.

Crosshassions in many ways are similar to the Bogba or Oath (Jurons). They also flooded a familiar-square speech. Felbar should also be considered a special speech genre on the same grounds as crucia (isolation, completeness, self-degree). The Bozhba and oaths were initially not related to laughter, but they were ousted from the official spheres of speech, as violating the speech norms of these areas, and therefore moved to the liberal sphere of the familiar-square speech. Here, in the carnival atmosphere, they penetrated the launching principles and acquired ambivalence.

Similar fate and other speech phenomena, for example, obscenities of various kinds. The familiar-square speech has become like the tank, where various speech phenomena, prohibited and displaced from official speech communication, climbed. For all their genetic heterogeneity, they equally penetrated by carnival ministry, changed their ancient speech functions, digested the general laughing tone and became the sparks of a single carnival fire that renews the world.

On other peculiar speech phenomena of the familiar-square speech, we will focus at one time. We emphasize in conclusion that all genres and forms of this speech had a powerful influence on the Rabl art style.

These are the three main forms of the expression of the People's Lighting Culture of the Middle Ages. All the phenomena disassembled here, of course, are known to science and studied it (especially laughing literature on folk languages). But they were studied in their separate and in complete departure from their motherly - from carnival ritual-entertainment forms, that is, they studied outside the unity of the People's Lighting Culture of the Middle Ages. The problem of this culture was not at all. Therefore, the variety and heterogeneity of all these phenomena did not see a single and deeply peculiar laughter aspect of the world, the various fragments of which they are. Therefore, the essence of all these phenomena remained uncovered to the end. These phenomena were studied in the light of cultural, aesthetic and literary norms of the new time, that is, I didn't measure our measure, but the stories of the new time. They were upgraded and therefore they gave them an incorrect interpretation and evaluation. Inappropriate, a single type of laughing form, peculiar to the national culture of the Middle Ages, and in general, alien to the new time (especially the XIX century) remained unclear. To the preliminary characteristics of this type of laughing image, we must now go.

In the work of Rabl usually note the exceptional predominance of the material and bodily start of life: the images of the body itself, food, drinking, feces, sexual life. These images are given to the same in an overly exaggerated, hyperboida. Rabel proclaimed the greatest poet of "flesh" and "womb" (for example, Viktor Hugo). Others accused him of "coarse physiology", in "biology", "naturalism", etc. Similar phenomena, but in a less sharp expression, found from other representatives of the Revival literature (at Bokcchcho, Shakespeare, Servantes). They explained this as characteristic precisely for the revival of the "rehabilitation of the flesh", as a reaction to the Asshetism of the Middle Ages. Sometimes we seen the typical manifestation of the bourgeois start in the revival, that is, the material interest of the "economic person" in its private, egoistic form.

All of these and similar explanations are nothing more than any different forms of modernization of material and bodily images in the Renaissance Literature; These images are transferred to those narrowed and modified values \u200b\u200bthat "materiality", "body", "bodily life" (food, drink, feces, etc.) received in the worldview of the subsequent centuries (mainly of the XIX century).

Meanwhile, the images of the material and bodily start at Rabela (and other revival writers) are a legacy (though, somewhat modified on the Renaissance stage) of the folk laughter culture, that special type of imagery and wider - the special aesthetic concept of being, which is characteristic of this culture and Which is sharply different from the aesthetic concepts of subsequent centuries (starting from classicism). We will call this aesthetic concept - so far conditionally grotesque realism.

The material and bodily start in the grotesque realism (that is, in the figurative system of the people's laughing culture) is given in its nationwide, festive and utopian aspect. Space, social and bodily donated here in an inseparable unity, as an inseparable living whole. And this is a whole - fun and benevolent.

In grotesque realism, the material and bodily element is the beginning of deeply positive, and here this element is not at all in particular-egoistic form and is not at all in the detachment from the rest of the life. The material and bodily start here is perceived as universal and popular and precisely as such is opposed to any separation from the material and bodily roots of the world, every extraction and closure, any of the distracted ideality, all claims to the exhausted and independent of the Earth and the Body. Body and bodily life, repeat, wearing cosmic and at the same time nationwide; This is not at all the body and not physiology in a narrow and accurate contemporary sense; They are not individualized to the end and not excluded from the rest of the world. The carrier of the material and bodily start is not a separate biological part and not a bourgeois egoistic individual, but the people, moreover, the people in their development are always growing and updated. Therefore, all bodily here is so ambitious, exaggerated, immensely. Exaggeration This is positive, affirming. The leading moment in all these images of material and bodily life - fertility, growth driving through the edge of excess. All manifestations of material and bodily life and all things are related here, we repeat again, not to a single biological individual and not to the private and egoistic, "economic", man, but as if to a popular, collective, generic body (then we will clarify the meaning These statements). Excess and popularity determines and specific fun and festive (and not everyday-household) character of all images of material and bodily life. The material and bodily start here is the beginning of a festive, feastful, joining, this is "Pier on the whole world." This nature of the material and bodily start remains largely in the literature and in the art of the Renaissance and the most fully, of course, at Rabela.

The leading peculiarity of grotesque realism is a decline, that is, the translation of all high, spiritual, perfectly distracted in the material and body plan, to the land plan and body in their inseparable unity. For example, the "Supper of the Cyprian", which we mentioned above, and many other Latin parodies of the Middle Ages are reduced to a large extent to the sample of the Bible, the Gospel and other sacred texts of all material and bodily reduction and landing details. In very popular in the Middle Ages, the rowing dialogues of Solomon with a martarf high and serious (by tone) Solomon's maximensions are opposed to merry and decreasing shuttle to the jester of Markolf, carrying the discussed issue in emphasized the rude material and body sphere (food, drinking digestion, sexual life). It must be said that one of the leading moments in the comic of medieval jester was the translation of any high ceremonial and rite in the material and body plan; Such was the behavior of the jesters in tournaments, on the ceremonies of dedication to the knights and others. It was in these traditions that the grotesque realism lie, in particular, many decline and landing of the Knight's ideology and the ceremonial in the Don Quixote.

In the Middle Ages, a cheerful parody grammar was widespread in Skolyar and scientist. The tradition of such a grammar, ascending to the "vergilia of grammatical" (we mentioned it above), stretches through all the Middle Ages and revival and alive also today orally in spiritual schools, colleges and seminaries of Western Europe. The essence of this cheerful grammar is mainly reduced to rethinking all grammatical categories - cases, forms of verbs, etc. - in the material and body plan, mainly erotic.

But not only parodies in a narrow sense, but all other forms of grotesque realism reduce, land, destroy. This is the main feature of grotesque realism, distinguishing it from all forms of high art and literature of the Middle Ages. Folk laughter, organizing all the forms of grotesque realism, invalid was associated with material and physical bottom. Laughter reduces and materializes.

What nature are these reductions inherent in all forms of grotesque realism? We will give this question here while the preview. The work of Rabla will allow us to clarify in subsequent chapters, expand and deepen our understanding of these forms.

The decline and reduction of high wears in grotesque realism is not at all formal and not at all is not relative. "Top" and "bottom" have absolute and strict topographic value here. The top is the sky; bottom is the earth; The lands are the absorbing principle (grave, womb) and the beginning of the birth, reviving (maternal LONO). Such is the topographic value of the top and bottom in the space aspect. In an actually, a physical aspect, which is clearly not clear from cosmic, the top is a person (head), the bottom - productive bodies, stomach and ass. With these absolute topographic values \u200b\u200bof the top and bottom and the grotesque realism, including the medieval parody. The decline here means landing, an introduction to the ground, as absorbing and at the same time generating the beginning: reducing, and bury and sow at the same time, they kill to give birth to Syznov better and more. The decline means also to adapt to the life of the lower body, the life of the abdomen and productive bodies, therefore, to such acts as coppending, conception, pregnancy, birth, devouring, fear. Reduced to a bodily grave for a new birth. Therefore, it has not only destroying, denser, but also positive, reviving: it is ambivalent, it denies and approves simultaneously. Drop not just down, in non-existence, in absolute destruction, - no, they will fall into the productive bottom, to the very bottom where the conception and a new birth occurs, where everything grows with an excess; Other Niza Grotesque realism and does not know, bottom is the birth of the Earth and Body Lono, the bottom always causes.

Therefore, the medieval parody is absolutely not similar to a purely formal literary parody of the new time.

And the literary parody, like any parody, reduces, but this decrease is purely negative and deprived of the reviving ambivalence. Therefore, the parody of both the genre and any kind of decline in the conditions of the new time could not, of course, save their former enormous meaning.

Reduction (parody and other) are very characteristic of the Renaissance literature, which continued in this respect the best traditions of the folk laughter culture (especially fully and deep at Rabl). But the material and bodily start is exposed here to some rethinking and narrowing, its universalism and festivity are somewhat weakened. True, this process is here still at its very beginning. This can be observed on the example of "Don Quixote".

The main line of parody decreases in Servantes is the nature of the landing, the introduction of the reviving productive strength of the Earth and the body. This is a continuation of the grotesque line. But at the same time, the material and bodily start in Servanites had already kept somewhat and crushed. It is in a state of a peculiar crisis and split, the images of material and bodily life begin to live a double life.

Tolstoy Belukho Sancho ("Panza"), his appetite and thirst for their still deeply carnival; His thrust to abundance and completeness is at the base of its other than a particular-egoistic and reconnected nature, is a traction to a nationwide abundance. Sancho - a direct descendant of the ancient buggy demons of fertility, the figures of which we see, for example, on the famous Corinth Vases. Therefore, in the images of food and drinking people here are still alive, a festive moment. The materialism of Sancho is his belly, appetite, his abundant feces is the absolute bottom of grotesque realism, it is a cheerful bodily grave (belly, purulent, earth), diverted for the reclined, distracted and dead-minded idealism of Don Quixote; In this grave, the "knight of the sad image" seems to die to be born new, best and big; This is a material and human and nationwide adjustment to individual and abstract-spiritual claims; In addition, this is the popular adjustment of laughter to the unilateral severity of these spiritual claims (the absolute bottom always laughs, this is boring and laughing death). Sancho's role in relation to Don Quixote can be compared with the role of medieval parodies for high ideology and cult, with the role of a jester against a serious ceremonial, the role of "Charnage" against "Careme", etc. The reviving cheerful start, but in a weakened degree, there is also in the landing images of all these mills (giants), restaurants (locks), herd of rams and sheep (knights troops), innovatives (master of the castle), prostitutes (noble ladies), etc. P. All this is a typical grotesque carnival, a travesting battle in the kitchen and a feast, weapons and helmets - in kitchen accessories and razor thais, blood - in wine (episode of battle with wine burues), etc. Such is the first carnival side of the life of all these material and bodily images on the pages of the Servantesian novel. But it is this side that creates a large style of servant realism, his universalism and his deep folk utopism.

On the other hand, the bodies and things are beginning to acquire private, private character in Servantes, are full, domesticated, become fixed elements of private life, objects of egoistic lust and ownership. This is no longer a positive referring and renewing bottom, but a stupid and a dead barrier for all the ideal aspirations. In the private-household sphere of the life of the individuals of individuals of bodily nose, while maintaining the moment of denial, almost completely loss their positive birth and renewable force; Their relationship with earth and space is rummaged, and they narrow to naturalist images of household erotica. But at Servantes, this process is still at the very beginning.

This second aspect of the life of material and physical images is woker in complex and controversial unity with their first aspect. And in the dual tense and controversial life of these images, their strength and their highest historical realism. This is a peculiar drama of the material and physical principle in the literature of Renaissance, the drama of the separation of the body and things from the unity of the birth of the Earth and the nationwide growing and ever-renewable body with which they were associated in popular culture. This gap for the artistic and ideological consciousness of the Renaissance has not yet completed completely. The material and bodies of grotesque realism performs its unifying, reduced, milking, but at the same time reviving functions. No matter how disappeared, single "private" bodies and things are separated and separated - the realism of the Renaissance does not cut down the umbilical cord, which connects them to the boring wagon of the Earth and the people. The unit body and the thing do not coincide here with themselves, are not equal to themselves as in the naturalistic realism of the subsequent centuries; They represent the material and bodily growing whole world and, therefore, go beyond the boundaries of their unity; Private and universal still merged into them in conflicting unity. Carnival minority is the deep base of renaissance literature.

The complexity of the renaissance realism is still not disclosed enough. It crosses two types of the figurative concept of the world: one, rising to folk laughter, and the other, actually the bourgeois concept of ready and sprayed being. For Renaissance realism, the interruptions of these two contradictory lines of perception of material and bodily start are characterized. The growing, inexhaustible, non-futility, excessive, carrying material beginning of life, began forever laughing, all milking and renewing, contradictoryly combined with the crushed and oblique "material principle" into the life of the class society.

Ignoring grotesque realism makes it difficult to correct understanding not only Renaissance realism, but also a number of very important phenomena of subsequent stages of realistic development. The entire field of realistic literature of the last three centuries of its development is literally donated by fragments of grotesque realism, which sometimes turn out to be not only fragments, but show the ability to new livelihoods. All this in most cases - grotesque images, or at all lost, or weakened their positive pole, their connection with the universal whole world. It is possible to understand the actual importance of these debris or these semi-art formations on the background of grotesque realism.

The grotesque image characterizes the phenomenon in the state of its change, unfinished more metamorphosis, in the stage of death and birth, growth and formation. Attitude by time, to the formation - the necessary constitutive (determining) feature of the grotesque image. Another associated feature of it is ambivalence: in one form or another form (or outlined) both poles change - both old and new, and dying and born, and the beginning and end of metamorphosis.

The relative-time attitude towards the time, feeling and awareness of it, throughout the process of developing these forms, a long millennium, of course, significantly evolves, changes. In the early steps of the development of grotesque images, in the so-called grotesque archaic, time is given as a simple adjustability (in essence, simultaneity) of two phases of development - initial and ultimate: winter - spring, death - birth. These still primitive images are moving in the biocosmic circle of cyclic shift of the phases of natural and human productive life. The components of these images are the change of seasons, the disengagement, conception, dying, growing, etc. The concept of time that implicite was kept in these ancient images, there is a concept of cyclic time of natural and biological life. But grotesque images do not remain, of course, on this primitive stage of development. The sense of time and temporary shift inherent to them is expanding, deepened, involves social and historical phenomena in its circle; It overcomes its cyclicity, it rises to the feeling of historical time. And here grotesque images with their essential attitude towards temporary shift and with their ambivalence become the main means of the artistic and ideological expression of that mighty feeling of history and historical shift, which with exceptionally awakened in the Renaissance Epoch.

But at this stage of its development, especially at the Rabl, grotesque images retain a kind of nature, their sharp difference from the images of the finished, completed being. They are ambivalent and contradictory; They are ugly, monstrous and ugly from the point of view of all the "classic" aesthetics, that is, aesthetics of the finished, completed being. Penetrating their new historical sensation rethinks them, but retains their traditional content, their matter: copulation, pregnancy, generic act, act of corporal growth, old age, body break, dismembering it in part, etc., in all their direct material, remain The main moments in the grotesque image system. They oppose the classic images of the finished, completed, mature human body, as if purified from all the slags of birth and development.

Among the famous Kerch Terracots stored in the Hermitage, there are, by the way, peculiar figures of pregnant old women, the ugly old age and the pregnancy of which grotesque are underlined. Pregnant old women laugh at the same time. This is a very characteristic and expressive grotesque. He is ambivalent; This is a pregnant death that gives birth to death. In the body of a pregnant woman's old woman there is nothing complete, steady-calm. It combines eldly decomposing, already deformed body and not yet established, conceived body of a new life. Here life is shown in its ambivalent, internally contradictory process. There is nothing ready here; This itself is incomplete. And it is precisely such a grotesque concept of the body.

Unlike the canons of the new time, the grotesque body is not delivered from the rest of the world, not closed, not completed, not ready, develops itself, goes for its limits. The accents lie on those parts of the body, where it is either open to the outside world, that is, where the world enters the body or discovers from it, or it repels itself into the world, that is, on the holes, on the bulbs, on all sorts of branches and processes: pumped mouth , orient body, chest, fell, fat belly, nose. The body reveals its essence, as a growing and leaving the beginning, only in such acts as coppending, pregnancy, childbirth, agony, food, drink, feast. It is forever a black, ever creative and creative body, it is a link in the labor development chain, more precisely - two links shown where they connect, where they enter each other. This is especially sharply striking in the grotesque archaic.

One of the main tendencies of the grotesque body of the body comes down to show two bodies in one: one - the birth and dying, the other is the prosecuted, beaten, born. This is always a fraught and born body or at least ready for conception and fertilization - with an underlined Fallom or a childbearing authority. From one body always in one form or another and degrees repel another, new body.

Further, the ages of this body, unlike new canons, are taken predominantly in the maximum proximity to birth or to death: it is infancy and old age with a sharp emphasis on their proximity to the womb and grave, to boring and absorbing Lon. But in the trend (so to speak, in the limit) both of these bodies are combined in one. Individuality is given here in the surge stage, as already dying and not ready; This body stands on the threshold and graves and cradles together and at the same time, this is not one, but also not two bodies; Two pulses are always fighting in it: one of them is maternal - freezing.

Further, the black and open body is (dying - born - born) is not separated from the world with clear boundaries: it is mixed with the world, mixed with animals, mixed with things. It is cosmic, it represents all the material and body peace in all its elements (elements). In the tendency, the body represents and embodies the entire material and body world as an absolute bottom, as the beginning of the absorbing and boring, like a bodily grave and the LONO, as an Niva, in which they serve and in which new germs are matured.

These are coarse and deliberately simplified lines of this kind of body concept. In Roman Rabl, she found its most complete and brilliant completion. In other works of renaissance literature, it is weakened and mitigated. In painting, she is represented by Jerome Bosch, and the Senior Bruegel. Its elements can be found before in those frescoes and bas-reliefs that were decorated with cathedrals and even rural churches from the XII and XIII centuries.

Especially great and substantial development This image of the body received in the nationally festive entertainment forms of the Middle Ages: in the festival of fools, in Sharivari, in the carnival, in the popular side of the holiday of the Body of the Lord, in the Dyablerih Mysteries, in Sodi and in the farce. All People's spectacular culture of Middle Ages knew only this body concept.

In the field of literature, the entire medieval parody is based on the grotesque concept of the body. The same concept organizes the images of the body in the enormous mass of legends and literary works associated with both the "Indian wonders" and the Western wonders of the Celtic Sea. The same concept organizes both body images in the huge literature of illiterates. It also defines the images of legends about giants; Its elements we will meet in the Animal Epos, in the Fablio and Schwankas.

Finally, this concept of the body underlies the curses, curses and godbars, whose importance for understanding the literature of grotesque realism is extremely large. They provided directly organizing influence on the entire speech, on the style of building images of this literature. They were a kind of dynamic frank truth formulas, deeply related (on genesis and functions) all other forms of "decline" and "landing" of grotesque and renaissance realism. In modern obscene rugs and curses, the dead and purely negative remnants of this body concept are preserved. Such curses like our "three-story" (in all its various variations), or such expressions, as "Go to .....", reduce the scratched grotesque method, that is, they send it to the absolute topographic telestore base, to the born zone , productive bodies, in a bodily grave (or in the body of hell) for destruction and new birth. But almost nothing left of the revive meaning in modern rugs, there is almost nothing left, except for naked denial, pure cynicism and insults: in the semantic and value systems of new languages \u200b\u200band in the new picture of the world these expressions are completely isolated: these are scraps of some other language, on Which one once could be said to say, but on which it can now be able to insist. However, it would be absurd and hypocrisy to deny that some degree of charm (moreover, without any relation to erotic), they still continue to maintain. In them, as it were, the confusion of the vague memory of the old carnival voles and the carnival truth. The serious problem of their indestructible survivability in the language really was not yet. In the era, the Raboves and Curse in those spheres of the people's language, of which his novel rose, retained another completeness and first of all retained their positive reviving pole. They were deeply related to all the form of a decline inherited from grotesque realism, forms of national festive carnival shops, images of Dyablerri, the images of the underworld in the literature of the walking, sotto images, etc. Therefore, they could play a significant role in his novel.

It is especially necessary to note the very vivid expression of the grotesque concept of the body in the forms of the people's bolad and generally square comedians of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. These forms were transferred in the most preserved form a grotesque concept of the body and at the New Time: In the XVII century, she lived in the "parades" of Tabaren, in the Tyurlypene comic and in other similar phenomena. It can be said that the concept of the body of grotesque and folk realism is also alive today (albeit in weakened and distorted form) in many forms of the boalan and circus comedians.

The concept of the body of grotesque realism is planned by us, of course, in a sharp contradiction with the literary and the pictorial canon of the "classic" antiquity, which lay down the aesthetics of the Renaissance and was far from indifferent to the further development of art. All these new canons see the body completely differently, in the very different moments of his life, in a completely different relationship to the external (in-free) world. The body of these canons is primarily a strictly completed, completely finished body. It, then, lonely, one, is delivered from other bodies, closed. Therefore, all signs of its unwosting, growth and reproduction are eliminated: all his protrusions and processes are removed, all the bulges are smoothed (having the importance of new shoots, kinding), all holes are closed. The eternal unpretentiousness of the body is concealed, hiding: conception, pregnancy, childbirth, agony is usually not shown. Age is preferred as remote from the maternal womb and from the grave, that is, in the maximum distance from the "threshold" of individual life. The emphasis lies on the completed self-adhesive personality of this body. Only such actions of the body in the outer world are shown, in which clear and sharp boundaries remain between the body and the world; Outdoor actions and absorption and eruption processes are not disclosed. An individual body is shown outside his relationship to the generic folk body.

These are the main leading trends of the new time canons. It is quite clear that from the point of view of these canons, the body of grotesque realism seems to be something ugly, ugly, shapeless. In the framework of the "beautiful aesthetics", which pretended in a new time, this body does not fit.

And here, in the introduction, and in the subsequent chapters of our work (especially in the V Chapter) when comparing the grotesque and classical canons of the image of the body, we do not at all approve the advantages of one canon over the other, but we only establish significant differences between them. But in our study in the foreground, naturally, there is a grotesque concept, since it is precisely it determines the figurative concept of the folk laughter and Rabl: we want to understand the original logic of the grotesque canon, his special artistic will. The classic canon is artistically understandable, we still live them to a certain extent, and the grotesque we have long ceased to understand or understand it distorted. The task of historians and theorists of literature and art is to reconstruct this canon in its true sense. It is unacceptable to interpret it in the spirit of the norms of the new time and see it only a deviation from them. Grotesque canon must be measured by his own measure.

Here it is necessary to give some more explanations. We understand the word "canon" not in the narrow sense of a certain set of consciously established rules, norms and proportions in the image of the human body. In such a narrow value, you can still talk about the classic canon at some certain stages of its development. The grotesque image of the body of such a canon never had. He is uncanriced by its nature. We use the word "canon" here in a broader sense of a certain, but dynamic and developing tendency of the image of the body and bodily life. We see in the art and literature of the past two such trends that we indicate conditionally as a grotesque and as a classic canon. We gave here the definitions of these two canons in their clean, so to speak, limit expression. But in a living historical reality, these canons (including classical) have never been something frozen and unchanged, but were in constant development, generating various historical variations of classics and grotesque. At the same time, various forms of interaction usually took place between both canons - the struggle, mutual influence, crossing, mixing. This is especially characteristic of the Renaissance (what we have already indicated). Even at the Rabela, which was the most pure and consistent expressant of the grotesque concept of the body, there are elements of a classic canon, especially in the episode of the education of Gargantua Pon County and in an episode with a telem. But for the tasks of our study, there are primarily significant differences between two canons in their pure expression. We are focused on them.

The specific type of pattern inherent in the folk laughing culture in all forms of its manifestation, we called conventionally "grotesque realism." Now we have to justify the terminology chosen by us.

Let us dwell first of all on the term "grotesque". We give the story of this term in connection with the development of both Grotesque and his theory.

Grotesque type of picture (that is, the method of building images) is an oldest type: we meet with him in mythology and in the archaic art of all nations, including, of course, in the report of the ancient Greeks and Romans. And in the classic era, the grotesque type does not die, but, who has been displaced outside of large official art, continues to live and develop in some "low", non-canonical areas of it: in the field of laughing plastics, mostly shallow, are such, for example, the Kerch Terracotes mentioned by us, Comic masks, strong, figurines of fertility demons, very popular figures of the ugly Torsit et al.; in the region of laughing vase painting - for example, images of rowing doubles (comic herakla, comic odyssey), scenes from comedies, the same fertility demons, etc.; Finally, in extensive areas of laughter literature associated in one form or another with the festivities of a carnival type - Satirov Drama, ancient attic comedy, mimes, etc. In the era of late antiquity, the grotesque type of picture is experiencing a flourishing and update and captures almost all areas of art and literature. It is created here, under the significant influence of the art of the eastern peoples, a new variety of grotesque. But the aesthetic and art historical thought of antiquity developed in line with the classical tradition, and therefore the grotesque type of imagery did not receive a steady generalizing name, that is, the term, neither theoretical recognition and understanding.

In the ancient grotesque at all three stages of its development - in the grotesque archaic, in the grotesque of the classical era and in the lateant grotesque - essential elements of realism were formed. It is wrong to see only "rough naturalism" in it (as it was sometimes done). But the antique stage of grotesque realism goes beyond our work. In further chapters, we will concern only those phenomena of ancient grotesque, which influenced the work of Rabel.

The flowering of grotesque realism is a figurative system of the People's Lighting Culture of the Middle Ages, and his art vertex is the Revival literature. Here, in the era of Renaissance, the term grotesque appears for the first time, but initially only in a narrow meaning. At the end of the XV century in Rome during the excavation of the underground parts, the Titus was found unfamiliar until the view of the Roman picturesque ornament. This kind of ornament was called in Italian "La Grottesca" from the Italian word "Grotta", that is, the grotto, dungeon. Somewhat later, similar ornaments were found in other places Italy. What is the essence of this type of ornament?

The newly found Roman ornament struck contemporaries of the extraordinary, bizarre and free game of plant, animals and human forms, which go into each other, as if they give rise to each other. There are no harsh and inert borders that share these "kingdoms of nature" in the usual picture of the world: here in Grotesque, they are boldly violated. There is no usual statics in the image of reality: the movement ceases to be the movement of finished shapes - vegetable and animals - in the finished and sustainable world, but turns into the inner movement of the existence itself, expressed in the transition of one forms into others, in the eternal unwosting of being. In this ornamental game there is exceptional freedom and lightness of artistic fantasy, and the freedom is felt like fun, like almost laughing liberty. This cheerful tone of the new ornament was correctly understood and handed over Rafael and his students in their imitation of grotesque when painting them by Vatican loggias.

Such is the main feature of the Roman ornament, to which, for the first time, a specially born term "grotesque" was applied for him. It was just a new word to designate a new one, as it seemed, phenomena. And his initial value was very narrow - the newly found variety of Roman ornament. But the fact is that a variety of this was a small piece (wreckage) of the huge world of grotesque patterns, which existed at all stages of antiquity and continued to exist in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance Epoch. And in a piece of this, the characteristics of this huge world were reflected. This ensured the further productive life of the new term - its gradual distribution to the entire almost unwarked world of grotesque patterns.

But the expansion of the term passes very slowly and without a clear theoretical awareness of the originality and unity of the grotesque world. The first attempt of the theoretical analysis, more precisely, simply descriptions, and the assessments of Grotesque belongs to Vazari, which, relying on the judgments of Vitruvia (Roman architect and art historian of the era of August), negatively assesses grotesque. Vitruvius - Vazari sympathizerly quotes him - condemned the new "barbaric" fashion "paint the walls of the monsters instead of clear mappings of the subject world", that is, condemned the grotesque style from classic positions as a gross violation of "natural" forms and proportions. Vazari stands at the same position. And this position, in essence, remained dominant for a long time. The deeper and expanded understanding of Grotesque will appear only in the second half of the 18th century.

In the era of the domination of the classic canon in all areas of art and literature in the XVII and XVIII centuries, grotesque associated with the People's Lighting Culture turned out to be outside the big literature of the era: he descended into a low comedian or subjected to naturalistic decomposition (as we have already spoken above).

In this era (actually, from the second half of the XVII century), the process of gradual narrowing, grinding and depletion of ritual-spectacular carnival forms of folk culture is performed. It happens, on the one hand, the population of festive life, and it becomes a parade, on the other - the domesticization of it, that is, it goes to private, home, family life. The former privileges of the festive area are increasingly limited. Special carnival minority with its morality, liberty, utopiness, aspiration in the future begins to turn into a festive mood. The holiday almost ceased to be the second life of the people, its temporary regeneration and update. We emphasized the word "almost", because the people's festive carnival began, in essence, indestructible. Durable and weakened, it still continues to fertilize various areas of life and culture.

We are important here a special side of this process. The literature of these centuries is almost not exposed to the immediate influence of the indispensable national-festive culture. Carnival minority and grotesque imagery continue to live and transmitted already as a literary tradition, mainly as the tradition of renaissance literature.

Lost livelihoods with a folk area culture and became a purely literary tradition, the grotesque is reborn. There is a well-known formalization of carnal-grotesque images, which allows using them with different directions and with different purposes. But this formalization was not only the external, and the content of the most carnal-grotesque form, its artistic and heuristic and generalizing force was preserved in all the essential phenomena of this time (that is, the XVII and XVIII centuries): in the "comedy del art" (it remained the most Communication with her carnival Lona), in the comedies of the Moliere (associated with the comedy del Arte), in the comic novel and in the etchers of the XVII century, in the philosophical Voltaire and Didro's philosophical standards, "Jacques-Fatalist"), in the works of Swift And in some other works. In all these phenomena, with all the differences in their character and directions, the carnal-grotesque form carries similar functions: consecrates the liberty of the fiction, it allows you to combine heterogeneous and to bring distant, it helps liberation from the dominant point of view to the world, from any convention, from the walking truths, From the usual, familiar, generally accepted, allows you to look at the world in a new way, feel the relativity of the entire existing and possibility of a completely different world order.

But a clear and distinct theoretical awareness of the unity of all these phenomena covered by the thermal grotesque, and their artistic specifics ripe only very slowly. Yes, and the term was duplicated by the terms "Arabesque" (mainly in applied to the ornament) and "Burlesque" (mainly in the application to literature). In the conditions of domination in the aesthetics of a classic point of view, such a theoretical awareness was still impossible.

In the second half of the XVIII century, significant changes occur both in the literature itself and in the field of aesthetic thought. In Germany, at this time the literary struggle around the figure of Harlequin, which was then the constant participant of all theatrical ideas, even the most serious. Gothshed and other classicists demanded the expulsion of Harlequin with a "serious and decent" scene that they succeeded on time. In this struggle on the side of Harlequin, lescing took part. Behind the narrow question about Harlequin stood a wider and fundamental problem of admissibility in the art of phenomena, which did not meet the requirements of aesthetics of the beautiful and sublime, that is, the admissibility of grotesque. This problem was devoted to the small work of Jastus Möster "Harlequin, or the protection of grotesque-comic" (Moser Justus. Harlekin Oder Die Verteidigung des Grotedigung des Grotesck-Komischen). The protection of grotesque is invested here in the mouth of Harlequin himself. Mozer emphasizes that Harlequin is a particle of a special world (or Mirka), which includes Colombin, and the captain, and the doctor, and others, that is, the world of comedy del Arte. This world has integrity, a special aesthetic pattern and its special criterion of excellence, not obeying the classic aesthetics of beautiful and sublime. But at the same time Möster opposes this world and a "low" bolaned comic comicness and this narrows the concept of grotesque. Next, Mözer reveals some features of the grotesque world: he calls it "chimeric", that is, combining alien elements, notes a violation of natural proportions (hyperbolicity), the presence of a caricature and parody element. Finally, Möster emphasizes the laughter of Grotesque, and he takes laughter from the need of the human soul in joy and fun. Such is the first, while still quite narrow apology grotesque.

In 1788, the German scientist Fleugel, the author of the four thousand history of comic literature and books "The History of Court Snoves," released his "History of Grotesque Comic." Flegel does not determine and does not limit the concepts of grotesque with either historical or systematic point of view. He refers to Grotesque all that dramatically deviates from ordinary aesthetic norms and what is sharply emphasized and exaggerated material and body moment. But in the most part, the book of Flegel is devoted to the phenomena of medieval grotesque. He considers medieval folk-festive forms ("Festival of Fools", "Osk Holiday", People's Square Elements of the Holiday Body of the Lord, Carnavals, etc.), Judov Literary Societies of the late Middle Ages ("Kingdom of Bazosh", "carefree guys", etc. ), hundreds, farces, carnival games, some forms of popular comedians, etc. In general, the volume of grotesque at Flegel is still somewhat narrowed: it does not consider purely literary phenomena (for example, a medieval Latin parody). The absence of a historical systematic point of view determined some accident in the selection of material. Understanding the meaning of the phenomena of the phenomena is superficial - in essence, no understanding and not at all: he collects them just like curiosities. But despite this, the Flegel book in its material retains its value to the present.

And Möter and Fleugel know only a grotesque comic comic, that is, only grotesque organized by the laugh at the beginning, and this rowing start thinks them as a fun, joyful. This was the material of these researchers: Comedy Del Arte for Möster and medieval grotesque for Flegel.

But just in the era of the appearance of the works of Mösen and Flegel, facing back to the stages of the development of Grotesque, the grotesque himself joined the new phase of his formation. In prevocate and in early romanticism there is a revival of Grotesque, but with a fundamental rethinking of it. The grotesca becomes a form for the expression of subjective, individual globility, very far from the people's carnival ministry of past centuries (although some elements of this latter remain in it). The first and very significant expression of the new subjective grotesca is the "Tristram Shender" Stern (a peculiar translation of the Rabalazian and Servanisian worldview on the subjective language of the new era). A common variety of new grotesque is a gothic or black novel. In Germany, subjective grotesque received, maybe the strongest and original development. It is the dramaturgy "Storms and Natiska" and early romanticism (Lenz, Klinger, Young Tick), Hippel novels and Jean-Fields and, finally, the creativity of Hoffman, who had a huge impact on the development of a new grotesque in the subsequent world literature. Theoretics of the new grotesque became FR.Shlegel and Jean-Paul.

Romantic grotesque is a very significant and influential phenomenon of world literature. To a certain extent, he was a reaction to those elements of classicism and enlightenment, which generated the limitations and one-sided seriousness of these currents: for narrow rational rationalism, on state and formal-logical authoritarianism, to the desire for preparedness, completion and unambiguity, for the doctactism and utilization of enlighteners, on naive or government optimism, etc. I reject all this, the romantic grotesque was relying primarily on the traditions of the Renaissance, especially on Shakespeare and Servantes, which at this time were re-opened and in the world of which medieval grotesque was interpreted. A material impact on the romantic grotesca was serned, which in a certain sense can even be considered its founder.

As for the immediate influence of the living (but already very depleted) people's spectacular carnival forms, it seems to be significant. Pure literary traditions prevailed. However, it should be noted the rather significant impact of the people's theater (especially doll) and certain types of bolad comedians.

Unlike the medieval and Renaissance grotesque, directly related to the folk culture and wearing a square and nationwide character, the romantic grotesque becomes chamber: it's like a carnival, experienced alone with an acute consciousness of this disposal. Carnival minority as it should be translated into the language of subjectively idealistic philosophical thought and ceases to be the specifically experienced (one can even say - the sensation of unity and inexhaustibility of being, which it was in the medieval and Renaissance grotesque.

The most significant transformation in the romantic grotesque was subjected to a rowing principle. Laughter, of course, remained: After all, in conditions of monolithic seriousness, no one is the most robust - grotesque is impossible. But laughter in the romantic grotesque was reduced and accepted the form of humor, irony, sarcasm. He ceases to be joyful and licking laughter. A positive revival moment of laughing began to a minimum.

There is a very characteristic reasoning about a laughter in one of the wonderful works of the romantic grotesque - in the "night watching" of Bonaventure (a pseudonym of an unknown author, maybe Vesel). These are the stories and reflections of the night guard. In one place, the narrator still characterizes the value of laughter: "Is there an even stronger agent to confront all mockery of peace and fate than laughter! Before this satirical mask is horrified by the strongest enemy, and the misfortune itself retreats in front of me if I dare to ride him! Yes, and what, damnations, except for ridiculous, deserves this land along with his sensitive companion - month! "

Here, the world-plastic and universal nature of laughter is declared - the mandatory sign of all grotesca - and its liberating force is glorified, but there is no hint of the reviving laughter, and therefore he loses his cheerful and joyful tone.

The author (the mouth of his storyteller is a night guard) gives it a kind of explanation in the form of myth on the origin of laughter. Laughter was sent to the earth himself the devil. But he - laughter - appeared to people under the mask of joy, and people would be eagerly accepted. And then, the laughter threw his cheerful mask and began to look at the world and on people as an evil satire.

The rebirth of the organizing grotesque of the laughing principle, the loss of their reviving force leads to a number of other significant differences between the romantic grotesque from the grotesque of medieval and Renaissance. These differences are most pronounced in relation to terrible. The world of romantic grotesque is to one degree or another terrible and alien to man. All the usual, ordinary, ordinary, cherished, generally accepted turns out to be suddenly meaningless, dubious, alien and hostile man. His world suddenly turns into someone else's world. In the usual and unsturbed suddenly revealed terrible. Such is the trend of romantic grotesque (in the most extreme and sharp forms). Reconciliation with the world, if it occurs, is performed in subjective-lyrical or even in a mystical plan. Meanwhile, the medieval and Renaissance grotesque, associated with the folk laughter, knows the scary only in the form of funny horrid, that is, only already defeated by laughter is terrible. It always turns into funny and cheerful here. The grotesque associated with the folk culture brings closer to the world to man and destroys it, eats him through the body and bodily life (in contrast to the abstract-spiritual romantic development). In the romantic grotesque, the images of material and bodily life - food, drink, feces, copulation, childbirth - almost completely lose their reviving significance and turn into a "low life".

Images of romantic grotesque are an expression of fear in front of the world and seek to inspire this fear to readers ("frighten"). Grotesque images of folk culture are absolutely fearless and everyone acquainted with their fearlessness. It is fearless and for the greatest works of Revival's literature. But the vertex in this respect is Roman Rabl: here the fear is destroyed in the germ itself and everything turned out to be fun. This is the most fearless work of world literature.

With the weakening of the revive moment in the laugh, other features of the romantic grotesque are connected. Motion madness, for example, is very characteristic of every grotesca, because it allows you to look at the world with other eyes, unlosable "normal", that is, generally accepted, ideas and assessments. But in the folk grotesque, the madness is a fun parody of the official mind, for the one-sided seriousness of the official "truth". This is a festive madness. In the romantic grotesque, the madness acquires a gloomy tragic shade of individual units.

The motive mask is even more important. This is the most difficult and more significant motive of popular culture. The mask is connected with the joy of shifts and reincarnations, with cheerful relativity, with the funny denial of identity and unambiguity, with the denial of a blunt coincidence with himself; The mask is connected with transitions, metamorphoses, violations of natural borders, with a ridicule, with a nickname (instead of the name); The mask is embodied the game start of life, it is based on a very special relationship of reality and the image characteristic of the oldest ritual-entertainment forms. It is impossible to exhaust the multi-line and multi-valued mask symbolism, of course. It should be noted that such phenomena as a parody, caricature, grimace, crushes, clamps, etc., are in their essence derivatives masks. In the mask very brightly revealed the most essence of Grotesque.

In the romantic grotesque mask, cut off from the unity of people's carnival ministry, is impoverished and receives a number of new meanings, alien to its original nature: the mask hides something, hides, deceives, etc. Such values, of course, are completely impossible when the mask operates in the organic whole of folk culture. In romanticism, the mask almost completely loses its reviving and updating moment and acquires a gloomy shade. The mask often turns out to be a terrible emptiness, "nothing" (this motive is very much developed in the "night watch" of Bonaventure). Meanwhile, in the folk grotesque, the mask is always inexhaustible and multipleness of life.

But in the romantic grotesque mask retains something from his people's carnival nature; This nature is indestructable in it. After all, even in the conditions of the usual modern life, the mask is always shrouded in some special atmosphere, perceived as a particle of some other world. The mask can never become just a thing among other things.

In the romantic grotesque, the motive of puppets, dolls play a major role. This motive is not alien, of course, and the People's Grotesque. But for romanticism in this motive, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe alien inhuman power, managing people and turning them into the puppet, the presentation, absolutely not peculiar to folk laughter. Only for romanticism is characterized by a peculiar grotesque motif of the tragedy of dolls.

The difference between the romantic grotesque is sharply manifested and in the interpretation of the image of the trait. In the deableriors of medieval mysteries, in the launch of the afterlife, in parody legends, in the Fablo, etc. Damn is a cheerful ambivalent carrier of informal points of view, holiness inside out, a representative of material and bodily Niza, etc. In it, there is nothing terrible and alien (Rabal in the afterwards vision of the epistemon "devils are nice guys and excellent drinking companions"). Sometimes devils and the most adhesive only "funny horror stories." In the romantic grotesque, the character acquires the nature of something terrible, melancholic, tragic. Infernal laughter becomes a gloomy malicious laugh.

It should be noted that ambivalence in romantic grotesque usually turns into a sharp static contrast or a frozen antithesis. So, at the narrator in the "night watching" (night-guard) father - damn, and the mother is a canonized holy; He himself tends to laugh in the temples and cry in the homes of fun (i.e. in tritons). So an ancient nationwide ritual ridicule of the Divine and medieval laughter in the temple during the festival of fools turns at the turn of the XIX century into an eccentric laughter in the church of a lonely eccentric.

We finally note another feature of the romantic grotesque: this is the advantage of the night grotesque ("night doses" of Bonaventure, "Night stories" of Hoffmann), for him is generally characterized by darkness, but not light. For folk grotesque, on the contrary, the light is characteristic: it is a spring and morning, dawn grotesque.

Such is a romantic grotesque on the German soil. Romance version of the romantic grotesque We will look at below. Here we will stop a little on the romantic theory of Grotesque.

Friedrich Schlegel Friedrich, Gesprach Uber Die Poesie, 1800) concerns Grotesque, although without a clear terminological designation (usually calls him Arabesque). FR.Shlegel believes grotesque ("Arabesque") "the most ancient form of human imagination" and the "natural form of poetry". He finds grotesque at Shakespeare and Cervantes, Stern and Jean-Fields. The essence of Grotesque he sees in the bizarre mixing of alien elements of reality, in the destruction of the usual order and building of the world, in the free fantasticity of the images and in the "change of enthusiasm and irony".

Cool reveals the features of the romantic grotesque Jean-Paul in his "introduction to aesthetics" ("Vorschule der Asthetic"). And he does not use a grotesque term here and considers it as "destroying humor." Jean-Paul understands grotesque ("destroying humor") is quite wide, not only within literature and art: he refers here and the feast of fools, and the donkey holiday ("donkey mass"), that is, the rigging ritual-entertainment forms of the Middle Ages. From the literary phenomena of the Renaissance, he often attracts Rabl and Shakespeare. He says, in particular, about the "ridicule of the whole world" ("Welt-Verlachung") at Shakespeare, having in mind of his "melancholic" jesters and hammets.

Jean-Paul perfectly understands the universal character of grotesque laughter. "Destroying humor" is directed not to certain negative phenomena of reality, but for the entire reality, on the whole end world in its whole. All finite as such is destroyed by humor. Jean-Paul emphasizes the radicalism of this humor: the whole world turns into something else, terrible and unjustified, we lose the soil under your feet, testing dizziness, for nothing is sustainable. The same universalism and the radicalism of the destruction of all moral and social obscures Jean-Paul sees in the launchy ritual-entertainment forms of the Middle Ages.

Jean-Paul does not take off the grotesque from laughter. He understands that without a laughing start, grotesque is impossible. But his theoretical concept knows only a reduced laughter (humor), devoid of positive reviving and renewing power, and therefore insolent and gloomy. Jean-Paul himself emphasizes the melancholic character of the destroying humor and says that the greatest humorist would be devil (of course, in his romantic understanding).

Although Jean-Paul attracts the phenomena of the medieval and Renaissance grotesque (including even Rabl), he gives, in essence, only the theory of romantic grotesque, through the prism of which he looks at the last stages of the development of grotesca, "romanticizing" them (mainly in The spirit of Sternian interpretation of Rabl and Servantes).

The positive moment of Grotesque, his last word, Jean-Paul (like FR.Shlegel) thinks already outside the laughing start as a way outside the entire final destroyed by humor, in a purely spiritual sphere.

Much later (since the end of the twenties of the XIX century) there is a revival of the grotesque type of imagery and in French romanticism.

Interestingly and very characteristic of French romanticism put the problem of Grotesque Viktor Hugo, first in his preface to the "Cromwell", and then in the book about Shakespeare.

Gygo understands the grotesque type of imagery very wide. He finds it in report color (hydra, harpia, cyclops and other images of grotesque archaic), and then refers to this type all post -ant literature, starting with medieval. "Grotesque," says Hugo, - everywhere: on the one hand, he creates a formless and terrible, on the other - comic and buffonny. " An essential aspect of grotesque - ugly. Aesthetics Grotesque is a largely ugly aesthetics. But at the same time Hugo weakens the independent value of Grotesque, announcing it with a contrast agent for the sublime. Grotesque and sublime mutually complement each other, their unity (achieved by Shakespeare's full total) and gives genuine beauty, inaccessible to clean classics.

The most interesting and specific analyzes of grotesque patterns and, in particular, the launch and material and physical start of the Hugo gives GUGO in the book about Shakespeare. But we will focus on this in the future, as the Gygo develops here and its concept of creativity Rabel.

Interest in Grotesque and the past stages of his development were shared by other French romance, and in the French soil grotesque was perceived as a national tradition. In 1853, the book (genus of the collection) of Theophily Gauthier called "Grotesques" ("Les GroteSques") was published. Theophile Gauthier gathered here representatives of the French grotesque here, understanding him quite widely: we will find here and Viyon, and the poets-Libertinov of the XVII century (Theophille de VIO, Saint-Aman), and Scarron, and Sirano de Bergerac, and even Schuderi.

Such is a romantic stage in the development of grotesque and its theory. In conclusion, you need to emphasize two positive points: first, romantics were looking for folk roots Grotesque and, secondly, they never attributed grotescia of purely satirical functions.

Our analysis of the romantic grotesque, of course, is very far from completeness. In addition, he is somewhat one-sided and even almost a polemic character. It is explained by the fact that only the differences between the romantic grotesque from the grotesque formation of the People's culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance were important here. But romanticism had its own positive discovery of tremendous importance - the discovery of an internal, subjective person with his depth, complexity and inexhaustibility.

This inner infinity of an individual personality was alien to the medieval and Renaissance grotescu, but the opening of it with romantics was only possible thanks to the use of the grotesque method with its freedom from all dogmatism, the completion and limited strength. In a closed, ready, sustainable world with clear and unshakable boundaries between all phenomena and values, internal infinity could not be opened. To make sure it is enough to compare rationalized and exhaustive tests of internal experiences from classicists with the images of the internal life of Stern and romantics. It clearly detects the artistic and heuristic power of the grotesque method. But all this is over the limits of our work.

A few words about the understanding of grotesque in the aesthetics of Hegel and F.? T.fisher.

Speaking about Grotesque, Hegel, in essence, means only grotesque archaic, which it defines as an expression of the report of the report and the back of the spirit. Based mainly on Indian Archaic, Hegel characterizes grotesque three features: mixing of heterogeneous areas of nature, imnetiance in exaggerations and multiplication of individual organs (multi-way images of Indian gods). The organizing role of the laugance began in Grotesque Hegel does not know and considers the grotesque out of any connection with comic.

F.? T.fisher in question about Grotesque retreats from Hegel. The essence and driving power of grotesque, according to Fisher, is funny, comic. "Grotesque is a comic in the form of a wonderful, this is the" mythological comic comic. " These definitions of Fisher are not deprived of a known depth.

It must be said that in the future development of philosophical aesthetics, until our days, the grotesque did not receive a proper understanding and evaluation: for him there was no place in the aesthetics system.

After romanticism, from the second half of the XIX century, interest in Grotesque is sharply weakened both in the literature itself and in literary thoughts. Grotesque, because it mentions, or refer to the forms of low vulgar comedians, or understand as a special form of satire directed into separate, purely negative phenomena. With this approach, the entire depth and all universalism of grotesque images disappear.

In 1894, the most extensive work dedicated to Grotesque was published - the book of the German scientist Schneegans "History of Grotesque Satira" (Schneegans. Geschichte der Grotesken Satyre). This book in a significant part is devoted to the work of the Rabl, whom Schneeganz considers the greatest representative of grotesque satire, but it also gives a brief essay of some phenomena of medieval grotesque. Schneegance is the most consistent representative of a purely satirical understanding of Grotesque. The grotesque for him is always and only a purely negative satire, it is an "exaggeration of the short", denied, with such an exaggeration that goes beyond the probable becomes fantastic. It is through such excessive exaggerations of the unpleasant, a moral and social strike is applied. Such is the essence of the concept of the Schneeganas.

Schnehegans absolutely does not understand the positive hyperbolism of the material and bodily start in the medieval grotesque and at Rabol. He does not understand the positive reviving and renewing power of grotesque laughter. He knows only a purely negative, rhetorical, uninimed laughter of the XIX century satire and in spirit it interprets the phenomenon of medieval and renaissance laughter. This is an extreme expression of distorting modernization of laughter in literary studies. Does not understand the venegans and universalism of grotesque images. But the concept of a snegance is very typical for everything literary studies The second half of the XIX and the first decades of the XX centuries. Even today, a purely satirical understanding of grotesque and, in particular, the work of the Rabel in the spirit of Schneegans is still far from being located.

As we have already said, Schneeganos develops its concept mainly on the analyzes of the work of Rabla. Therefore, in the future, we will still have to stay on his book.

In the 20th century there is a new and powerful revival of Grotesque, although the word "revival" is not fully applicable to some forms of the newest grotesque.

The picture of the development of the newest grotesque is quite complex and contradictory. But, in general, you can allocate two lines of this development. The first line is the modernist grotesque (Alfred Jarry, surrealists, expressionists, etc.). This grotesque is connected (to varying degrees) with the traditions of romantic grotesque, it is currently developing under the influence of various currents of existentialism. The second line is a realistic grotesque (Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Pablo Neruda, etc.), it is associated with the traditions of grotesque realism and folk culture, and sometimes reflects the direct influence of carnival forms (Pablo Neruda).

The characteristic of the features of the newest grotesque is not at all in our tasks. We will dwell only on the newest Gthotesque theory associated with the first, modernist line of its development. We mean the book of an outstanding German literary critic Wolfgang Kaiser "Grotesque in painting and in the literature" (Kayser Wolfgang. Das GroteSke in Malerei und Dichtung, 1957).

The book of Kaiser, in essence, the first and - so far - the only serious work on the theory of grotesque. There are many valuable observations and subtle tests. But with the general concept of Kaizer, it is impossible to agree.

In terms of his plan, the Kaiser's book should give the general theory of grotesque, to reveal the essence of this phenomenon. In fact, it gives only the theory (and a short history) of the romantic and modernist grotesque, and strictly speaking - only modernist, since the romantic grotesque Kaiser sees through the prism of the modernist grotesque and therefore understands and evaluates him somewhat distorted. By Millenniums, the development of Domantantic Grotesque is to grotesque archaic, to the ancient grotesque (for example, to a satriotic drama or ancient adhesive comedy), to the medieval and Renaissance grotesque associated with the people's laughter culture, the Kaiser Theory is absolutely not applicable. In his book, Kaiser does not apply to all these phenomena (he only calls some of them). He builds all his conclusions and generalizations on the analyzes of the romantic and modernist grotesca, and as we have already said, it is this latter that defines the concept of a Kaiser. Therefore, the true nature of the grotesca, the insensible from the United Peace of People's Lighting Culture and Carnival Africa, remained notading. In the romantic grotesque, this nature is weakened, depleted and largely rethought. However, in it, all major motives that have clearly carnival origin, save some kind of memory of that mighty whole, whose particles were once there. And this memory is awakened in the best works of the romantic grotesque (especially strongly, but in different ways, Stern and Hoffmann). These works are stronger and deeper - and joyful - that subjective-philosophical worldview, which is expressed in them. But Kaiser of this genre memory does not know and is not looking for in them. Modernist grotesque, asking the tone of his concept, this memory almost completely lost and almost to the limit formalized the carnival heritage of grotesque motives and symbols.

What are the kaiser, the main features of grotesque picture?

In the definitions of the Kaiser, first of all amazing that general grim and terrible, frightening tone of the grotesque world, which researcher in it only catches. In fact, such a tone is absolutely alien to the whole development of Grotesque to romanticism. We have already said that medieval and Renaissance grotesque, imbued with carnival maidos, frees the world from the whole terrible and frightening, makes it extremely incredible and therefore extremely cheerful and light. Everything that in the ordinary world was terrible and frightening, in the carnival world turns into funny "funny horrids". Fear is the extreme expression of one-sided and stupid seriousness, won by laughter (we will meet with the excellent development of this motive at Rabol, in particular, with the "Theme Malbruck"). Only in the extremely unstassed world is also possible and the limit freedom, which is peculiar to Grotesque.

For Kaiser, the main thing in the grotesque world is "something hostile, alien and inhuman" ("Das Unheimliche, Das Verfremdete Und UnMenschliche", p. 81).

Particularly emphasizes Kaiser Moment of alienity: "Grotesque is a world that has become a stranger" ("Das Groteske Ist Die Entfremdete Welt", p. 136). Kaiser explains this definition by comparing grotesque with the world of fairy tales. After all, the world of fairy tales, if you look at him from the outside, you can also determine as alien and unusual, but this is not a world that has become a stranger. In Grotesque, the fact that it was for us his own and loved ones, suddenly becomes strangers and hostile. It is our world that turns out suddenly in someone else's.

This definition of the Kaiser is applicable only to some phenomena of the modernist grotesque, but it becomes not fully adequate to apply to the romantic grotesca and is not already applied to the preceding stages of its development.

In fact, grotesque - including romantic - reveals the possibility of a completely different world, another world order, another building of life. It takes out the apparent (false) uniqueness, continuing and inviolability of the existing world. The grotesque, generated by the folk laughter, in essence, always - in one form or another, by those or other means - plants the return on the land of Saturnnova of the Golden Age, lively the possibility of his return. And the romantic grotesque does it (otherwise he would have ceased to be grotesque), but in his peculiar subjective forms. The existing world is suddenly a stranger (if you use the terminology of Kaiser) precisely because the possibility of truly native peace, the world of the Golden Age, carnival truth is revealed. Man returns to himself. The existing world is destroyed to revive and update. The world, dying, gives birth. The relativity of everything existing in Grotesque is always fun, and he will always imbued with the joy of shifts, let these fun and joy are reduced to a minimum (as in romanticism).

It is necessary to emphasize once again that the utopian moment ("golden age") in the Domantantic Grotesque is revealed not for an abstract thought and not for inner experience, but is played and experienced by all person, solid man, and thought, and feeling, and body. This bodily involvement of a possible other world, his bodily clearness is of great importance for Grotesque.

In the concept of Kaiser, there is no place for the material and bodily start with its inexhaustibility and eternal renewability. No in his concept neither time nor shift, no crises, that is, there is no whole thing that is accomplished with the sun, with the earth, with a man, with human society and than just lives the genuine grotesque.

Very characteristic of the modernist grotesque and such a definition of it at Kaizer: "Grotesque - there is a form of expression for" it "(p. 137).

Kaiser understands "it" is not so much in Freuddist, but in the existentialist spirit: "It" is alien to, inhuman force, managing peace, people, their life and their actions. Many of the main motives of Grotesque Kaiser reduces to the feeling of this alien force, for example, the motive of puppets. He reduces himself to the madness. In the madman, in a kayiser, we always feel something someone else, exactly some kind of inhuman spirit penetrated into his soul. We have already said that the madness is completely differently used by Grotesque: in order to get rid of the false "truth of this world" to look at the world free from this "truth" eyes.

Kaiser himself repeatedly talks about the freedom of fantasy characteristic of grotesque. But how is such freedom possible in relation to the world, where does the power of "it" dominate alone? This is an insurmountable contradiction of the concept of Kaiser.

In fact, the grotescis frees from all those forms of inhuman necessity, which pervise the dominant ideas about the world. The grotesque is annoying this necessity as relative and limited. The need for any kind of dominant in this era, the picture of the world always acts as something monolithically serious, unconditional and continued. But historically ideas about the need are always relative and changeable. The rowing principle and carnival ministry underlying the grotesca destroy the limited seriousness and all sorts of claims for the timeless significance and unconditional ideas about the need and exempt human consciousness, thought and imagination for new opportunities. That is why big coups, even in the field of science, always preceded by preparing them, well-known carnivalization of consciousness.

In the grotescan world, all "it" will be divorced and turns into a "funny sorrow"; When entering into this world - even into the world of romantic grotesque, - we always feel some special funny liberty of thought and imagination.

Let us dwell on two moments of the Kaiser concept.

Summing up your analyzes, Kaiser argues that "in the grotesk it is not about death fear, but about the fear of life."

In this statement, designed in the spirit of existentialism, is primarily a contrast of life and death. Such opposition is completely alien to the grotesque system. Death in this system is not at all denial of life in its grotesque understanding as a life of a big nationwide body. Death here enters the whole life as its required moment, as a condition for its continuous update and rejuvenation. Death here is always correlated with birth, grave - with born Lone of the Earth. Birth - death, death - birth - determining (constitutive) moments of life itself, as in the famous words of the Spirit of the Earth in the "Faust" Goethe. Death is included in life and along with birth determines her eternal movement. Even the struggle of life with death in the individual body grotesque figurative thinking understands how the struggle of the stubborn old life with a born (having to be born) is new as a crisis of shift.

Leonardo da Vinci said: when a man with joyful impatience awaits a new day, a new spring, a new year, he does not suspect, that, thereby he, in essence, is eager for his own death. Although this aphorism of Leonardo da Vinci in the form of an expression and is not a grotesque, but it is based on a carnival minority.

So, in the grotesque image system, death and update are inseparable from each other in general, and this is a whole that is capable of causing fear.

It must be said that both the image of death in the Middle Ages and Renaissance Grotesque (including in the visual, for example, in the "dance of death" of the Golbien or Duster) always includes an element of funny. It is always - to a greater or lesser extent - a funny life. In the next century, and especially in the XIX century, they were almost at all who had to hear the launch began in such images and perceived them unilaterally seriously, where they became flat and distorted. The bourgeois XIX century treated with respect only to a purely satirical laughter, which was, in essence, disintegrating a rhetorical laugh, serious and instructive (no wonder he was equated with a beat or rogging). In addition to him, it was still purely entertaining laughter, thoughtless and harmless. Still, serious should have been serious, that is, straight and flat on his tone.

The theme of death as a renewal, a combination of death with birth, the images of cheerful deaths play a significant role in the Roman's figurative system of Roman and in the subsequent parts of our work will be subjected to specific analysis.

The last moment in the concept of Kaiser, on which we will stop, is his interpretation of grotesque laughter. Here is its wording: "Laugh mixed with bitterness when switching to grotesque takes the features of mocking, cynical and, finally, satanic laughter."

We see that Kaiser understands the grotesque laughter completely in the spirit of the reasoning of the "night-guard" at Bonaventure and the theory of "destroying humor" from the Jean-field, that is, in the spirit of the romantic grotesque. Merry, freeding and reviving, that is, it is creative, the moment of laughter is missing. However, Kaiser understands the complexity of the problem of laughter in Grotesque and refuses its unequivocal decision (decree op., See p. 139).

Such is the book of Kaiser. As we said, grotesque is the predominant form of various directions of modern modernism. Theoretical substantiation of this modern grotesque and serves, in its essence, the concept of Kaiser. With the famous reservations, it can still highlight some sides of the romantic grotesque. But it seems completely unacceptable to spread it to other epochs of the development of grotesque patterns.

The problem of grotesque and its aesthetic essence can be correctly delivered and allowed only on the material of the national culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance Literature, and the discretion of the Rabl's illuminating value here is particularly great. Understand the true depth, the multivalousness and strength of individual grotesque motifs can be only in the unity of folk culture and carnival ministry; Taken in the separation from him, they become unequivocal, flat and depleted.

The justification of the application of the term "grotesque" to the special type of the formation of the People's Culture of the Middle Ages and the Related Related References cannot cause any doubt. But in what extent justified our term "grotesque realism"?

We are here on this question, in the introduction, we can only give a preview.

Those features that are so sharply distinguished by medieval and Renaissance grotesque from the romantic and modernist grotesque, and above all the spontaneous materialistic and spontaneous dialectical understanding of being, is anxious to be defined as realistic. Our further specific analyzes of grotesque images will confirm this position.

Renaissance grotesque patterns, directly related to folk carnival culture - Rabell, Cervantes, Shakespeare, had a decisive influence on the full realistic literature of subsequent centuries. The realism of a large style (the realism of the standal, Balzac, Hugo, Dickens, etc.) was always connected (directly or indirectly) with a Renaissance tradition, and the gap with her inevitably led to the grinding of realism and to reborn it into naturalist empiricism.

Already in the XVII century, some forms of grotesque begin to degenerate into a static "characterity" and narrow genre. This degeneracy is associated with the specific limitedness of the bourgeois worldview. The authentic grotesque is less static: it seeks to seize in his images itself to formation, growth, eternal incompleteness, unpretentiousness of being; Therefore, it gives in his images both poles of formation, at the same time the outgoing and new, dying and born; It shows in one body two bodies, binding and division of living cells of life. Here, at the heights of grotesque and folklore realism, as in the death of single-cell organisms, there is never a corpse (the death of a unicellular organism coincides with its reproduction, that is, with the disintegration of two cells, two organisms, without any "mortal waste"), Pregnant, the death of fraught, all the limited-characteristic, frozen, ready to be discharged into the body bottom for mirroring and new birth. In the process of degeneration and timing of grotesque realism, a positive pole disappears, that is, the second young level of formation (it is replaced by moral centance and abstract concept): there is a clean corpse, deprived of pregnancy, clean, equal to itself, recondited old age, torn off from the growing whole, Where it was connected to the next young link in a single chain of development and growth. It turns out a broken grotesque, the figure of a fertility demon with a cropped fell and an indulged belly. From here and all these fruitless images of "characteristic" are born, all these "professional" types of lawyers, merchants, rings, old people and old people, etc., all these masks of smaller and degenerate realism. There were all these types and in grotesque realism, but there didn't build a picture of the whole life, there they were just a fiercing part of the birth life. The fact is that the new concept of realism otherwise conducts boundaries between all bodies and things. It dissects twinkled bodies and cuts off the body of grotesque and folklore realism with the body, it seeks to complete each individuality out of connection with the last whole, for which the old image was already lost and the new one has not yet been found. Significantly changed and understanding of time.

The literature of the so-called "household realism" of the XVII century (Sorel, Scarron, Fewer), along with truly carnival moments, is already filled with such images of a stopped grotesque, that is, grotesque, almost withdrawn from a lot of time, from the flow of becoming and therefore or frozen in his duality, or Twisted sun. Some scientists (for example, Rainier) tend to interpret it as the beginning of realism, as the first steps. In fact, all this is only dead and sometimes almost intentional fragments of mighty and deep grotesque realism.

We have already spoke at the beginning of our introduction that both individual phenomena of the People's Lighting Culture of the Middle Ages and the special genres of grotesque realism are studied quite fully and thoroughly, but, of course, from the point of view of those historical and historical and literary methods that dominated in science XIX and first decades of the XX century. They studied, of course, not only literary works, but also such specific phenomena as "festivals of fools" (F. Burkelo, Herbs, Willetar, etc.), "Easter laughter" (I. Schmid, S. Raynakh et al. ), "Sacred parody" (F. Novati, E. Ilvanhen, P. Lemann) and other phenomena underlying, in essence, outside art and literature. Of course, various manifestations of the laughing culture of antiquity (A. Diterih, Reich, Cornford, etc.) were studied. Much is made and folklinists to find out the nature and genesis of individual motives and symbols that are part of the people's laughter culture (it is enough to name the monumental work of Frezer - " Golden branch "). In general, scientific literature relating to the folk laughter culture is huge. In the future, in the course of our work, we will refer to the appropriate special works.

But all this huge literature, with rare exceptions, is devoid of theoretical pathos. It does not seek any broad and fundamental theoretical generalizations. As a result, almost unwarked, thoroughly assembled and often, the studied material remains unindicted and uncommunicable. What we call a single world of people's laughter, looks here as some kind of scatter scattered curiosities, which in the "serious" history of European culture and literature, despite its huge volume, in essence, is not possible. It is a coping of curiosities and obscenities - it remains outside the circle of those "serious" creative problems that European humanity solved. It is quite clear that with this approach and the mighty influence of the people's laughter culture on all fiction, the most "figurative thinking" of mankind remains almost completely uncovered.

We will relax here briefly only two studies that are placed just theoretical problems, moreover, such that from two different sides come into contact with our problem of folk laughter culture.

In 1903, the Thunderiage of the city of Ray "Mime Experience of historical study of literary development "(see Footage 5).

The subject of Reich research is, in essence, laughing culture of antiquity and medieval. It gives a huge, very interesting and valuable material. He correctly reveals the unity of the laughter traditional, passing through antiquity and the Middle Ages. He understands, finally, the original and substantial relationship of laughter with the images of material and bodily Niza. All this allows the Rihi to close to the right and productive formulation of the problem of the people's laughter.

But nevertheless, he never set the problem. This, as we think, prevented mostly two reasons.

First, the Reich is trying the whole story of a laughter culture to reduce the history of Mim, that is, a single laughing genre, albeit quite characteristic, especially for late antiquity. Mime for Reich turns out to be the center and even almost the only carrier of the laughing culture. All nationally festive forms, and the Literary Literature of the Middle Ages, are reduced to the influence of ancient Mim Reich. In their search for the influence of the ancient Mim Reich, it comes out even outside of European culture. All this leads to the inevitable stretching and to ignore everything that does not fit into the procrusteo bed of the Mim. It must be said that the Reich still sometimes does not withstand its concept: the material beats through the edge and makes the author go beyond the narrow frames of the mime.

Secondly, Reich multiple modernizes and imposes both laughter and insepactly with him a bound material and bodily start. In the concept of Reich, the positive moments of the laughing began - his freight and reviving power - sound somewhat muted (although the Reich knows the ancient philosophy of laughter). The universalism of the folk laughter and its world-coal and utopian nature also did not receive a proper understanding and evaluation at Reich. But it looks especially depleted in his concept material and bodily start: Reich looks at him through the prism of the distracted and differentiating thinking of the new time and therefore understands it is scent, almost naturalistic.

Such are two main points that weaken, in our opinion, the concept of Reich. But still, Reich did a lot to prepare the correct formulation of the problem of the people's laughter. It is a pity that the Reich book, rich in new material, the original and brave in thought, did not give proper influence at one time.

In the future, we will have to repeatedly refer to the work of Reich.

The second study, which we touch here, is a small book of Conrad Burdach "Reformation, Renaissance, Humanism" (Burdax Konrad, Reformation, Renaissance, Humanismus, Berlin, 1918). This book is also somewhat closer to the formulation of the problem of folk culture, but quite differently than the book of Reich. There is no speech about the laugh and material and bodily principle. The only hero of her is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "Renaissance", "updates", "Reformation".

In his book, Burdah shows how this idea-image of revival (in different variations), the originally originally in the ancient mythological thinking of Eastern and antique peoples, continued to live and develop throughout the Middle Ages. She preserved in church cult (in the liturgy, in the rite of baptism, etc.), but here it was in a state of dogmatic ossification. From the time of religious lift of the XII century (Ioachim from Fiore, Francis from Assisi, Spirituals), this figurative idea comes to life, penetrates wider circles of the people, painted purely human emotions, awakens poetic and artistic imagination, becomes an expression of the growing thirst for the revival and renewal in pure earth , worldly sphere, that is, the sphere of political, social and artistic life (see above, p. 55).

Burdach traces the slow and gradual process of secularization (prudency) ideas of the Renaissance at Dante, in ideas and activities of Rienzo, Petrarki, Bokcchcho, etc.

Burdach correctly believes that such a historic phenomenon, like Renaissance, could not arise as a result of pure cognitive sequestments and intellectual efforts of individual people. He says that:

"Humanism and Renaissance are not the products of knowledge (Produkte des Wissens). They arise not because scientists find the lost monuments of ancient literature and art and strive to return them to life again. Humanism and Renaissance were born out of passionate and limitless waiting and the desire of an aging era, the soul of which, shocked in his very depth, was eager for the new adolescence "(p. 138).

Burdes, of course, absolutely right, refusing to bring and explain the revival of scientists and book sources, from individual ideological search, from "intellectual efforts." He is right that Renaissance was prepared throughout the Middle Ages (and especially from the XII century). It is finally right, and in the fact that the word "revival" did not mean "the revival of science and art of antiquity", and behind him stood a huge and multi-valued semantic education, rooted in the most depths of the ritual and entertainment, figurative and intellectual ideological thinking of mankind . But K. Budakh did not see and did not understand the main sphere of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Renaissance - the folk laughter's culture of the Middle Ages. The desire for updating and the new birth, the "thirst for new adolescence" penetrated the carnival ministry and found a diverse embodiment in the specific-sensual forms of folk culture (and in ritual-spectacular, and in verbal). This was the second holiday life of the Middle Ages.

Many of those phenomena that K. Budhch considers in their book as preparing the Renaissance themselves reflected the influence of the People's Lighting Culture and the spirit of the Renaissance anticipated in the measure of this influence. Such were, for example, Joachim from Fiore and especially Francis Assisi and the movement created by him. Francis himself had no wonder himself and his supporters of the "Ioculatores Domini"). A peculiar worldview of Francis with his "spiritual freight" ("Laetitia Spiritualis"), with the blessing of the material and bodily start, with specific Franciscan decreases and profanations may be called (with some fragment) carnivalized catholicism. The elements of carnival ministry were quite strong and in all the activities of Rienzo. All these phenomena, prepared by Burdha, Renaissance, is inherent liberating and updating the rowing principle, although sometimes in the maximum reduced form. But this beginning of Burdah does not take into account. For him, there is only a serious tonality.

Thus, and the bordes in their desire to correctly understand the ratio of the Renaissance to the Middle Ages also - by its own way - prepares the formulation of the problem of the People's Lighting Culture of the Middle Ages.

So our problem is set. But the direct subject of our research is not a people's laughter culture, but the work of Francois Rabl. People's laughter, in essence, is unbelonged and, as we have seen, is extremely heterogeneous in their manifestations. In relation to her, our challenge is purely theoretical - to reveal the unity and meaning of this culture, its generalide-anddeological - and an aesthetic essence. It is best possible to resolve this task there, that is, on such a specific material, where the people's laughter culture is collected, concentrated and artistically recognized on its highest Renaissance stage - it is in the work of Rabl. For penetration into the very deep essence of folk laughter culture, the Rabel is indispensable. In his creative world, the inner unity of all the heterogeneous elements of this culture is revealed with exceptional clarity. But his work is a whole encyclopedia of folk culture.

But, using the work of Rabel to disclose the essence of the people's laughter, we do not only turn it into a means to achieve outside of its underlying goal. On the contrary, we are deeply convinced that only in this way, that is, only in the light of the folk culture, you can reveal the genuine Rabl, show the risk in Rabl. Until now, it was only upgraded: he was read by the eyes of the new time (mostly by the eyes of the XIX century, to the folk culture of the least dormitory) and they were read out of Rabl only that for him and his contemporaries - and objectively - it was least significant. Exceptional charm of Rabl (and this charm may feel everyone else remains unexplained. To do this, first of all, it is necessary to understand the special language Rabel, that is, the language of the folk laughter.

On this we can finish our introduction. But to all its main topics and statements expressed here in a few abstract and sometimes declarative form, we will return to the work itself and give them complete concretization both on the material of the work of the Rabl and on the material of other phenomena of the Middle Ages and the antiquity, which served for him Direct or indirect sources.

Book MM Bakhtina "Creativity Francois Rabl and People's Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance" was conceived, apparently, at the very end of the 1920s, was written in 1940, and printed, with additions and changes that do not affect, however, the creatures of the idea, in 1965 year. Accurate information about when the plan "Rabl" originated, we do not have. The first stacking in the archive in the archive belongs to November-December 1938.

The work of M.M. Bakhtin is an outstanding phenomenon in all modern critical literature, and not only in Russian. The interest of this study is at least Trojak.

First, it is quite the original and exciting interest to the monograph about Rabel. M.M. Bakhtin insists on the monographic nature of the book, although there are no special chapters about the biography of the writer, about worldview, humanism, language, etc. - All these issues are lit in different sections of the book dedicated to the mainly laughter of Rabl.

To assess the significance of this work, it is necessary to take into account the exclusive position of the Rabel in European literature. Already from the XVII century, Rabela uses the reputation of the writer "strange" and even "monstrous". With the centuries, the "mysteriousness" of Rabel was only increased, and Anatol France called in his lectures about the discount of his book "The most bizarre in world literature." Modern French roblasticism is increasingly talking about Rabel as a writer "Not so much wrong with understanding how much is just incomprehensible" (Lefevere), as a representative of the "criminal thinking", inaccessible to the modern understanding (L. Fevr). It must be said that after hundreds of research about Rabl, he still remains a "mystery", some "exception to the rule", and M.M. Bakhtin notes with full law that we are "about the Rabel is well known what is unnecessary." One of the most famous writers, Rabel, must admit, almost the most "difficult" and for the reader, and for literary criticism.

The originality of a peer-reviewed monograph is that the author found a new approach to the study of Rabl. Before him, researchers came from the main line of Western European literature since the ancient centuries, understanding the Rabl as one of the cornea of \u200b\u200bthis line and attracting folklore traditions only as one of the sources of creativity Rabel - which has always led to stretch, as the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" is not She laid in the "high" line of European literature. M.M. Bakhtin, on the contrary, sees in Rabl to the top of the whole "unofficial" line of folk art, not so much of a little studied as poorly understand, the role of which significantly increases with the study of Shakespeare, Cervantes, Bokcchcho, but especially Rabl. "Digital informality of Rabl" is the reason for the mysteriousness of the Rabel, which was considered only against the backdrop of the literature of its century and the subsequent centuries.

There is no need to identify the concept of "grotesque" realism of folk art, revealed in this book. It is enough to look at the table of contents to see a completely new circle of problems, before almost not standing in front of the researchers and the components of the content of the book. Let's just say that thanks to this lighting, everything in the Roman Rabel becomes amazingly natural and understandable. According to the expression of the researcher, the Rabel is "at home" in this folk tradition, which has its own special understanding of life, a special circle of topics, a special poetic language. The term "grotesque", usually applied to the creative manner of Rabla, ceases to be a "manner" of a superpandocial writer, and no longer have to talk about a high thought of thought and unbridled fancy of a bizarre artist. Rather, the term "grotesque" himself ceases to be a scapegoat and "otpic" for researchers who were not essentially able to explain the paradoxicality of the creative method. The combination of the cosmic latitude of myth with acute topicality and concreteness of satirical pamphlet, merging in the images of universalism with individualization, fiction with striking sobriety, etc. - Find at M.M. Bakhtin a completely natural explanation. What used to be perceived as curious, acts as familiar norms of thousand-year-old art. No one has yet managed to give such a convincing interpretation of the Rabl.

Secondly, we have wonderful work dedicated to the people's poetry of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the folk art of Dobzhuaznaya Europe. The new in this book is not its material about which there are many carefully executed studies - the author knows these sources and leads them - but the dignity of work is not in the detected tradition. Just as in the study of Rabol, there is a new lighting of this material. The author comes from the Leninist concept of the existence of two cultures in each nation. In the folk culture (which "broke out" in high literature with the greatest completeness of Rabl), he highlights the sphere of comic creativity, "carnival" element with its special thinking and images, opposes its official-serious art of dominant classes in the Middle Ages (not only feudal , but also by earlyburious), as well as the later literature of the bourgeois society. The characteristic of "grotesque realism" represents an exceptional interest (see, for example, a comparison of the "grotesque body" and "new body").

The significance of the nationality for world art with such an interpretation in a new way and comes far beyond the limits about the work of the Rabl. In front of us in essence, typological work: the opposition of two types of artistic creativity - folk-grotesque and literary and artistic. In grotescan realism, as M.M. Bakhtin shows, a folk sensation of time has been expressed. This is a "folk choir", accompanying the action of world history, and Rabela is the "Coriferation" of the folk choir of his time. The role of unofficial elements of society for truly realistic creativity is disclosed in the work of M. M. Bakhtin completely in a new way and with a wonderful force. In a few words, his thought is reduced to the fact that in the folk creativity of the centuries and in the natural form, the materialistic and dialectical sense of life was prepared, which accepted the scientific form in the newest time. In a consistently conducted principle of historicism and in the "meaningality" of typological contrast - the main advantage of M.M. Bakhtin in front of typological schemes of formalists of art historians of the XX century in the West (Völdlin, Voringer, Hama, etc.).

Thirdly, this work is a valuable contribution to the overall theory and history of comic. Analyzing Roman Rabl, Bakhtin explores the nature of the so-called "ambivalent" laughter, other than satire and humor in the usual sense of the word, as well as from other types of comic. This is a spontaneous-dialectical laughter, in which the occurrence and disappearance, birth and death, denial and approval, Branj and praise are inextricably linked as two sides of the same process - the emergence of a new and alive of the old and dying. In this regard, the researcher stops on the nature of the familiar laughter in the informal genres of oral and written words, in particular, in curses, revealing his roots, its meaning, is currently not quite aware. The study of this material, so important for Roman Rabel, especially in connection with the folklore basis of his creativity, is strictly scientific, and it would be to doubt the need for such a study.

The role of laughter as a "rebel grandmother of the new seriousness", the coverage of "Hercules work" of laughter to purify the world from the monsters of the past was marked by remarkable historicism in understanding comic.

The more terrible and tougher and the spiritual power of the alienated forces (Bakhtin takes an example of the Rabalazian world of absolutist monarchies and the inquisition of the late European Middle Ages), the greater the potential power of protest. The factal and torn away from real life, this power, the more material wants to become a protest form. The more expensive and tied by complex artificial rules-rituals official social life, especially simple, ordinary, alternative actions will be.

And they will begin with ridiculous, from the jungle, with the search and show "other" truth as it were, "Ponaroshka" - like in a children's game. Here everything will be possible: the images of the monstrous phallus will not be decent, but holy; Fikals will be a legal continuation of the food, and the cult of food-gluttony will be the highest form of spirituality; The jester will rule over the king and enthusiasm the carnival.

So (or something like this) could sound an overall prologue to the Bakhtnian theory of the carnival. It is the prologue - a complex, rich and grotesque-pointed. And it is to the theory - the theory of carnival, created by the method, language and according to the rules of the carnival. Its presentation is not our subject. It is important for us to other - to show that the world of carnival is a splash of the simplest form of mass dialogue within and under the domination of the world of alienation.

Carnival is the form that is the simplest, for it, first, occurs from below, spontaneously, without a complex cultural base and, secondly, is initially focused on the patrimony as an antithesis of complex and elevated (in quotes and without) official life.

Carnival is the simplest form of the dialogue, because it is in direct (naked, semi-bottomed) and in portable (naked, semi-wall) and in portable (naked, semi-wall) and in portable (withdrawn their social roles), looking for the simplest, deliberately primitive and at the same time. Unregulated, extraordinary communication - laughter, food, copulation, feces ...., but not like (or not only as) purely natural, material action, but as alternative and cultural (with all primitiveness) acts. Carnival is the simplest form of truly mass dialogue, which is fundamentally important, for not only the availability of all these forms (due to their primitiveness) is present here, but also the initial orientation - inflamed Bakhtin - at all.

Carnival is a massive dialogue and therefore action against the world of alienation, and against not only the authorities of the tops, but also the "rules" of the grounds, the establishments of respectable meshchers and their intellectual adepts (for which, we note in brackets, the Bakhtin idea of \u200b\u200bthe carnival greets a little conformistic intelligentsia, including "Bakhtinovadov").

But the carnival is a massive action against the world of alienation, remaining within the framework of this world and therefore does not destroy its valid basics. Here everything is "as if", here is all "Ponaroshka".

In this, the essence and purpose of the carnival - to oppose the serious and real world of alienation laughter and the game of the carnival. But this is the weakness of the carnival.

And now about some hypothesis, which gives rise to this world idea-theory.

The first hypothesis. Carnival as an imitation of mass social creativity or mass social creativity "Ponaroshka" there is at the same time a mini revolution is a ponaroshka. This, on the one hand, the valve, the "producing pairs" overheated by a social protest boiler, but, on the other hand, is the process of forming cultural prerequisites of a new society.

In this regard, the question arises: any society generates the phenomenon of the carnival (naturally, we are not talking about specific European carnivals) and if not, then what substitutes may arise in this place?

The Soviet Union on the cruelty of its political and ideological structures, the inorganization of official spiritual life could well have sacrificed with late-conducted monarchies. But did the phenomenon of the carnival existed in our country?

Yes and no.

Yes, because in the USSR, the era of the flourishing and progress of our Motherland existed a kind of carnival - People's Soviet culture. Moreover, the people in this case does not mean primitive, exclusively folklore. Folk favorites were Ulanov and Dunaevsky, Mayakovsky and Evtushenko, Eisenstein and Tarkovsky.

No, because in the period "stagnation" with its formal, but widespread atmospheric atmosphere of the "socialist ideology" and the shortage of consumer goods in the "socialist society of consumption" (for the "Goulash-Socialism", with the general shortage of a goulash) of a real lower, mass, laughter And the dialogical atmosphere of the holiday was not. Moreover, the question itself suggests: and whether the absence of this safety "valve" was one of the reasons for such a quick and externally easy decay of this superpower?

These sketches on the topics of the USSR, especially the period of late stagnation - the late 70s - early 80s. Can serve as the basis for setting an important problem. We know that in the Society of the Late Middle Ages, the formal-official dictate "Spirit" caused a carnival antithesis in the image of the "body". We know that in the USSR, the era of his decomposition has developed two alternatives to the official-conservative artificial ideology - (1) a semi-propelled consumer cult (hence the powerful conflict: the desire for consumption society - the economy of the deficit) and (2) "Figa in the pocket of the" spiritual life "of elite Intelligentsia, "Depowy Suslov and Bogwood Sollenicin. But we do not know what can be a real lower antithesis existing now in the first world of consumption society. Li (and if not, how can it be) Carnival as a massive game in anti-alienation, ridicuing all the foundations of the current world of the market, representative democracy and the monstrous exploitation of the world from corporate capital? Or another will be different (the second of the hypothesis put forward in this text): the Western world is so permeated with the hegemony of global corporate capital, which is unable to generate even carnival forms of protest?

And the third hypothesis concerning the allegedly carnival nature of the social building, which established in our Fatherland after the collapse of the USSR. Externally, at first glance, this new system has a super carnival. "Top" and "bottom" are mixed monstrously: "thieves in law" become a respected statesmanship and patronize art and science; Members of the Government participate in various types of frauds, which are "truly", actually implement the fact that in the Balagan Show I was barely dared to show "Ponaroshka"; The president lies cynical and frankly than any physician .. and most importantly: everyone has shifted and confused the concepts of good and evil, moral and immoral, "high" and low ". Some solid blatant super-carnival.

But the fact of the matter is that "over", "super" ... the form of carnival, moving a certain face (namely, turning out of exception, alternatives, protest into something universal and self-sufficient), destroys its positive foundation - social creativity masses.

Above, we noted that the carnival is in nature there is a transfused form of social creativity, mixed at the exaltation "anti". This is ridiculous, rejection, turning, paroding and charging of the official world of alienation. But the creative and creative social role of the carnival of narrow: the valve, which produces the negative-destructive energy of the social protest, and the quoted-caricature form of antisystem culture.

Carnival as an imitation of social creativity, imitation of the revolution, focusing their negative critical side, may (as the experience of the EX-USSR shows) to turn into a universal form of social life. But thereby he destroys everything positive, which carries with him, turning criticism into criticism, turning over the top and bottom to the cult of invariance, ridiculously outdated common sense in the preaching of immorality, parody destruction of the social hierarchy into universal lumination ... from the phenomenon of the laughter's criticism of society The alienation of such a "super" -carrival turns the alienation of inside out, becoming no less, but even tougher. In contrast to the carnival as imitation of public creativity, the pseudocarnival becomes a parody of social creativity. And the reason for this is the lack of genuine mass social creativity.

It was this particular Russian society after the collapse of the USSR - a parody of the carnival, a parody of grotesque. And this is not ridiculous. This is no longer "other" (alternative, opposition) truth, but a parody of it, i.e. False. And the lies are so obvious that it looks like a joke. (We note in brackets: one of the leading Russian humorists from the scene read with the expression of the transcript of one of the speeches of Chernomyrdin, then also the Prime Minister of our country, the hall died with laughter).

Such are three hypotheses inspired by the theory of carnival.

The world of Bakhtina, of course, is much wider and deeper than those three sketches. But for us, these sketches were important primarily by the fact that at least partially justify the thesis formulated at the beginning of the text: the world of Bakhtin is a window, open from the world of alienation (adequately displayed by materialistic dialectics, theories of the struggle of classes, weighing people in products, money, money, Capital, states) to the world of freedom (for which the methods of dialogic, polyphonic knowledge-communication, activities, subject-subject, personal, personal, inalienable human relations will be adequately adequately adequately. And the first necessary (but not sufficient!) Step in this direction is ridiculous and carnival turning over the official forms of the current and past alienated world, purification and creation of laughter and through the laughter "other" (not transformed by the forms) of the truth. But grief of that society that will turn the carnival from the step to social transformations in Alpha and Omga of its existence: a lie, immorality, and nothing limited arbitrariness will become his lot.