Western Europe revival. Renaissance in Western Europe
N.A.Figurovsky, "Outline of the general history of chemistry. From ancient times to the beginning of the XIX century." Publishing house "Science", Moscow, 1969
OCR site
THE RENAISSANCE IN EUROPE
The development of crafts and trade, the rise of the role of cities, as well as political events in Western Europe in the XII and XIII centuries. entailed significant changes in the entire way of life of European peoples. In the XVI century. in Europe, the unification of small feudal principalities began, large independent states arose (England, France and Spain). Several republics and principalities were formed on the territory of modern Germany and Italy.
In the process of the merger of small feudal possessions, the tendency of the united states to emancipate from the political power of the papacy was clearly manifested. In the XIII century. the Roman Catholic Church was a huge pan-European "state over states". Popes actively intervened in the management of European states, installed and crowned kings, removed kings and even emperors they disliked. Through its system of centralized spiritual administration, the Vatican siphoned enormous funds from the countries of Western Europe.
The shameless greed of the higher clergy of the Roman Catholic Church, the luxurious life of popes and cardinals caused spontaneous protests among believers and lower clergy. In various European countries, a movement of the so-called reformation (changes in church government) arose, a number of uprisings broke out against the dominance of popes (indulgences), bishops and monasteries. At the beginning of the 15th century, the famous uprising against the Vatican rule began in the Czech Republic under the leadership of Jan Hus, a prominent preacher, professor and rector of the University of Prague (founded by Charles IV in 1349).
In an atmosphere of general indignation at the greed of the Roman Catholic clergy in various European countries, doubts began to be openly expressed not only about the legitimacy of the secular power of the popes, but also about the fairness of certain religious dogmas and scholastic philosophy that constitute the ideological foundations of Catholicism. Dissatisfaction with religious scholasticism, the search for new ways to solve worldview issues significantly revived the mental life of Europe.
In the educated environment of European society, an interest arose in the works of ancient Greek and Roman "pagan" philosophers and writers, whose works were banned by the church. In the rich Italian republics - Florence, Venice, Genoa, as well as in Rome itself, circles of lovers of antique literature were formed. Numerous copies of the works of ancient authors have appeared. Interest in ancient examples of literary creativity soon spread to the field of art, architecture and philosophy. The Renaissance era of ancient literature, art and architecture (Renaissance) began in Europe, which marked the beginning of a new era in social history.
On the basis of unsurpassed examples of literary creativity of ancient Greek and Roman authors, a new direction arose in oratory and literature, the so-called humanism (humanitas - "human perfection"). Writers and poets of a new type appeared, such as Dante (1265-1321), Petrarch (1304-1374), Boccaccio (1313-1375), etc.
In the future, new trends were especially pronounced in art and architecture. The return to the samples of ancient builders and sculptors inspired the great artists of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), Raphael (1483-1520), Durer (1471-1528), Titian (1477-1576) and others. Wonderful architectural structures appeared, especially in Italy.
The most important achievement in the history of culture during the Renaissance was the invention of printing (1440). Until the middle of the 15th century. only handwritten books were in use. They circulated on a small number of lists and were very expensive. The introduction of printing made it possible to reproduce books in large numbers, which greatly contributed to the dissemination of knowledge.
During the Renaissance, great geographical discoveries were made. At the end of the XIII century. Marco Polo (1254-1324) traveled through the countries of Middle Asia to China, and spent more than 20 years in Asian countries. The description of his journey had a great influence on subsequent generations of travel geographers who were looking for a way to fabulous India. In the XIV and XV centuries. the Portuguese and Spaniards undertook many long-distance sea expeditions. Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) at the end of the 15th century, having rounded Africa from the south, opened the sea route to India, simultaneously making many important geographical discoveries. Christopher Columbus (1450-1506) at the end of the 15th century. crossed the Atlantic Ocean and discovered the West Indies and then South America. Magellan (1480-1521) made the first sea voyage around the world.
In the field of natural sciences, the Renaissance was marked by the emergence of a number of innovative scientists, who for the first time, with their works, shook the foundations of peripatetic and scholastic philosophy. In 1542 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) overthrew the old, supported by the authority of the church, Ptolemy's geocentric system (II century), and developed a new heliocentric system. The teachings of Copernicus were further developed in the discoveries of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who laid the foundations of theoretical astronomy. Noticeable successes in this era were achieved by mechanics, mathematics and other sciences.
The driving forces behind the major scientific discoveries and achievements of the Renaissance were profound transformations in the nature and scale of production. Already in the XV century. the process of transition from handicraft methods of production, characteristic of the era of feudalism, to manufacture began. This process, which marked the beginning of the capitalist system of production, caused profound socio-economic changes in the life of society.
All new economic, political and social phenomena of the Renaissance led to the formation of a new bourgeois worldview, which rejected the religious scholasticism of past centuries. The emergence of elements of a new worldview had a beneficial effect on the development of natural sciences and, in particular, chemistry. Describing this important period in the history of culture and science, F. Engels wrote that it was an era “in need of titans and which gave birth to titans in terms of the power of thought, passion and character, versatility and learning. The people who founded the modern rule of the bourgeoisie were anything but bourgeois-limited people. "
One of the greatest representatives of the science and art of the Renaissance was the Italian Leonardo da Vinci. Being a remarkable mechanic, mathematician, design engineer, anatomist and artist, Leonardo da Vinci was also interested in some issues of chemistry. For example, he himself invented and prepared paints for his paintings. His views reflected the new trends of the Renaissance. Here is what Leonardo da Vinci writes about the role of air in the combustion process: “Fire-element continuously destroys the air that partially feeds it. And he would be in contact with emptiness, if the inflowing air did not come to the rescue, filling it. "
Such innovative ideas, as will be seen, were characteristic of many chemists of the Renaissance.
The Renaissance is a time of cultural flourishing, the heyday of all arts, but the most fully expressing the spirit of its time was the fine arts.
The Renaissance, or Renaissance(fr. "anew" + "born") had world significance in the history of European culture. The Renaissance replaced the Middle Ages and preceded the Age of Enlightenment.
The main features of the Renaissance- the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in a person and his activities). During the Renaissance period, interest in ancient culture flourishes and its “revival” takes place.
The renaissance arose in Italy - its first signs appeared in the XIII-XIV centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna, etc.). But it was firmly established from the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its highest peak.
In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the XVI century. the crisis of the ideas of the Renaissance begins, the consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.
Renaissance periods
The Renaissance is divided into 4 periods:
1. Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the XIII century-XIV century)
2. Early Renaissance (early XV-late XV century)
3. High Renaissance (late 15th-first 20 years of the 16th century)
4. Late Renaissance (mid-16th-90s of the 16th century)
The fall of the Byzantine Empire played a role in the formation of the Renaissance. Having moved to Europe, the Byzantines brought with them their libraries and works of art, not known to medieval Europe. In Byzantium, they never broke with ancient culture.
Emergence humanism(a social and philosophical movement that considered man as the highest value) was associated with the absence of feudal relations in the Italian city-republics.
In the cities, secular centers of science and art began to arise, which were not controlled by the church. whose activities were outside the control of the church. In the middle of the 15th century. typography was invented, which played an important role in spreading new views throughout Europe.
Brief characteristics of the periods of the Renaissance
Proto-renaissance
Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is still closely associated with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. It is associated with the names of Giotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Pisano brothers, Andrea Pisano.
Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)
Proto-Renaissance painting is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). The central figure in painting was Giotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and embossed ones, turned to realism, introduced the plastic volume of figures into painting, depicted the interior in painting.
Early renaissance
This is the period from 1420 to 1500. Artists of the Early Renaissance of Italy drew motives from life, filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. In sculpture they were L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio. A free-standing statue, a picturesque relief, a portrait bust, and an equestrian monument began to develop in their work.
In Italian painting of the 15th century. (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino, etc.) are characterized by a feeling of harmonious order of the world, appeal to the ethical and civic ideals of humanism, a joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
The founder of the Renaissance architecture in Italy was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) - an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the founders of the scientific theory of perspective.
A special place in the history of Italian architecture is Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)... This Italian scholar, architect, writer and musician of the Early Renaissance was educated in Padua, studied law in Bologna, and later lived in Florence and Rome. He created theoretical treatises "On the Statue" (1435), "On Painting" (1435-1436), "On Architecture" (published in 1485). He defended the "folk" (Italian) language as a literary one, in the ethical treatise "On the Family" (1737-1441) he developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In architectural work, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. He was one of the founders of the new European architecture.
Palazzo Rucellai
Leon Battista Alberti designed a new type of palazzo with a façade treated with rustic stone to its full height and dissected by three tiers of pilasters, which look like the structural basis of the building (Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, built by B. Rossellino according to Alberti's plans).
Opposite the Palazzo is the Loggia Rucellai, where receptions and banquets for business partners were held, and weddings were celebrated.
Loggia Rucellai
High Renaissance
This is the time of the most magnificent development of the Renaissance style. In Italy, it lasted from about 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne Julia II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man who attracted the best Italian artists to his court.
Raphael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julius II"
In Rome, many monumental buildings are being built, magnificent sculptures are being created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered masterpieces of painting. Antiquity is still highly regarded and studied thoroughly. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out the independence of artists.
The pinnacle of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).
Late Renaissance
In Italy, this is the period from the 1530s to 1590-1620s. The art and culture of this time is very diverse. Some believe (for example, British scholars) that "the Renaissance as an integral historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527". The art of the late Renaissance is a very complex picture of the struggle between various movements. Many artists did not seek to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to learn the "manner" of the great masters: Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. On this occasion, the elderly Michelangelo once said, watching the artists copy his "Last Judgment": "Many of my art will make fools."
In southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which did not welcome any free-thinking, including the praise of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
Famous artists of this period were Giorgione (1477 / 1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610), etc. Caravaggio considered the founder of the Baroque style.
The Renaissance is also called the Renaissance. This is the period of development of science, culture, morality and education. Central Asia experienced such a period in the 9th - 12th and 14th - 15th centuries.
In the countries of Western Europe, the heyday of the Renaissance falls mainly in the XIV-XVII centuries. Scientists consider the Renaissance to be an era of transition from medieval stagnation to modern times. The Renaissance in Western Europe did not come about by itself.
The Central Asian Eastern Renaissance had a direct impact on the development of world culture and scientific thought. The renaissance arose in Italy, since there the peculiarities characteristic of capitalist society arose earlier. The main distinguishing features of the Renaissance in Western Europe were:
- denial of ignorance, fanaticism, conservatism;
- affirmation of a humanistic worldview, belief in the limitless possibilities of man, his will and mind;
- an appeal to the cultural heritage of antiquity, as if its "revival", hence the name of the era;
- glorification in literature and art of the beauty of the earth, and not the afterlife;
- the struggle for freedom and human dignity.
Renaissance literature.
Outstanding talents were created in the literature and art of the Renaissance.
One of the geniuses of literature of this era was William Shakespeare (1564-1616). He believed that "man is the greatest miracle of nature!" Shakespeare was in love with theater. He worked as an actor and playwright. The world around him appeared to him as a stage, and people as actors. He deeply believed that the theater would become a school for people that would teach them to resist the blows of fate, awaken a feeling of hatred for betrayal, duplicity, and baseness. W. Shakespeare left such masterpieces to mankind as Othello, Hamlet, King Lear, Romeo and Juliet and other works.
Miguel de Cervantes (1547 - 1616), Spanish writer, one of the greatest representatives of the Renaissance. The protagonist of his famous novel "Don Quixote" is the last of the noble knight wandering in the world of injustice. Don Quixote fights injustice as best he can. His actions are a reflection of his motto: "For freedom, as for glory, you need to expose your life to danger."
Art. Another prominent representative of the Renaissance is Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519). He was both an artist, a poet, an architect, a sculptor, a musician, and an inventor. Leonardo da Vinci called painting "the princess of the arts."
The heroes of his paintings were not gods or angels, but ordinary people. Such is his painting "Madonna and Child", where the mother gently presses the baby to her breast. Embracing him, she looks with a gentle half-smile. The earth, on the other hand, reflects a mother's endless love for a child. The famous mural by Leonardo da Vinci "The Last Vespers".
Another great artist of this period is Raphael Santi (1483 - 1520). He lived for only 37 years. But during this short period he managed to create masterpieces of world painting, one of which is the "Sistine Madonna".
The artist's contemporaries assessed this canvas "as one of a kind." On it, the barefoot Saint Mary does not seem to be standing on the clouds, but soars over them towards her destiny.
The look, still of the infant Jesus, is as serious as that of an adult. As if he feels future suffering and imminent death. There is also sadness and anxiety in the mother's gaze. She knows everything in advance. Nevertheless, she goes to meet people who will open the path of truth at the expense of the life of her son.
The most famous work of the Dutch artist Rembrandt (1606 - 1669) is the painting The Return of the Prodigal Son. He created it in the most difficult years for him - after the death of his son. The biblical legend tells how a son wandered around the world for many years and, having spent all his wealth, returns to his father's house, where he is taken back.
Rembrandt depicted in his work the minute of the meeting between father and son. The lost son is kneeling at the door of the house. Shabby clothes and a bald head testify to the sorrows of life endured. The frozen movement of the hands of a blind father expresses the bright joy of a desperate person and his endless love.
Artistic.
Sculptors of this period considered sculpture to be the best type of fine art, like nothing else that glorifies man and his beauty.
The most famous among the creators of this period was the Italian Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475 - 1564).
With his immortal works, he left an indelible mark on history.
Here's what he said about art in his three-lineage:
"What is life, what being
Before the eternity of art,
He will not be defeated by a sage,
no time. "
He expressed with the greatest force the deeply human, full of heroic pathos ideals of the Renaissance. The statue of David created by him affirms the physical and spiritual beauty of a person, his unlimited creative possibilities. This work of the great sculptor reflects the image of the biblical hero, the shepherd David, who fought with the mythical giant Goliath. According to legend, David kills Goliath in single combat and later becomes king. The grandeur and beauty of this sculpture is unmatched.
St. Peter's Basilica is the main Catholic church in Rome and Europe. Its construction was completed by Michelangelo. The temple was built over a hundred years.
Renaissance - a term for the Renaissance
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Revival Is a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe. The Renaissance was most clearly manifested in Italy, tk. in Italy there was no single state (with the exception of the south). The main form of political existence - small city-states with a republican form of government, feudal lords merged with bankers, wealthy merchants and industrialists. Therefore, in Italy, feudalism in its full forms never took shape. The atmosphere of rivalry between cities put in the first place not origin, but personal ability and wealth. There was a need not only for energetic and enterprising people, but also for educated ones. Therefore, a humanistic direction appears in education and worldview. The Renaissance is usually divided into Early (beginning 14 - end 15) and High (end 15 - First quarter 16.). The greatest artists of Italy belong to this era - Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti(1475 -1564) and Raphael Santi(1483 - 1520). This division is applicable directly to Italy and, although the Renaissance reached its peak in the Apennine Peninsula, its phenomenon spread to other parts of Europe. Similar processes north of the Alps are called « Northern Renaissance ». Similar processes took place in France and in the cities of Germany. Medieval people and people of modern times were looking for their ideals in the past. During the Middle Ages, people believed that they continue to live in. The Roman Empire continued, and the cultural tradition: Latin, the study of Roman literature, the difference was felt only in the religious sphere. But in the Renaissance, the view of antiquity changed, from which they saw something fundamentally different from the Middle Ages, mainly the absence of the all-encompassing power of the church, spiritual freedom, an attitude towards man as the center of the universe. It is these ideas that have become central in the worldview of humanists. Ideals, so consonant with new development trends, gave rise to the desire to resurrect antiquity in full, and it was Italy with its huge number of Roman antiquities that became fertile ground for this. The revival manifested itself and went down in history as a period of extraordinary rise of art. If earlier works of art served church interests, that is, they were cult objects, now works are created to satisfy aesthetic needs. Humanists believed that life should be enjoyable and they rejected medieval monastic asceticism. Such Italian writers and poets played a huge role in the formation of the ideology of humanism, as Dante Alighieri (1265 - 1321), Francesco Petrarca (1304 - 1374), Giovanni Boccaccio(1313 - 1375). Actually, they, especially Petrarch, were the founders of both Renaissance literature and humanism itself. Humanists perceived their era as a time of prosperity, happiness and beauty. But this does not mean that she was devoid of contradictions. The main one was that it remained the ideology of the elite; new ideas did not penetrate the masses. And the humanists themselves sometimes had a pessimistic mood. Fear of the future, disillusionment with human nature, the impossibility of achieving an ideal in the social order permeate the moods of many Renaissance figures. Perhaps most revealing in this sense was the tense expectation doomsday in 1500. The revival laid the foundations of a new European culture, a new European secular worldview, and a new European independent personality.
Renaissance, ital. Rinascimento) is an era in the history of European culture that replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. Approximate chronological framework of the era - XIV-XVI centuries.A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in a person and his activities). There is an interest in ancient culture, there is, as it were, its "revival" - and this is how the term appeared.
Term Revival already found among Italian humanists, for example, among Giorgio Vasari. In its modern meaning, the term was introduced into everyday life by the 19th century French historian Jules Michelet. Currently, the term Revival turned into a metaphor for cultural flourishing: for example, the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.
general characteristics
A new cultural paradigm has arisen as a result of cardinal changes in social relations in Europe.
The growth of the city-republics led to an increase in the influence of estates that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and artisans, merchants, bankers. All of them were alien to the hierarchical system of values created by the medieval, in many respects church culture and its ascetic, humble spirit. This led to the emergence of humanism - a social and philosophical movement that considered a person, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value and a criterion for assessing social institutions.
Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in the cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. The new worldview turned to antiquity, seeing in it an example of humanistic, non-ascetic relations. The invention of book printing in the middle of the century played a huge role in the spread of ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.
Periods of the era
Early renaissance
The period of the so-called "Early Renaissance" in Italy covers the time from year to year. During these eighty years, art has not yet completely abandoned the traditions of the recent past, but is trying to mix with them elements borrowed from classical antiquity. Only later, and only little by little, under the influence of more and more changing living conditions and culture, did the artists completely abandon the medieval foundations and boldly use the examples of ancient art both in the general concept of their works and in their details.
While art in Italy was already resolutely following the path of imitation of classical antiquity, in other countries it kept the traditions of the Gothic style for a long time. North of the Alps, and also in Spain, the Renaissance does not come until the end of the 15th century, and its early period lasts until about the middle of the next century, without producing anything particularly remarkable, however.
High Renaissance
The second period of the Renaissance - the time of the most magnificent development of his style - is usually called the "High Renaissance", it extends in Italy from about 1580. At this time, the center of gravity of Italian art from Florence moved to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, an ambitious, courageous and enterprising man who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court, occupied them with numerous and important works and gave others an example of love for the arts. ... With this pope and his closest successors, Rome becomes, as it were, the new Athens of the times of Pericles: many monumental buildings are created in it, magnificent sculptural works are performed, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered pearls of painting; at the same time, all three branches of art harmoniously go hand in hand, helping one another and mutually acting on each other. Antique is now studied more thoroughly, reproduced with greater rigor and consistency; tranquility and dignity are established in place of the playful beauty that was the aspiration of the preceding period; reminiscences of the medieval disappear completely, and a completely classical imprint falls on all creations of art. But the imitation of the ancients does not drown out their independence in artists, and they, with great resourcefulness and liveliness of imagination, freely rework and apply to business what they consider appropriate to borrow for him from Greco-Roman art.
Northern Renaissance
The Renaissance period in the Netherlands, Germany and France is usually distinguished as a separate stylistic trend, which has some differences from the Renaissance in Italy, and called the "Northern Renaissance".
The stylistic differences in painting are most noticeable: unlike Italy, the traditions and skills of Gothic art were preserved in painting for a long time, less attention was paid to the study of the ancient heritage and the knowledge of human anatomy.
Renaissance man
The science
In general, the pantheistic mysticism of the Renaissance prevailing in this era created an unfavorable ideological background for the development of scientific knowledge. The final formation of the scientific method and the subsequent Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. associated with the opposition to the Renaissance movement of the Reformation.
Philosophy
Renaissance philosophers
Literature
In the literature of the Renaissance, the humanistic ideals of the era, the glorification of a harmonious, free, creative, comprehensively developed personality, were most fully expressed. The love sonnets of Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) revealed the depth of a person's inner world, the richness of his emotional life. In the XIV-XVI centuries, Italian literature flourished - the lyrics of Petrarch, the short stories of Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), the political treatises of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), the poems of Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) and Torquato Tasso (1544-1595) put it forward among the "classical" (along with ancient Greek and ancient Roman) literature for other countries.
The literature of the Renaissance was based on two traditions: folk poetry and "book" antique literature, so it often combined the rational principle with poetic fiction, and comic genres became very popular. This was manifested in the most significant literary monuments of the era: "Decameron" by Boccaccio, "Don Quixote" by Cervantes, and "Gargantua and Pantagruela" by François Rabelais.
The emergence of national literatures is associated with the Renaissance, in contrast to the literature of the Middle Ages, which was created mainly in Latin.
Theater and drama became widespread. The most famous playwrights of this time were William Shakespeare (1564-1616, England) and Lope de Vega (1562-1635, Spain)
art
For painting and sculpture of the Renaissance period, artists' convergence with nature, their closest penetration into the laws of anatomy, perspective, the action of light and other natural phenomena is characteristic.
Renaissance artists, painting pictures of traditional religious themes, began to use new artistic techniques: building a volumetric composition, using a landscape in the background. This allowed them to make the images more realistic, lively, which showed a sharp difference between their work from the previous iconographic tradition, replete with conventions in the image.
Architecture
The main thing that characterizes this era is the return to Tsui
To the principles and forms of ancient, mainly Roman art. Particular importance in this direction is attached to symmetry, proportion, geometry and the order of the component parts, which is clearly evidenced by the surviving examples of Roman architecture. The complex proportion of medieval buildings is replaced by an orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels; asymmetrical outlines are replaced by a semicircle of an arch, a hemisphere of a dome, a niche, and aedicula.
The greatest flowering of Renaissance architecture experienced in Italy, leaving behind two cities-monuments: Florence and Venice. Great architects worked on the creation of the buildings there - Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Donato Bramante, Giorgio Vasari and many others.
Music
During the Renaissance (Renaissance), professional music loses the character of a purely ecclesiastical art and is influenced by folk music, imbued with a new humanistic outlook. The art of vocal and vocal-instrumental polyphony reaches a high level in the works of representatives of "Ars nova" ("New Art") in Italy and France in the XIV century, in the new polyphonic schools - English (XV century), Dutch (XV-XVI centuries). ), Roman, Venetian, French, German, Polish, Czech, etc. (XVI century).
Various genres of secular musical art appear - frottola and villanella in Italy, villancio in Spain, ballad in England, madrigal, which arose in Italy (L. Marenzio, J. Arcadelt, Gesualdo da Venosa), but became widespread, French polyphonic song (K . Jannequin, K. Lejeune). Secular humanistic aspirations also penetrate into cult music - among the Franco-Flemish masters (Josquin Despres, Orlando di Lasso), in the art of the composers of the Venetian school (A. and J. Gabrieli). During the period of the Counter-Reformation, the question was raised of the expulsion of polyphony from the religious cult, and only the reform of the head of the Roman school of Palestrina retains polyphony for the Catholic Church - in a "purified", "clarified" form. At the same time, some of the valuable achievements of the secular music of the Renaissance were reflected in the art of Palestrina. New genres of instrumental music emerged, and national schools of performance on the lute, organ, and virginel were put forward. In Italy, the art of making bowed instruments with rich expressive possibilities flourishes. The clash of different aesthetic attitudes is manifested in the "struggle" of two types of bowed instruments - the viola, which was common in the aristocratic environment, and