Famous figures of Russian culture of the XIX century. Outstanding personalities of Russian science and culture of the 18th century to the List of foreign cultural figures of the 19th century

Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the 17th – early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. Classicism, which developed in acute polemic interaction with the Baroque, developed into an integral style system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century.

Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries (in foreign art history it is often called neoclassicism), which became a common European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strongest influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an exquisite mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square (Gabrielle Jacques Ange and Soufflot Jacques Germain) were defined, the search for new, orderless forms of architecture, the desire for harsh simplicity in the work of Ledoude Claude Nicolas anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - the Empire style. Civil pathos and lyricism combined in plastic (Pigalle Jean Baptiste and Houdon Jean Antoine), decorative landscapes (Robert Hubert). The courageous drama of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter Jacques Louis David. In the 19th century, classicist painting, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, degenerates into an official apologetic or pretentious erotic salon art. Rome became the international center of European classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the traditions of academicism dominated mainly with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization (German painter Anton Raphael Mengs, sculptors: Italian Canova Antonio and Danish Thorvaldsen Bertel). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the severe monumentality of the buildings of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, for the contemplatively elegiac painting and plastics - portraits of August and Wilhelm Tischbein, sculpture by Johann Gottfried Schadov. In English classicism, the antique buildings of Robert Adam, the Palladian in spirit park estates of William Chambers, the exquisitely strict drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood are distinguished. Own versions of classicism developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, the Scandinavian countries, the USA; an outstanding place in the history of world art is occupied by Russian classicism of the 1760s – 1840s.

By the end of the first third of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism almost everywhere faded away, it was supplanted by various forms of architectural eclecticism. The artistic tradition of classicism revives in neoclassicism of the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, (1780-1867) - French artist, recognized leader of European academicism in the 19th century.
In the work of Ingres - the search for pure harmony.
Studied at the Toulouse Academy of Fine Arts. After graduating from the academy, he moved to Paris, where in 1797 he became a student of Jacques-Louis David. In 1806-1820 he studied and worked in Rome, then moved to Florence, where he spent another four years. In 1824 he returned to Paris and opened a painting school. In 1835 he returned to Rome as director of the French Academy. From 1841 until the end of his life he lives in Paris.

Academism (fr. Academisme) - a trend in European painting of the XVII-XIX centuries. Academic painting emerged during the development of art academies in Europe. The stylistic basis of academic painting at the beginning of the 19th century was classicism, in the second half of the 19th century - eclecticism.
Academicism grew up following the outer forms of classical art. Followers characterized this style as a reasoning over the art form of the ancient ancient world and the Renaissance.

Ingres. Portraits of the Riviere family. 1804-05

Romanticism

Romanticism- a phenomenon generated by the bourgeois system. As a worldview and style of artistic creation, it reflects its contradictions: the gap between what is necessary and what is, ideal and reality. Awareness of the unrealizability of the humanistic ideals and values ​​of the Enlightenment gave rise to two alternative worldview positions. The essence of the first is to disdain the base reality and close oneself up in the shell of pure ideals. The essence of the second is to recognize empirical reality, to discard all reasoning about the ideal. The starting point of the romantic worldview is an open rejection of reality, the recognition of an insurmountable gap between ideals and real life, the unreasonableness of the world of things.

It is characterized by a negative attitude towards reality, pessimism, the interpretation of historical forces as being outside the real everyday reality, mystification and mythologization. All this prompted a search for a resolution of contradictions not in the real world, but in the fantasy world.

The romantic outlook embraced all spheres of spiritual life - science, philosophy, art, religion. It was expressed in two versions:

First, in it the world appeared to be an endless, faceless, cosmic subjectivity. The creative energy of the spirit acts here as the beginning that creates world harmony. This version of the romantic worldview is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, and lofty feelings.

The second - in it, human subjectivity is considered individually and personally, it is understood as the inner self-deepened world of a person in conflict with the outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism, a lyrically sad attitude towards the world.

The original principle of romanticism was "dual world": comparison and opposition of the real and imaginary worlds. The way of expressing this double world was symbolism.

Romantic symbolism represented an organic combination of the illusory and real world, which manifested itself in the appearance of metaphor, hyperbole, and poetic comparisons. Romanticism, despite its close connection with religion, was characterized by humor, irony, dreaminess. Romanticism declared music as a model and norm for all areas of art, in which, according to romantics, the very element of life, the element of freedom and the triumph of feelings sounded.

The rise of romanticism was driven by a number of factors. First, socio-political: the French Revolution of 1769-1793, the Napoleonic wars, the war for the independence of Latin America. Secondly, economic: the industrial revolution, the development of capitalism. Thirdly, it was formed under the influence of classical German philosophy. Fourth, it developed on the basis and within the framework of existing literary styles: enlightenment, sentimentalism.

The heyday of romanticism falls on the period 1795-1830. - the period of European revolutions and national liberation movements, and romanticism manifested itself especially clearly in the culture of Germany, England, Russia, Italy, France, Spain.

The romantic tendency had a great influence in the humanitarian field, and the positivist tendency in the natural sciences, technical and practical.

Jean Louis André Theodore Gericault (1791-1824).
A student for a short time, K. Vernet (1808-1810), and then P. Guerin (1810-1811), who was upset by his methods of transferring nature not in accordance with the principles of the school of Jacques-Louis David and addiction to Rubens, but later recognized rationality aspirations of Gericault.
Serving in the royal musketeers, Gericault wrote mainly battle scenes, but after traveling to Italy in 1817-19. he painted the large and complex painting "The Raft of the Medusa" (located in the Louvre, Paris), which became a complete rejection of the Davidic direction and an eloquent sermon of realism. The novelty of the plot, the deep drama of the composition and the vital truth of this masterfully written work were not immediately appreciated, but soon it received recognition even from adherents of the academic style and brought the artist fame as a talented and courageous innovator.

Tragic tension and drama. In 1818 Gericault worked on the painting "The Raft of Medusa", which marked the beginning of French romanticism. Delacroix, posing for his friend, witnessed the birth of a composition that breaks all the usual ideas about painting. Later, Delacroix recalled that when he saw the finished picture, he "in delight rushed to run like a madman, and could not stop until home."
The plot of the picture is based on a real incident that happened on July 2, 1816 off the coast of Senegal. Then the frigate "Medusa" was wrecked on the Argen shoal, 40 leagues from the African coast. 140 passengers and crew members tried to escape by boarding the raft. Only 15 of them survived and on the twelfth day of their wanderings were picked up by the Argus brig. The details of the sailing of the survivors shocked modern public opinion, and the wreck itself turned into a scandal in the French government due to the incompetence of the ship's captain and the lack of attempts to rescue the victims.

Figurative solution
The giant canvas impresses with its expressive power. Gericault managed to create a vivid image, combining in one picture the dead and the living, hope and despair. The painting was preceded by a huge preparatory work. Gericault made numerous studies of the dying in hospitals and the corpses of those executed. The Raft of Medusa was the last of Gericault's completed works.
In 1818, when Gericault was working on the painting "The Raft of Medusa", which laid the foundation for French romanticism, Eugene Delacroix, posing for his friend, witnessed the birth of a composition that breaks all the usual ideas about painting. Later, Delacroix recalled that when he saw the finished picture, he "in delight rushed to run like a madman, and could not stop until home."

Public reaction
When Gericault exhibited "The Raft of Medusa" at the Salon in 1819, the picture aroused public outrage, since the artist, contrary to the academic norms of the time, did not use such a large format to depict a heroic, moralizing or classical subject.
The painting was acquired in 1824 and is currently in the 77th room on the 1st floor of the Denon Gallery in the Louvre.

Eugene Delacroix(1798 - 1863) - French painter and graphic artist, head of the romantic movement in European painting.
But the Louvre and communication with the young painter Theodore Gericault became the real universities for Delacroix. In the Louvre, he was fascinated by the works of the old masters. At that time, many canvases could be seen there, captured during the Napoleonic Wars and not yet returned to their owners. Most of all, the aspiring artist was attracted by the great colorists - Rubens, Veronese and Titian. But Theodore Gericault had the greatest influence on Delacroix.

In July 1830 Paris revolted against the Bourbon monarchy. Delacroix sympathized with the rebels, and this was reflected in his "Liberty Leading the People" (in our country this work is also known as "Liberty on the Barricades"). Exhibited at the Salon in 1831, the canvas was highly acclaimed by the public. The new government bought the painting, but at the same time immediately ordered to remove it, its pathos seemed too dangerous.

History is created by people, every second adding their small correctives to the chain of historical events, but only a few are capable of drastically changing it, influencing not only themselves, but also the path along which the whole state will go. There were very few such people throughout the 19th century. It is especially worth noting the heroes of the war of 1812 - field marshals Barclay de Tolly and Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov, without whom the victorious march of the Russian army through liberated Europe could not have taken place.

Such great figures and thinkers of the 19th as Bakunin, Herzen, Zhelyabov, Muravyov, and Pestel made a huge contribution to the idea of ​​the future October Revolution. The progressive ideas of these outstanding thinkers formed the basis for many of the greats of the next century.

The 19th century is the time of the first revolutions, the first attempts to adopt the European experience, the time of the emergence in society of thoughts about the need to transform Russia into a constitutional state. Sergei Yulievich Witte, Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin and Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky did a great job in this direction. The 19th century is also the time of the activity of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin - one of the leading figures of historical thought.

Alexey Arakcheev	Count, statesman, general. In the period from 1815 to 1825. actually exercised leadership of domestic policy, pursued a reactionary course
Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich	Revolutionary, one of the ideologues of anarchism and populism
Barclay de Tolly Mikhail Bogdanovich	Field Marshal, Hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in the overseas campaign of 1813-1814.
Benkendorf Alexander Khristoforovich	Count, general, hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, since 1826 chief of the gendarmes corps and head of the 111th department of his own E. I. V. Chancellery
Witte Sergei Yulievich	Count, statesman, minister of finance in 1892-1903, patronized the development of industry and entrepreneurship
Herzen Alexander Ivanovich	Writer, philosopher, creator of the Free Russian Printing House, publisher of "Bells", creator of the theory of "Russian socialism"
Gorchakov Alexander Mikhailovich	His Serene Highness Prince, Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1856-1882, Chancellor, one of the most prominent diplomats of the 19th century.
Joseph Vladimirovich	Field Marshal, a hero of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78, distinguished himself in the battles for Shipka, near Plevna, liberated Sofia
Ermolov Alexey Petrovich	General, hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, in 1816-1827. Commander of the Caucasian Corps, for sympathy with the Decembrists in 1827 dismissed
Zhelyabov Andrey Ivanovich	Revolutionary, one of the founders of "Narodnaya Volya", organizer of the assassination attempts on Alexander II. Executed
Istomin Vladimir Ivanovich	Rear Admiral, Hero of the Crimean War ", died during the defense of Sevastopol
Kankrin Egor Frantsevich	Statesman, Minister of Finance in 1823-1844, carried out financial reform (1839-1843)
Karamzin Nikolay Mikhailovich
Kiselev Pavel Dmitrievich	Statesman, Minister of State Property from 1837 to 1856, carried out a reform of the management of state peasants, contributed to the preparation of the abolition of serfdom
Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich	Vice-admiral, hero of the Crimean War, died during the defense of Sevastopol
Kutuzov Mikhail Illarionovich	Field Marshal, student and ally of Suvorov, hero of the Patriotic War of 1812, since August 1812 - commander-in-chief of all active armies

Loris-Melikov Mikhail Tarielovich	Count, Minister of Internal Affairs in 1880-1881, author of the draft constitution, which Alexander II was going to bestow on Russia
Milyutin Dmitry Alekseevich	Count, Field Marshal, Minister of War in 1861-1881, led the implementation of military reforms during the reign of Alexander II
Milyutin Nikolay Alekseevich	Brother of D.A.Milyutin, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs in 1859-1861, one of the authors of the peasant reform of 1861.
Muravyov Alexander Nikolaevich	Decembrist, Colonel of the General Staff, founder of the "Union of Salvation"
Muravyev Nikita Mikhailovich	Russian society
Nakhimov Pavel Stepanovich	Admiral, hero of the Crimean War, died during the defense of Sevastopol
Pavel Pestel	Decembrist, colonel, one of the founders of secret societies, author of the project "Russian Truth". Executed
Plekhanov Georgy Valentinovich	Revolutionary, one of the leaders of the Black Redistribution, one of the founders of the Emancipation of Labor group, Marxist
Lunch n o ce v Konstantin Petrovich	Statesman, lawyer, since 1880 Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, during the reign of Alexander III had great influence, conservative
Skobelev Mikhail Dmitrievich	General, hero of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, distinguished himself during the assault on Plevna and in the battles on Shipka
Speransky Mikhail Mikhailovich	Count, statesman and reformer, secretary of state in 1810-1812, author of an unrealized draft constitution, during the reign of Nicholas I was engaged in the codification of Russian legislation
Totleben Eduard Ivanovich	Count, engineer-general, hero of the Sevastopol defense and the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
Trubetskoy Sergey Petrovich	Prince, guard colonel, one of the founders of secret Decembrist societies, elected dictator of the uprising on December 14
Uvarov Sergey Semenovich	Count, President of the Academy of Sciences in 1818-1855, Minister of Public Education in 1838-1849, author of the theory of "official nationality"

RUSSIA

Russian literature of the late 18th - 19th centuries developed in difficult conditions. Economically, the Russian Empire was one of the backward countries of Europe. Reforms of the 18th century Peter I and Catherine II were primarily concerned with military affairs.

If in the XIX century. Russia was still an economically backward country, but in the field of literature, music and fine arts it was already at the forefront.

LITERATURE OF THE BEGINNING OF THE CENTURY

The most educated class in Russia was the nobility. Most of the cultural figures of this time are from the nobility or people, one way or anotherassociated with the noble culture. The ideological struggle in literature at the beginning of the century was between the society "Conversation of lovers of the Russian word" (Derzhavin, Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, Shakhovskoy, Krylov, Zakharov, etc.), which united conservative nobles, and radical writers who were part of the circle "Arzamas" (Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Vyazemsky, Pushkin, etc.). The first and second wrote their works in the spirit of classicism and romanticism, but the poets of "Arzamas" fought more actively for the new art, defended civil and democratic pathos in poetry.

In the early 1920s, poets and writers associated with the Decembrist movement or ideologically close to it played an important role in literature. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, in the epoch of the dull Nikolaev reaction, the most famous writers were F. Bulgarin and N. Grech, who appeared in their organs - the newspaper "Severnaya Beele" and the magazine "Son of the Fatherland". Both of them opposed the new trends in Russian literature, for which Pushkin, Gogol and others stood up. At the same time, they were not devoid of talent as writers.

The most popular works of Thaddeus Bulgarin (1789 - 1859) were the didactic and moralistic novels "Ivan Vyzhigin" (1829) and "Pyotr Ivanovich Vyzhigin" (1831), which became bestsellers during the author's lifetime, but they were completely forgotten by his contemporaries; his historical novels "Dmitry the Impostor" and "Mazepa" abound in melodramatic effects.

The most significant creation of Nikolai Grech (1787 - 1867) was the adventurous and moralistic novel "Black Woman" (1834), written in the spirit of romanticism. Grech also wrote an epistolary novel"Bya trip to Germany "(1836)," Experience in a Brief History of Russian Literature "(1822) - the country's first work on the history of Russian literature - and a few more textbooks on the Russian language.

The largest prose writer of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, writer and historiographer Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766 - 1826) was no stranger to liberalism when it came to abstract ideas that did not affect the Russian order. His Letters from a Russian Traveler played an important role in acquainting readers with Western European life and culture. The most famous of his stories - "Poor Liza" (1792) tells the touching love story of a nobleman and a peasant woman. “And the peasant women know how to feel,” - this maxim contained in the story testified to the humane direction of the views of its author.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Karamzin writes the most significant work of his life - the multivolume History of the Russian State, in which, following Tatishchev, he interprets the events of the history of the East Slavic peoples in the spirit of the existing Russian monarchy and elevates the historical justification of Moscow's seizure of the lands of its neighbors to the rank of state ideology of the Romanov Tsarist dynasty.

The works of Vasily Zhukovsky (1783 - 1852) constituted an important stage in the development of romantic lyrics. Zhukovsky experienced a deep disappointment with the Enlightenment of the 18th century, and this disappointment turned his thought to the Middle Ages. As a true romantic, Zhukovsky considered the blessings of life to be transitory and saw happiness only in immersion in the inner world of a person. As a translator, Zhukovsky opened Western European romantic poetry to the Russian reader. His translations from Schiller and the English romantics are especially remarkable.

The lyrics of KN Batyushkov (1787 - 1855), unlike Zhukovsky's romanticism, were earthly, sensual in nature, were imbued with a bright view of the world, harmonious and graceful.

The main merit of Ivan Krylov (1769 - 1844) is the creation of a classic fable in Russian. Krylov took the plots of his fables from other fabulists, primarily from La Fontaine, but at the same time he always remained a deeply national poet, reflecting the peculiarities of national character and mind in fables, bringing his fable to high naturalness and simplicity.

The Decembrists wrote their works in the spirit of classicism. They turned to the heroic images of Cato and Brutus and to the motives of romantic national antiquity, to the freedom-loving traditions of Novgorod and Pskov, the cities of Ancient Rus. The greatest poet among the Decembrists was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795 - 1826). The author of tyrannical poems ("Citizen", "To the Temporary Worker") also wrote a series of patriotic "Dooms" and created the romantic poem "Voinarovsky", which depicts the tragic fate of a Ukrainian patriot.

Alexander Griboyedov (1795 - 1829) entered Russian literature as the author of one work - the comedy Woe from Wit (1824), in which there is no intrigue in the sense that the French comedians understood it, and there is no happy ending. The comedy is based on the opposition of Chatsky to other characters that form the Famusian circle, the noble society of Moscow. The struggle of a man of advanced views, against the bar, parasites and debauches who have lost their national dignity and reptiles in front of everything French, stupid soldier-fighters and persecutors of the enlightenment, ends with the defeat of the hero. But the public pathos of Chatsky's speeches reflected the full force of indignation that had accumulated among the radical Russian youth, who stood up for reforms in society.

Griboyedov wrote several more plays together with P. Katenin ("The Student", "Feigned Infidelity"), the ideological content of which was directed against the poets of "Arzamas".

PUSHKIN AND LERMONTOV

Alexander Pushkin (1799 - 1837) became a turning point for Russian literature, separating the new literature from the old. His work determined the development of all Russian literature up to the end of the century. Pushkin raised Russian poetic art to the heights of European poetry, becoming the author of works of unsurpassed beauty and perfection.

In many ways, the genius of Pushkin determined the circumstance of his teaching in the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, which opened in 1811 - a higher educational institution for children of noblemen, from the walls of which many poets of the "golden age" of Russian poetry emerged in those years (A. Delvig, V. Küchelbecker, E. Baratynsky, etc.). Brought up on French classicism of the 17th century and educational literature of the 18th century, at the beginning of his career he passed through the influence of romantic poetry and, enriched by its artistic achievements, rose to the level of high realism.

In his youth, Pushkin wrote lyric poems in which he glorified the enjoyment of life, love and wine. The lyrics of these years breathe wit, imbued with an epicurean attitude to life inherited from poetryXviiiv. At the very beginning of the 1920s, new motives appeared in Pushkin's poems: he glorified freedom and laughed at the rulers. His brilliant political lyrics were the reason for the poet's exile to Bessarabia. During this period, Pushkin created his romantic poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus" (1820 - 1821), "Brothers-robbers" (1821 - 1822), "Bakhchisarai fountain" (1821 - 1823) and "Gypsies" (1824 - 1825).

The subsequent work of Pushkin was influenced by the published "History of the Russian State" by Karamzin and the ideas of the Decembrists. In an effort to more clearly show the Russian Emperor Alexander I, and thenNicholas II "experience" of the Russian rulers' rule, believing that reforms in the state should come from the tsar when the people are silent, Pushkin creates the historical tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1824 - 1825), dedicated to the "era of many rebellions" of the early 17th century. And at the end of the 1920s he wrote the poem "Poltava" (1828), the historical novel "The Arap of Peter the Great" (not completed) and a number of poems, referring to the image of the reformer Tsar Peter I, seeing in this image of Emperor Nicholas I, whose mission is to promote new reforms in Russia, i.e. become an enlightened monarch.

Having lost faith in his aspirations to change the will of the tsar, who sent the Decembrists to the gallows and into exile, Pushkin, in the spirit of the Byronic work Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, is working on one of his best creations - a novel in verse Eugene Onegin (1823 - 1831). In Onegin, a broad picture of the life of Russian society is given, and the lyrical digressions of the novel reflect the personality of the poet himself in many ways, sometimes pensive and sad, sometimes sarcastic and humorous. Pushkin in his creation reveals the image of a contemporary who has not found himself in life.

In the next significant creation, "Small Tragedies" (30s), the poet, using images and plots known from European literature, draws a clash of a daring human personality with laws, tradition and authority. Pushkin also turns to prose (the story "The Queen of Spades", the cycle "Belkin's Tale", "Dubrovsky"). Based on the artistic principles of Walter Scott, Pushkin wrote "The Captain's Daughter" (1836) and in the real events of the peasant uprising of the 18th century led by Yemelyan Pugachev, he weaves the life of the protagonist, whose fate is closely linked with major social events.

Pushkin is most powerful in his lyric poems. The unique beauty of his lyrics deeply reveals the inner world of a person. In terms of the depth of feeling and the classical harmony of form, his poems, together with the lyric poems of Goethe, belong to the best creations of world poetry.

The name of Pushkin is associated not only with the high flowering of Russian poetry, but also the formation of the Russian literary language. The language of his works becamethe norm of the modern Russian language.

In the shadow of Pushkin's poetry remained no less wonderful poets who lived in his time, who constituted the "golden age" of Russian poetry. Among them were the fiery lyricist N.M. Yazykov, the author of witty feuilletons in verse P.A. Vyazemsky, the master of elegiac poetry E.A. Baratynsky. Fyodor Tyutchev (1803 - 1873) stands apart from them. As a poet, he achieves an amazing unity of thought and feeling. Tyutchev devotes his lyrical miniatures to the image of the connection between man and nature.

Mikhail Lermontov (1814 - 1841) as a poet was no less talented than Pushkin. His poetry is marked by the pathos of denying the reality of his day, in many poems and poems slip the motives of either loneliness and bitter disappointment in life, then rebellion, a bold challenge, expectation of a storm. The images of rebels seeking freedom and rebelling against social injustice often appear in his poems (Mtsyri, 1840; Song about the merchant Kalashnikov, 1838). Lermontov is a poet of action. It is for inactivity that he castigates his generation, which is incapable of struggle and constructive labor ("Duma").

At the center of Lermontov's most significant works is the romantic image of a proud lonely Person seeking strong feelings in the struggle. Such are Arbenin (drama "Masquerade", 1835 - 1836), Demon ("Demon", 1829 - 1841) and Pechorin ("Hero of Our Time", 1840). Lermontov's works sharply reflect the entire complexity of social life and the contradictory nature of the problems of Russian culture raised by the progressive people of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.

REFERENCES 30 - 60s

The next important milestone in the history of Russian literature was the work of Nikolai Gogol (1809 - 1852). At the beginning of his creative career, he appeared as the author of the romantic poem "Hans Kuchelgarten" (1827). In the future, he writes exclusively prose. The first prose works, written based on Ukrainian folklore in an ironic, cheerful tone, bring success to the writer (collection of novellas “Evenings on a Farmnear Dikanka ". In the new collection "Mirgorod" the writer continues the topic that he has successfully started, significantly expanding the area. Already in the story from this collection "About how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich" Gogol departs from romance, showing the dominance of vulgarity and petty interests in modern Russian life.

Petersburg Tales depicts a large city contemporary to Gogol with its social contrasts. One of these stories, The Overcoat (1842), had a particular influence on subsequent literature. Compassionately portraying the fate of a downtrodden and disenfranchised petty official, Gogol opened the way for all democratic Russian literature from Turgenev, Grigorovich and early Dostoevsky to Chekhov.

In the comedy The Inspector General (1836), Gogol gives a deep and merciless exposure of the bureaucratic camarilla, its lawlessness and arbitrariness, which pervaded all aspects of the life of Russian society. Gogol threw away the love intrigue traditional in comedies and built his work on the image of social relations.

The novel What Is to Be Done? By Nikolai Chernyshevsky (1828 - 1889) was associated with the ideas of socialist utopias. (1863). In it, Chernyshevsky showed representatives of the intelligentsia striving to change life in Russia for the better.

In the person of Nikolai Nekrasov (1821 - 1878), Russian literature put forward a poet of enormous ideological depth and artistic maturity. In many poems, such as "Frost, Red Nose" (1863), "Who Lives Well in Russia" (1863 - 1877), the poet showed not only the suffering of people from the people, but also their physical and moral beauty , revealed their ideas about life, their tastes. Lyric poems by Nekrasov reveal the image of the poet himself, an advanced writer-citizen, feeling the suffering of the people, chivalrously devoted to him.

Alexander Ostrovsky (1823 - 1886) elevated Russian drama to the heights of world fame. The main "heroes" of his works are merchants-entrepreneurs born of new capitalist relations, who came out of the lower classes of society, but remained the same ignorant, entangled in prejudices, prone to tyranny, ridiculous and funny whims (the plays "The Thunderstorm", "Dowry", "Talents and fans "," Forest ", etc.). However, Ostrovsky also does not idealize the nobility - an obsolete class of its own; it also constitutes the "dark kingdom" of Russia.

In the 40s - 50s, the talent of such masters of words as Ivan Turgenev (1818 - 1883) and Ivan Goncharov (1812 - 1891) was revealed. Both writers in their works show the life of the "extra people" of society. However, if in Turgenev this is a person who denies everything sublime in life (the novels Fathers and Sons, Rudin ").

LITERATURE OF THE PEOPLES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Russian Empire by the beginning of the 70s of the XIX century. was a huge multinational country. It is clear that the culture of the ruling nation, expressed mainly by the literature and art of the nobility, had a significant impact on the cultural development of other peoples of Russia.

The Russian cultural factor for Ukrainians and Belarusians played the same role as the Polish factor played in the period after the unification of the Polish Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the society has a dominant position, for example, the main figures of Polish culture of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. left Belarus and Ukraine (F. Bogomolets, F. Knyazkin, A. Narushevich, A. Mitskevich, Y. Slovatsky, I. Krasitsky, V. Syrokomlya, M. K. Oginsky, etc.). After the annexation of Ukraine and Belarus to the Russian Empire, people from these places began to raise Russian culture (N. Gogol, N. Kukolnik, F. Bulgarin, M. Glinka, N. Kostomarov, etc.).

Despite the enormous influence of the Russian language, in Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there werethe premise of the appearance of nationally-minded nobles, who realized that in the Ukrainian language, which is spoken exclusively by the uneducated common people, it is possible to create original works. At this time, the study of the history of the Ukrainian people and their oral creativity began to acquire a significant scope. N.Bantysh-Kamensky's “History of Little Russia” appeared, the “History of the Russ” was circulated in handwritten lists, where an unknown author considered the Ukrainian people separately from the Russian and argued that it was Ukraine, not Russia, that was the direct heir of Kievan Rus.

An important factor in the growth of national consciousness among Ukrainians was the opening of the university in Kharkov in 1805. An important indicator of the viability of the Ukrainian language is the quality and variety of literature created in it. Ivan Petrovich Kotlyarevsky (1769 - 1838) was the first to turn to the living folk Ukrainian language, widely using the oral creativity of his native people. The Aeneid by Virgil (1798), which he reworked in a burlesque style, and the plays Natalka-Poltavka and The Soldier-Sorcerer (in the original - Moskal-Charivnik) were distinguished by a masterful depiction of Ukrainian folk life.

The first prose works in modern Ukrainian were the sentimental stories of the Kharkiv resident Grigory Kvitka (1778 - 1843), who appeared in 1834 under the pseudonym "Gritsko Osnovyanenko" (the story "Marusya", the comedy "Shelmenko the Batman", etc.). Another Kharkiv resident Levko Borovikovsky laid the foundation for the Ukrainian ballad.

The process of the formation of new Ukrainian literature and the formation of the Ukrainian literary language was completed by the activities of the great national poet, thinker and revolutionary Taras ShevchenkoO. The poet began to write his poems not for the nobles in Russian, as many of his compatriots did, but exclusively for his people.

Shevchenko's biography has become a symbol of a tragic national fate for compatriots. Born a serf, by the will of circumstances, he ended up with the owner in St. Petersburg, where several representatives of the aristocratic circle helped the talented young artist in 1838.redeemat will. Shevchenko receives an excellent education. Communication with many Ukrainian and Russian artists and writers broadened the youth's horizons, and in 1840 he published his first book of poetry "Kobzar", in which he turns to the history of Ukraine.

Shevchenko angrily stigmatizes the Cossack hetmans who collaborated with Moscow, and goes to Khmelnitsky (Shevchenko's is both a "genius rebel" and the culprit of the fateful union with Russia for Ukraine, which cost her the loss of independence). The poet denounces the tyranny of the serfs and, polemicizing with Pushkin, who praised the monarchs Peter I and Catherine II, reveals the despotism of the Russian tsars, guilty of the deplorable state of his homeland, and openly calls them tyrants and executioners (the poems "Hire", "Caucasus", "Sleep" , "Katerina", etc.), glorifies popular uprisings (the poem "Gaydamaki") and the exploits of the people's avengers (the poem "Varnak").

Shevchenko viewed Ukraine's striving for freedom as part of the struggle for justice not only for his own people, but also for other peoples under national and social oppression.

The processes of awakening national self-awareness also took place in Belarus. Thanks to the efforts of representatives of the nationally-minded intelligentsia (who called themselves both Lithuanians and Belarusians), who realized the identity of the people in Belarus, already in the first half of the 19th century. considerable material was collected on history, ethnography (publication of monuments of oral creativity, myths, legends, rituals, documents of antiquity). In the western regions, historians and ethnographers were active, writing in Polish (Syrokomlya, Borshchevsky, Zenkevich), and in the eastern regions - in Russian (Nosovich).

In 1828, Pavlyuk Bagrim (1813 - 1890), the author of the first poem in the modern Belarusian language "Play, lad!"

By the 40s of the XIX century. the beginning of the work of the writer Vincent Dunin-Martsinkevich (1807 - 1884), who reflected in the sentimental and didactic poems and comedies written in the spirit of European classicism, the color of the Belarusian village ("Selyanka", "Gapon", "Karal Letalsky"). Writes in Belarusian andsome of the famous Polish poets who came from these places.

In 1845, the anonymous burlesque poem "Aeneid in reverse" was published, written in the spirit of the Ukrainian "Aeneid" by Kotlyarevsky, the authorship of which is attributed to V. Ravinsky. Later, another anonymous poem "Taras on Parnassus" appears, which describes the fabulous story of the forest worker Taras, who came to the Greek gods on Mount Parnassus, speaking a simple language and representing ordinary villagers.

Later, a national-patriotic and democratic trend emerged in Belarusian literature, most vividly represented in the 60s by the journalism of a courageous fighter for people's happiness, national Belarusian hero Kastus Kalinovsky, editor of the first illegal Belarusian newspaper Muzhitskaya Pravda.

The development of the national culture of Latvia and Estonia took place in the struggle against the feudal-clerical ideology of the German-Swedish barons. In 1857 - 1861 the founder of Estonian literature Friedrich Kreutzwald (1803 - 1882) publishes the national epic Kalevipoeg and Estonian folk tales. Among the Latvian intelligentsia a national movement of "young Latvians" arose, the organ of which was the newspaper "Peterburgsky Vestnik". Most of the "young Latvians" took liberal-reformist positions. The poetry of the Latvian patriot Andrejs Pumpurs (1841 - 1902) became famous at this time.

In Lithuania, or as it was called at that time, Samogitia, a collection of poems by Antanas Strazdas (1763 - 1833) "Secular and Spiritual Songs" appeared.

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia, despite the protracted nature of the war, increased the penetration of European cultural values ​​and progress into the life of the peoples of the Caucasus through Russian culture, which found expression in the emergence of a secular school, the emergence of newspapers and magazines, and a national theater. The influence of Russian romanticism was reflected in the works of the Georgian poets Nikolai Baratashvili (1817 - 1845) and Alexander Chavchavadze (1786 - 1846). These poets, who created in the 30s of the XIX century. a romantic school in Georgian literature, freedom-loving aspirations and deep patriotic feelings were inherent. By the 60s of the XIX century. the beginning of the socio-political and literary activities of Ilya Chavchavadze (1837 - 1907).

the incriminating tendency, first clearly manifested in the story of Daniel Chonkadze (1830 - 1860) "Suram Fortress" (1859). A protest against feudal tyranny and sympathy for the oppressed peasantry attracted advanced Georgian youth to Chavchavadze, among whom the group "who drank the waters of the Terek" ("tergdaleuli") stood out.

The founder of the new Armenian literature, Khachatur Abovyan, was educated in Russia due to the absence of higher educational institutions in Armenia. He deeply perceived the humanistic ideas of advanced Russian culture. His realistic novel "The Wounds of Armenia" was permeated with the idea of ​​the significance of the annexation of the Armenian lands to Russia. Abovyan rejected the dead language of the ancient Armenian writing (grabar) and developed the modern literary Armenian language on the basis of oral speech.

Poet, publicist and literary critic Mikael Nalbandian laid the foundation for the national-patriotic trend in Armenian literature. His poems ("The Song of Freedom", etc.) were an example of civil poetry that inspired Armenian youth to patriotic and revolutionary feats.

The outstanding Azerbaijani educator Mirza Fatali Akhundov, rejecting and at the same time using the traditions of old Persian literature, laid a solid foundation for new, secular Azerbaijani literature and national Azerbaijani theater in his stories and comedies.

In the folklore of the peoples and nationalities of the North Caucasus and Asia that have recently become part of Russia, patriotic motives and motives of social protest have intensified. The Kumyk poet Irchi Kazak (1830 - 1870), Lezgin Etim Emin (1839 - 1878) and other folk singers of Dagestan called on their fellow tribesmen to fight against the oppressors. However, in the culture of these peoples, it was in the middle of the 19th century. of great importance was the educational activities of local natives who were educated in Russia. Among them were the Abkhaz ethnographer S. Zvanba (1809 - 1855); the compiler of the first grammar of the Kabardian language and the author of the "History of the Adyghe people" Sh. Nogmov (1801 - 1844); the teacher U. Bersei, who created the first "ABC book of the Circassian language" in 1855, the Ossetian poet I. Yalguzidze, who compiled the first Ossetian alphabet in 1802.

In the first half of the century, enlighteners also appeared among the Kazakh people. Ch. Valikhanov courageously opposed the Russian colonialists and the local feudal-clerical nobility who had betrayed the interests of their people. At the same time, arguing that the Kazakhs will forever live in the neighborhood with Russia and cannot escape its cultural influence, he linked the historical fate of the Kazakh people with the fate of Russia.

RUSSIAN THEATER ARTS

Influenced by European culture in Russia from the end of the 18th century. modern theater also appears. At first, it is still developing on the estates of large magnates, but gradually the troupes, gaining independence, on a commercial basis moved to the rank of independent ones. In 1824 an independent drama troupe of the Maly Theater was formed in Moscow. In 1832, the dramatic theater of Alexandria was founded in St. Petersburg; the patrons of the arts are still large landowners, noblemen and the emperor himself, who dictate their repertoire.

Enlightenment sentimentalism is gaining leading importance in Russian theater. The attention of playwrights was attracted by the inner world of man, his spiritual conflicts (dramas by P.I. Ilyin, F.F.Ivanov, tragedies by V.A.Ozerov). Sentimental tendencies were manifested by the desire to smooth out life contradictions, features of idealization, melodramaticism (works by V.M. Fedorov, S.N. Glinka, etc.).

Gradually, the drama develops themes characteristic of European classicism: an appeal to the heroic past of his homeland and Europe, to the ancient plot ("Martha the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod" by F. F. Ivanov, "Beelzen, or Liberated Holland" by F. N. Glinka, "Andromache" by P. A. Katenin, "The Argives" by V. K. Küchelbecker, etc.). At the same time, such genres as vaudeville (A. A. Shakhovskoy, P. I. Khmelnitsky, A. I. Pisarev) and family play (M. Ya. Zagoskin) developed.

During the first quarter of the XIX century. in the Russian national theater, a struggle is unfolding for the creation of a new, nationally distinctive theater. This task was accomplished by creating a truly national, distinctive comedy by A. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit". A work of innovative significance was Pushkin's historical drama Boris Godunov, the author of which grew out of the forms of the court tragedy of classicism and the romantic drama of Byron. However, the production of these works was held back for some time by censorship. Lermontov's drama, imbued with freedom-loving ideas, also remains outside the theater: his drama "Masquerade" in 1835 - 1836. three times banned by the censorship (excerpts from the play were first staged thanks to the perseverance of the actors in 1852, and it was played in full only in 1864).

The stage of the Russian theater of the 30s - 40s was mainly occupied by vaudeville, pursuing mainly entertainment goals (plays by P.A.Karatygin, P.I.Grigoriev, P.S. Fedorov, V.A. F.A.Kony and others). At this time, the skill of the talented Russian actors M.S. Shchepkin and A.E. Martynov grew, who were able to reveal contradictions of real life behind comic situations, to give the created images a genuine drama.

Plays by A. N. Ostrovsky, which appeared in the 50s, which raised Russian drama very highly, played a huge role in the development of Russian theater.

FINE ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

At the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia, under the influence of social and patriotic upsurge, classicism receives a new content and fruitful development in a number of areas of art. The best public, administrative and residential buildings of St. Petersburg, Moscow and a number of cities are being built in the style of mature classicism with its powerful, strong and monumental simple forms: in St. Petersburg - the Admiralty of A.D. Zakharov, Kazan Cathedral and the Mining Institute - A.N. Voronikhin, the Stock Exchange - Thomas de Thomon and a number of buildings by K.I. Russia; and in Moscow - complexes of buildings by O. I. Bove, D. I. Gilardi and other masters (the new facade of the University, Manege, etc.). In the process of intensive construction in the first decades of the XIX century. the classic look is finally formedPetersburg.

The patriotic upsurge of the people was supposed to be facilitated by the installation in 1818 on Red Square in Moscow of a monument to the liberators Minin and Pozharsky by the sculptor I.P. Martos, who personified the finalRussia’s victory over Poland and Lithuania.

The influence of classicism in architecture does not disappear even in the middle of the century. However, the buildings of this time are distinguished by some violation of the previous harmonious correlation of forms and in some cases are overloaded with decorative decorations. Everyday features are noticeably enhanced in sculpture. The most significant monuments - the monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly V.I. Orlovsky and the statues of P.K. Klodt (figures of horses on the Anichkov Bridge) - combine features of classical rigor and monumentality with new romantic images.

Almost all of the visual arts of the early 19th century. differs in classical clarity, simplicity and scale of forms. However, the painters and graphic artists of this time, breaking the old, conditional and limited framework of artistic creativity established by classicist aesthetics, are gradually approaching a freer and wider, sometimes colored by emotional excitement, perception and comprehension of the surrounding nature and man. During this period, the genre was fruitfully developed. An example of all this is the work of O. A. Kiprensky (1782 - 1836), S. F. Shchedrin (1751 - 1830), V. A. Tropinin (1776 - 1857), A. G. Venetsianov (1780 - 1847).

In the art of the 30s - 40s, historical painting comes to the fore. In the painting by K. P. Bryullov (1799 - 1852) "The Last Day of Pompeii" in the composition, plasticity of human figures, the influence of the classicist school is still influenced, however, showing the experiences of people upon whom a blind, all-destroying element has fallen, the artist is already going beyond the framework of classicism. This was clearly manifested in the subsequent works of Bryullov (especially in portraiture and landscape sketches).

The exciting ideas of our time were reflected in his painting by Alexander Ivanov (1806 - 1858). For more than 20 years the artist worked on his monumental painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", the main theme of which was the spiritual rebirth of people mired in suffering and vices.

The works of Pavel Fedotov (1815 - 1852) marked a new stage in the development of Russian painting. Painting the life of officials, merchants, impoverished, although not losing their claims to nobles, Fedotov made the property ofart, images and themes that were not previously touched upon by genre painting. He showed the arrogance and stupidity of officials, the naive self-righteousness and cunning of the new wealthy merchants, the hopeless emptiness of the existence of officers in the provinces in the era of Nikolayev's reaction, the bitter fate of his fellow artist.

Vasily Perov (1834 - 1882), I. M. Pryanishnikov (1840 - 1894), N. V. Nevrev (1830 - 1904) and a number of other painters who began their creative life in the 60s, became the creators of accusatory genre paintings, reflecting the phenomena of modern reality. The creations of these artists show the ignorance of the priests, the arbitrariness of officials, the cruel and rude customs of the merchants - the new masters of society, the heavy share of the peasantry and the oppression of the little "humiliated and insulted" people of the lower strata.

In 1863G. 14 students who graduated from the Academy, headed by I.N. Kramskoy (1837 - 1887), refusing to carry out programs on a given theme, united in an artel of artists in order to be able to serve the interests of society with their art. In 1870, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions was formed, which grouped the best creative forces around itself. In contrast to the official Academy of Arts, which developed salon art in painting and sculpture, the "Itinerants" supported new artistic endeavors in Russian painting, which paved the way for the rise of art in the 70s and 80s.

RUSSIAN MUSIC

In the XIX century. Russian music, which did not yet have strong traditions, reflected the general trends in the development of all art, and, having absorbed the song traditions of many peoples of Russia, gave impetus to the emergence of world-famous composers at the end of the century.

At the beginning of the century, under the influence of the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, the heroic-patriotic theme embodied in the work of S.A. Degtyarev - the author of the first Russian oratorio "Minin and Pozharsky", D.N. Kashina, SI. Davydova, I.A. Kozlovsky - the author of the first Russiananthem "Victory Thunder!"

On the basis of the folk melodies of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, a rich and varied lyric poetry grows, deeply expressing the world of feelings of an ordinary person (romances by A.A. Alyabyev, lyric songs by A.E. Varlamov and A.L. Gurilev, romantic operas by A.N Verstovsky).

Mikhail Glinka (1804 - 1857) became the most famous composer of the first half of the 19th century, whose work brought Russian music into the circle of phenomena of world significance. In his art, he expressed the fundamental features of the national character of the Russian man, who, despite any adversity and oppression, remains a patriot of his homeland.

Already Glinka's first opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin, 1836) became a phenomenon in the cultural life of not only Russia, but also Europe. Glinka created a high patriotic tragedy, the equal of which the opera stage did not know. Another opera - "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1842) - the composer continues the themes of the glorification of Russian antiquity, but on a fabulous-epic, epic material. Glinka's historical drama and fairy-tale opera determined the future path of Russian opera classics. The significance of Glinka's symphony is also great. His orchestral fantasy "Kamarinskaya", two Spanish overtures on themes of folk songs, and lyric "Waltz-Fantasy" served as the basis for the Russian symphony school of the 19th century.

Glinka brightly showed himself in the field of chamber lyrics. Glinka's romances are characterized by typical features of his style: plasticity and clarity of a wide, melodic melody, completeness and harmony of the composition. The composer turns to the lyrics of Pushkin, and poetic thought finds in him a uniquely beautiful, harmonious, clear expression of Pushkin's stanza.

Alexander Dargomyzhsky (1813 - 1869) continued the traditions of Glinka. Dargomyzhsky's work reflected new trends in all art that were ripening in the turning point of the 40s - 50s. The theme of social inequality and lack of rights is of great importance to the composer. Whether he draws the drama of a simple peasant girl in the opera Mermaid or the tragic death of a soldier in The Old Corporal, he appears everywhere as a sensitive humanist artist who seeks to bring his art closer to the demands of the democratic strata of the Russian society.

Dargomyzhsky's opera Rusalka (1855) laid the foundation for a new genre of psychological drama in Russian music. The composer created images, remarkable in their depth, of suffering, disadvantaged people from the people - Natasha and her father the miller. In the musical language of the opera, with its widespread development of dramatically expressive recitative and in dramatic scenes, Dargomyzhsky's skill and sensitivity in conveying emotional experiences were manifested.

Dargomyzhsky's innovative quests find their greatest expression in his last opera, The Stone Guest, based on the plot of Pushkin's drama. Having preserved the entire Pushkin text, the composer builds the opera on the basis of a continuous recitative, without dividing it into finished parts, and subordinates the vocal parts to the principles of speech expressiveness, flexible intonation of the verse. Dargomyzhsky deliberately rejects the traditional forms of opera - ensembles and arias, transforming it into a psychological musical drama.

A new upsurge in musical and social life in Russia began in the 60s. M. A. Balakirev, A. G. and N. G. Rubinstein created musical organizations of a new type, the first conservatories in Russia. In the works of the greatest art scholars V.V. Stasov and A.N.Serov, solid foundations of classical musicology are laid. All this predetermined the rise of Russian music in the next period, which was carried out by such outstanding composers as Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov.

Antropov Alexey Petrovich(1716-1795) - Russian painter. Antropov's portraits are distinguished by their connection with the Parsuna tradition, the truthfulness of their characteristics, and the pictorial techniques of the Baroque.

Argunov Ivan Petrovich(1729-1802) - Russian serf portrait painter. Author of representative ceremonial and chamber portraits.

Argunov Nikolay Ivanovich(1771–1829) - Russian serf portrait painter, who experienced the influence of classicism in his work. The author of the famous portrait of P.I.Kovaleva-Zhemchugova.

Vasily Bazhenov(1737-1799) - the largest Russian architect, one of the founders of Russian classicism. The author of the project for the reconstruction of the Kremlin, the romantic palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyn, the Pashkov house in Moscow, the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. His projects were distinguished by the boldness of composition, a variety of designs, creative use and a combination of the traditions of world classical and ancient Russian architecture.

Bering Vitus Ionassen (Ivan Ivanovich)(1681-1741) - navigator, captain-commander of the Russian fleet (1730). The leader of the 1st (1725-1730) and 2nd (1733-1741) Kamchatka expeditions. He passed between the Chukchi Peninsula and Alaska (the strait between them now bears his name), reached North America and discovered a number of islands in the Aleutian ridge. The sea, strait and island in the North Pacific Ocean are named after Bering.

Borovikovsky Vladimir Lukich(1757-1825) - Russian portrait painter. Traits of sentimentalism are inherent in his works, a combination of decorative subtlety and gracefulness of rhythms with the correct transfer of character (portrait of MI Lopukhina, etc.).

Volkov Fedor Grigorievich(1729-1763) - Russian actor and theatrical figure. In 1750 he organized an amateur troupe in Yaroslavl (actors - I. A. Dmitrevsky, J. D. Shumsky), on the basis of which in 1756 the first permanent professional Russian public theater was created in St. Petersburg. He himself played in a number of Sumarokov's tragedies.

Derzhavin Gavrila Romanovich (1743-1816) - Russian poet. Representative of Russian classicism. The author of solemn odes imbued with the idea of ​​a strong Russian statehood, including satire on nobles, landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections - "Felitsa", "Grandee", "Waterfall". The author of many lyric poems.

Kazakov Matvey Fedorovich(1738–1812) - an outstanding Russian architect, one of the founders of Russian classicism. In Moscow, he developed the types of urban residential buildings and public buildings that organize large urban spaces: the Senate in the Kremlin (1776-1787); Moscow University (1786–1793); Golitsyn (1st Gradskaya) hospital (1796-1801); house-estate of Demidov (1779-1791); Petrovsky Palace (1775-1782) and others. Showed a special talent in interior design (the building of the Noble Assembly in Moscow). Supervised the drawing up of the general plan of Moscow. Created an architectural school.

Kantemir Antioch Dmitrievich(1708-1744) - Russian poet, diplomat. Rationalist educator. One of the founders of Russian classicism in the genre of poetic satire.

Quarenghi Giacomo(1744-1817) - Russian architect of Italian origin, a representative of classicism. He worked in Russia since 1780. The pavilion "Concert Hall" (1786) and the Alexander Palace (1792-1800) in Tsarskoye Selo, the Assignation Bank (1783-1790), the Hermitage Theater (1783-1787) are distinguished by the monumentality and severity of forms, the plastic completeness of the image. ), Smolny Institute (1806-1808) in St. Petersburg.

Krasheninnikov Stepan Petrovich(1711-1755) - Russian traveler, explorer of Kamchatka, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1750). Member of the 2nd Kamchatka expedition (1733-1743). Compiled the first "Description of the land of Kamchatka" (1756).

Kulibin Ivan Petrovich(1735-1818) - an outstanding Russian self-taught mechanic. The author of many unique mechanisms. Improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments. He developed a project and built a model of a single-arch bridge across the river. Neva with a span of 298 m. Created a prototype of a searchlight ("mirror lantern"), a semaphore telegraph, a palace elevator, etc.

Laptev Khariton Prokofievich(1700-1763) - 1st rank captain. Examined in 1739-1742. coast from r. Lena to the river. Khatangi and the Taimyr Peninsula.

Dmitry Levitsky(1735-1822) - Russian painter. In compositionally spectacular ceremonial portraits, solemnity is combined with vitality of images, colorful wealth (Kokorinov, 1769–1770; a series of portraits of pupils of the Smolny Institute, 1773–1776); intimate portraits are deeply individual in characteristics, restrained in color ("M. A. Dyakova", 1778). In the later period, he partly took on the influence of classicism (portrait of Catherine II, 1783).

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich(1711-1765) - the first Russian scientist-encyclopedist of the world level, poet. The founder of the modern Russian literary language. Painter. Historian. Worker of public education and science. He studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow (c, 1731), the Academic University in St. Petersburg (from 1735), in Germany (1736-1741). - Adjunct, since 1745 - the first Russian academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Member of the Academy of Arts (1763).

Maykov Vasily Ivanovich(1728-1778) - Russian poet. The author of the poems "The Player of the Ombre" (1763), "Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus" (1771), "Moral Fables" (1766-1767).

Polzunov Ivan Ivanovich (1728-1766) - Russian heat engineer, one of the inventors of the heat engine. In 1763 he developed a project for a universal steam engine. In 1765 he created the first steam-and-power plant in Russia for industrial needs, which worked for 43 days. Died before its test run.

Popovsky Nikolay Nikitich(1730-1760) - Russian educator, philosopher and poet. Professor of Moscow University (since 1755). Supporter and one of the ideologues of enlightened absolutism.

Rastrelli Bartolomeo Carlo(1675-1744) - sculptor. Italian. Since 1716 - in the service in St. Petersburg, his works are characterized by baroque splendor and splendor, the ability to convey the texture of the depicted material ("Empress Anna Ioannovna with a little arapchon", 1733-1741).

Rastrelli Varfolomey Varfolomeevich(1700-1771) - an outstanding Russian architect, representative of the Baroque. Son of B.K.Rastrelli. His works are characterized by a grandiose spatial scope, clarity of volumes, austerity of rectilinear plans combined with plasticity of masses, richness of sculptural decoration and color, whimsical ornamentation. The largest works are the Smolny Monastery (1748-1754) and the Winter Palace (1754-1762) in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof (1747-1752), the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo (1752-1757).

Rokotov Fedor Stepanovich(1735-1808) - Russian painter. Fine in painting, deeply poetic portraits are imbued with an awareness of the spiritual and physical beauty of a person ("Unknown in a pink dress", 1775; "VE Novosiltsova", 1780, etc.).

Sumarokov Alexander Petrovich(1717-1777) - Russian writer, one of the prominent representatives of classicism. In the tragedies "Khorev" (1747), "Sinav and Truvor" (1750) and others, he raised the problem of civic duty. The author of many comedies, fables, lyric songs.

Tatishchev Vasily Nikitich(1686-1750) - Russian historian, statesman. He managed state-owned factories in the Urals, was the governor of Astrakhan. Author of many works on ethnography, history, geography. The largest and most famous work is "Russian History from Ancient Times".

Trediakovsky Vasily Kirillovich(1703-1768) - Russian poet, philologist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1745-1759). In his work "A New and Concise Method for Composing Russian Poems" (1735), he formulated the principles of Russian syllabo-tonic versification. Poem "Tilemachida" (1766).

Trezzini Domenico(1670-1734) - Russian architect, representative of the early Baroque. Swiss by nationality. In Russia since 1703 (invited to participate in the construction of St. Petersburg). Built the summer palace of Peter I (1710-1714), St. Peter and Paul in the Peter and Paul Fortress (1712-1733), the building of 12 colleges (1722-1734) in St. Petersburg.

Felten Yuri Matveevich(1730-1801) - Russian architect, representative of early classicism. Author of the Old Hermitage (1771-1787), the fence of the Summer Garden (1771-1784) in St. Petersburg. Participated in the construction of the granite embankments of the Neva (from 1769).

Kheraskov Mikhail Matveevich(1733-1807) - Russian writer. The author of the famous epic poem "Russia" (1779), written in the spirit of classicism.

Shelikhov (Shelekhov) Grigory Ivanovich(1747-1795) - Russian merchant, pioneer. In 1775 he created a company for the fur and animal hunting in the northern islands of the Pacific Ocean and Alaska. He founded the first Russian settlements in Russian America. Conducted significant geographical research. On the basis of the company created by Shelikhov, the Russian-American company was formed in 1799.

Shubin Fedot Ivanovich(1740-1805) - an outstanding Russian sculptor. Representative of classicism. Created a gallery of psychologically expressive sculptural portraits (busts of A. M. Golitsyn, 1775; M. R. Panina, 1775; I. G. Orlova, 1778; M. V. Lomonosov, 1792, etc.).

Yakhontov Nikolay Pavlovich(1764-1840) - Russian composer. Author of one of the first Russian operas "Sylph, or the Dream of a Young Woman".

Figures of Russian culture of the 19th century. Name any figure

1. An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on the culture of Russia. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which enjoyed wide popularity in Russia. One should not forget the influence of the heritage of Muscovite Rus on the culture of the 19th century. : assimilation of old traditions made it possible to germinate new sprouts of creativity in literature, poetry, painting and other spheres of culture. N. Gogol, N. Leskov, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, F. Dostoevsky and others created their works in the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. But the work of other geniuses of Russian literature, whose attitude to Orthodox culture is more contradictory, from A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy to A. Blok bears an indelible stamp testifying to Orthodox roots. Even the skeptical I. Turgenev gave the image of Russian national holiness in the story "Living Relics". Of great interest are the paintings of M. Nesterov, M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin, the origins of which go back to the Orthodox painting. Ancient church singing (the famous chant), as well as the later experiments of D. Bortnyansky, P. Tchaikovsky and S. Rachmaninoff became striking phenomena in the history of musical culture.
   In the XIX early XX century. Russian science has achieved significant success: in mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, agronomy, biology, astronomy, geography, in the field of humanitarian research. This is evidenced by even a simple listing of the names of brilliant and outstanding scientists who made a significant contribution to domestic and world science: S. M. Soloviev, T. N. Granovsky, I. I. Sreznevsky, F. I. Buslaev, N. I. Pirogov , I. I. Mechnikov, I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, P. L. Chebyshev, M. V. Ostrogradsky, N. I. Lobachevsky, N. N. Zinin, A. M. Butlerov, D. I. Mendeleev, E. H. Lenz, B. S. Jacobi, V. V. Petrov, K. M. Baer, ​​V. V. Dokuchaev, K. A. Timiryazev, V. I. Vernadsky, etc.
   In the history of Russian culture, the end of the XIX beginning of the XX century. received the name of the Silver Age of Russian culture, which begins with the World of Art and ends with Acmeism. The world of art is an organization that emerged in 1898 and brought together masters of the highest artistic culture, the artistic elite of Russia at that time. Almost all famous artists A. Benois, K. Somov, L. Bakst, E. Lansere, A. Golovin, M. Dobuzhinsky, M. Vrubel, V. Serov, K. Korovin, I. Levitan, M. Nesterov, N. Roerich, B. Kustodiev, K. Petrov-Vodkin, F. Malyavin, M. Larionov, N. Goncharova and others. tours of Russian ballet and opera abroad, the so-called Russian seasons.
2. Literature: Gogol, Pushkin, Lermontov, Nekrasov and others.
   Painting: Aivazovsky and others.
   Refer to search engines.
3. no information you need!
4. Artistic orientation of the World of Art was associated with modernity
   and symbolism. In contrast to the ideas of the Wanderers, artists
   The art world proclaimed the priority of the aesthetic principle in
   art. Members of the World of Art have argued that art
   primarily the expression of the artist's personality. In one of the first issues
   journal S. Diaghilev wrote: A work of art is not important by itself
   itself, but only as an expression of the personality of the creator. Believing that modern
   civilization is antagonistic to culture,
   art of the past. Painters and writers, in their paintings and on
   magazine pages, opened to Russian society then little
   the appreciated beauty of medieval architecture and Russian ancient
   icon painting, the elegance of classical Petersburg and the surrounding
   palaces, made you think about the modern sound of the ancients
   civilizations and re-evaluate their own artistic and
   literary heritage.

   Art exhibitions organized by the World of Art have enjoyed
   a resounding success. In 1899, Diaghilev actually arranged in St. Petersburg
   international exhibition at which with the works of Russians
   artists were exhibited paintings by 42 European artists, in
   including Bcklin, Moreau, Whistler, Puvis de Chavanne, Degas and Monet. In 1901
   in the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Arts and in the Stroganov
   institute in Moscow held exhibitions in which, among others, participated
   Diaghilev's closest friends Bakst, Benoit and Somov. Group exhibitions
   The world of art in St. Petersburg and Moscow was also arranged in
   November 1903

   Gradually, the disagreements that reigned within the group led to the collapse and
   movement and magazine, which at the end of 1904 ceased to exist.
   S. Diaghilev two years after the termination of the publication of the journal, on the eve of
   his departure to Paris, organized another, farewell exhibition
   World of Art, held in St. Petersburg in February-March 1906,
   presenting the best examples of the art, for the flowering of which
   the past activity of the World of Art has created a very favorable
   climate. The works of all the pillars of the group were exhibited along with
   selected works of M. Vrubel, V. Borisov-Musatov, P. Kuznetsov,
   N. Sapunova, N. Milioti. N. Feofilaktov, M. Saryan and
   M. Larionov.
   In the 1910s, despite the fact that the ideas of the world of art by that time
   have largely lost their relevance, the association
   The world of art was revived and its exhibitions continued until
   until the 1920s

5. Actors, writers, poets, composers, artists.
6. Gogol
7. thanks
8. Chekhovs!