For a long time, the peculiarities of the composition of the text did not attract the attention of linguists, but were the sphere of interests of literary scholars. At the same time, very significant moments remained outside the attention of researchers, largely determining the artistic merits of the work, its originality, and sometimes its meaning. When analyzing a composition from a literary point of view, as a rule, extra-linguistic ways of expressing content are considered. But the linguistic structure serves the same purpose, therefore it should also be a subject of study.

Observations on linguistic composition are only just beginning, there are the first experiments in analysis, the first classification and generalizations, but there is still no rigorous and clear theory that would be applicable to any text. Nevertheless, it is necessary to try to determine at least the most general features construction of the text in its full analysis.

You can talk about the composition of the text as a whole artwork... However, here we do not have the opportunity to analyze it - this is a very laborious and time-consuming process. In this regard, we will restrict ourselves to observations of small parts of works that also have a microcomposition.

Fictional text is not a set of sentences, the order of which is determined only by the real sequence of the described actions or events. In presenting the content, the writer seeks to find an ideal form for its expression, that is, in relation to composition, to arrange linguistic units in such a way that they have the ability to express meaning and influence the reader. It has already been established that, intuitively, artists usually come to such a construction, which is determined by the laws of symmetry - as the basis for the aesthetic impact of any kind of art on a person. The concept of symmetry is difficult, it appears in different types... When analyzing all linguistic levels, we dwelled on the features of repetition of elements of various kinds in the text: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, words with the same stylistic coloring. All these phenomena can be considered as features of the composition of the text. While analyzing the syntax, we continue to study the structure of the text.

From the point of view of the composition of the text, it is important what sentences it consists of - simple or complex, what is their structure .. as already mentioned, these features largely determine the intonation pattern of the text, the degree of its expressiveness and semantic homogeneity.

A syntactic unit larger than a sentence is a complex syntactic whole. When analyzing this unit, the focus is usually on the connections and semantic relationships between its parts. These are also elements of the structure of the text, and the STS itself can be considered a microtext. The most typical are parallel and chain links between units in a complex whole, the same principles of organization are also typical for texts consisting of several SSCs. It is difficult to say which way of building is more expressive. With a parallel construction, expressiveness can arise due to the fact that the establishment of relations between individual sentences that are not directly defined lexically and grammatically is the business of the reader, who is forced to perceive the text creatively, guessing why the author writes off objects in this order and what relations between them he wants to install. The expressiveness of the chain connection can be caused by the fact that, on the contrary, the relations between the phenomena are emphasized, their interdependence is emphasized, there are often repetitions that are interesting in themselves.

To comprehend the expressiveness of the structure of the text, stylistic figures are often used, a significant part of which is associated with the special arrangement of the linguistic material in the sentence or in the SSC. Sometimes the whole text can be one stylistic figure- first of all, the period.

The composition of poems is of particular interest. In addition to various kinds of stylistic, poets use such techniques as repetition of a line - for example, in Yesenin, in a number of poems, the first and last lines in a stanza coincide. In essence, the possibilities of creating an original, aesthetically influencing the reader and helping to convey the meaning of the composition of the text in poetry are inexhaustible.

LITERATURE

1. Bakhtin M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1979.
2. Vasilyeva A.N. Fiction speech. - M., 1983.
3. Vinogradov V.V. Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics. - M., 1963.
4. Vinokur T.G. Patterns stylistic use linguistic units. - M., 1980.
5. Dolinin K.A. Interpretation of the text. - M., 1985.
6. Efimov A.I. Stylistics artistic speech... - M., 1961.
7. Kovalevskaya E.G. Analysis of the texts of works of art. -L., 1976.
8. N.A. Kupina Linguistic analysis artistic text. M., 1980.
9. Larin B.A. Aesthetics of the word and the language of the writer. - L., 1974.
10. Lotman Yu.M. Analysis of literary text. -L., 1972.
11. Moiseeva L.R. Linguistic analysis of literary text. - Kiev, 1984.
12. Novikov L.A. Linguistic interpretation of a literary text. - M., 1979.
13. Novikov L.A. Fictional text and its analysis. - M., 1988. General rhetoric / Dubois J. et al. - M., 1965.
14. V.V. Odintsov On the language of fictional prose. - M., 1973.
15. P.G. Pustovoit Word. Style. Image. - M., 1965.
16. Shansky N.M. Literary text under a linguistic microscope. - M., 1986.
17. Shansky N.M. Linguistic analysis of literary text. - L., 1990.
18. Language processes in modern Russian fiction/ Ed. HELL. Grigoriev. - Book. 1. Poetry. - M., 1977.
19. Language Processes in Contemporary Russian Fiction / Ed. HELL. Grigoriev. - Book. 2. Prose.- M., 1977.

The question of the genre of "Words" is complicated. Attempts to declare it an epic or oratorical word, the desire to find in it traces of the Bulgarian, Byzantine or Scandinavian tradition, etc., come across a lack of analogies, reliable facts, and above all the striking originality of the Lay, which does not allow unconditional identification of it with this or a different genre category.

The most reasoned are the hypothesis of I.P. Eremin, who considered the Lay as a monument of solemn eloquence, and the point of view of A.N. Robinson and D.S.Likhachev, who compare the Lay with the genre of the so-called chansons de geste (literally about exploits "). Researchers have already paid attention to the similarity of the Lay, for example, with the Song of Roland.

Describing the works of this genre, DS Likhachev writes that such an “epic is full of calls for the defense of the country ... It’s characteristic“ direction ”: the call comes, as it were, from the people (hence the folklore beginning), but it is addressed to the feudal lords - the golden word of Svyatoslav , and hence the bookish beginning.

The epic combines the collectivity and the bookish principle (elements of oratorical prose), the elements of the personal and journalistic principle. " At first glance, the rapprochement of the Lay with chansons de geste is too general, however, all attempts to define the genre of the Lay in a different way inevitably led to even greater strains and distortions of the stylistic, figurative and compositional structure monument.

So, the plot of the Lay is inspired by the events of 1185, and the plot is determined by the author's desire to teach an instructive lesson to contemporary princes by the example tragic fate Igor. What is artistic structure works?

Compositionally, the "Word" is divided into three parts: the introduction, the main (narrative) part and the conclusion. It is usually believed that in the introduction the author opposes his artistic system to the traditional one, embodied, for example, in Boyan's songs.

But it is unlikely that in Russia of the XII century, in an era of reverent attitude to literary etiquette and genre canons, an author who decided to break tradition would openly declare his innovation. Another thing is more probable: the introduction, as IP Eremin rightly noted, has a purely rhetorical character and, “in prefixing it to his work, the author of the Lay acted like an experienced mother, a writer of great literary culture.

His introduction pursues a very specific goal: to emphasize the “solemn” orientation of his work, to tune the reader to a “high”, unusual structure of thought, corresponding to the seriousness of the content of the Lay ”.

IP Eremin further emphasizes that in some genres of Old Russian literature - oratorical "words", lives - the introduction was a necessary, etiquette element of the composition of the work. As for the "polemic" of the author of "Lay" with Boyan, then perhaps it is not at all about the form of the narrative and not about the genre, but about the theme.

The author of the Lay does not want, like Boyan, to praise the glorious deeds of the past, but intends to narrate "according to the epics of this time." In this, and only in this, the author of the Lay sees his difference from Boyan and justifies his deviation from tradition before the reader; but he intends, like Boyan, to broadcast "the old words of difficult stories."

The main “narrative” part of the Lay is not just a story about events - a kind of analogy to the chronicle narration: “... not so much the facts are of interest to the orator,” wrote I. P. Eremin, “as showing his attitude towards them, not so much the external sequence of events how much their inner meaning ”.

Episodes correlated with actual events are interspersed with literary and fictional scenes (such are, for example, the prophetic dream of Svyatoslav and his "golden word" to the princes; depiction of grief European nations, who learned about Igor's defeat, Yaroslavna's cry, the conversation between Gza and Konchak, etc.), and even more often with digressions: historical excursions or author's maxims.

But each such digression testifies not only to the author's broad historical outlook, but also to his ability to find analogies in sometimes distant events, to easily change the course of the narrative, while revealing extensive erudition and stylistic skill.

Conclusion "The Lay" is an example of "glory", typical, perhaps, of the epic genre, the existence of which in Russia we learn from indirect evidence from other sources.

The poetics of the Lay is so unique, its language and style are so distinctive that at first glance it may seem that the Lay is completely outside the sphere. literary traditions Russian Middle Ages.

In reality, this is not the case. In the depiction of the Russian princes, and especially of the main characters of the Lay - Igor and Vsevolod, we will find the features of the epic style and style of monumental historicism familiar to us from the chronicle. No matter how much Igor's reckless campaign deserves condemnation, the hero himself remains for the author the embodiment of princely valor.

Igor is courageous, full of a "military spirit", a thirst "to drink the Great Don with a helmet", a sense of military honor obscure an ominous omen - the eclipse of the sun. Equally chivalrous are Igor's brother, Vsevolod, and his warriors-kuryans: they are "under the chimneys of the poviti, under the helmets, nurtured from the end of the spear" and in battles they seek "honor for themselves, and glory for the prince."

But unlike the chronicle, the Lay, as a poetic monument, coexists, as it were, of two plans. "Realistic" (and in essence - etiquette) depiction of characters and events is constantly correlated with the description of the semi-mystical world of forces hostile to the "Russians": this is both an ominous omen - the eclipse of the sun, and the forces of nature hostile to Igor's army (birds, animals, the night itself, which " ubudi bird with a thunderstorm ”), and, finally, the fantastic Div, Virgo-Obida, personified beads - Karna and Zhlya. D. S. Likhachev once remarked that “ art system"Words" are all built on contrasts. "

One of these contrasts is the opposition of metaphorical images: sun, light and darkness (night, dark color). This opposition is traditional for ancient Russian literature and folklore. In the Lay, it is repeatedly realized in a variety of ways: Igor is a “bright light”, and Konchak is a “black raven”, on the eve of the battle “black clouds are coming from the sea, want to cover 4 suns”.

V prophetic dream Svyatoslav sees that that night from the evening he was covered with "black papa", blue wine was poured to him, all night they were beating "beads and lies." The boyars' answer to Svyatoslav is built in the same metaphorical system: “It's dark on day 3, two suns are darkened, both are crimson stlpa extinguished ... the young months Oleg and Svyatoslav are dark. On the river on Kayala, darkness covered the light ”. But when Igor returns to Russia, again "the sun shines in heaven."

It has already been noted above that many scenes of the Lay have symbolic meaning, including such seemingly "naturalistic" sketches, such as the story of wolves howling over ravines, or birds flying from oak forest to oak forest in anticipation of a profit on the battlefield.

The landscape sketches in the Lay are extremely laconic: “for a long time the night will darken, the dawn has sunk in, the fog has covered the field,” “the earth will be melting, the rivers will flow muddy, the fields will be covered with piglets”, etc.

At the same time, it is characteristic that in the "Lay", as in others ancient Russian monuments, there is no "static" landscape, simple description nature: the world around appears before the reader not so much in its motionless forms, but in its actions, phenomena and processes. The author of The Lay does not tell us what the objects surrounding his characters are, but draws attention to what is happening around him, speaks of action, and does not describe pictures.

The Lay does not say that the night is light or dark, it fades; the color of the river water is not described, but it is said that "the rivers flow muddy", and Sula no longer "does not flow like silver streams"; the banks of the Donets are not depicted, but it is said that the Donets lay green grass for Igor on their silver banks, dress him with warm mists under the shade of a green tree, etc.

Another characteristic feature poetics "Words" are copyright digressions. The author interrupts the story of Igor's battle with the Polovtsians at the climax in order to recall "Olgov's platsi, Olga Svyatslavlichya."

Likewise, between the story about the “fall of the Igor's banners” and the description of the mournful moment of Igor's capture (“Tu Igor the prince came out of the saddle of gold, and into the saddle of koschievo”) there is an extensive reflection of the author on the consequences of Igor's defeat: got up. "

About the disasters of the Russian lands, subjected to new Polovtsian raids, and even about the sadness that swept distant countries - the "Germans" and the Venetians, the Byzantines and the "Moravians", it is said earlier than about the dream of Svyatoslav, who, judging by its symbolism, dreamed of the prince precisely in the fateful night after Igor's defeat (or even on the eve of him). So, everything is displaced, everything is symbolic, everything serves the "concept of the plot", and not the desire for documentary narrative.

Having understood these features of the plot structure of the Lay, we will see how useless are the arguments about whether the Polovtsians actually collected tribute "by whiteness and faith", whether it was advisable to invite Igor Vsevolod the Big Nest to help Igor, who was already striving to intervene in South Russian affairs. , let us understand that one should not judge the power of Yaroslav Osmomysl on the basis of the Lay, etc.

The "word" is epic, not documentary, it is full of symbolism, and therefore cannot resemble a chronicle narrative, where a deviation from documentary (in the depiction of modern events within weather records!) Can be justified either by the chronicler's ignorance or by his political tendentiousness.

What has been said here testifies to the unquestionably bookish nature of the Lay. But another, folklore element harmoniously coexists with it. This element was reflected in the elements of the people's lamentation (the lament of Yaroslavna, the lament of the wives of Russian soldiers who fell in Igor's campaign, the lament of Rostislav's mother. Igor's defeat).

Why, then, the "Word", the literary merits of which were so highly appreciated in modern times, passed unnoticed in ancient Russian literature? True, at the beginning of the XIV century. An extract from the Lay was made by the Pskov scribe Domid (Diomed), who rewrote the Apostle, and a hundred years later, the author of Zadonshchina put the Lay as the basis of the poetic structure of his work, but these responses are too insignificant in comparison with the literary merits of the monument, how we were able to appreciate them in modern times.

The point, apparently, is that the high political and moral potential of the Lay very soon lost its relevance: after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, it was too late to recall the Polovtsy and call upon the princes to a united rebuff to the nomads, and secondly, one should not forget about the genre the originality of the "Lay", which also could not contribute to its popularity in the "etiquette" literature of that time.

And finally, the last, perhaps the most important: "The Word" appeared on the eve of the defeat of Southern Russia by Batu; in the flames of fires, the book treasures of precisely those cities where the Lay's lists could most likely be found perished: Kiev, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky.

Perhaps it was only an accident that saved Slovo for us: one of the lists of the monument was taken to the north (to Pskov, where the scribe Domid saw it), and perhaps this list ultimately goes back to the text that was read in Musin-Pushkin collection.

History of Russian Literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983

Composition - structure, location and ratio component parts text, due to its content, problems, genre and purpose.

The composition of a text is a way of constructing it, connecting its parts, facts, images.

The famous Roman scientist Marcus Fabius Quintilian deserves the honor of developing the theory of composition of speech. Quintilian singled out eight parts in the orator's speech. The composition of speech, developed by him, entered the practice of later rhetoric.

So, eight parts of the composition according to Quintilian.

1. Conversion. Its purpose is to grab the attention of the audience and win them over to the speaker.

2. Topic naming. The speaker names what he will talk about, attunes the listeners to the subject, makes them remember what they know, and prepares them to delve into the subject.

3. Narration consists of a description of the history of the subject (how the question arose that needs to be resolved, and how the case itself developed).

4. Description. A story about what the matter is at the moment.

5. Proof consists of logical arguments that justify the solution to the problem.

6. Refutation. Proof by contradiction. A different point of view on the subject is allowed, which the speaker refutes.

7. Proclamation. Appeal to the feelings of the listeners. The goal is to evoke an emotional response from the audience. It occupies the penultimate place in the structure of speech, because people are usually more inclined to make judgments based on emotions, rather than on logic.

8. Conclusion. A summary of all that has been said and conclusions on the case under discussion.

• linear composition is a sequential statement of facts and events and is usually structured chronologically (autobiography, report);

• stepped - involves an accented transition from one position to another (lecture, report),

• parallel - based on a comparison of two or more provisions, facts, events (for example, school essays whose topics are -

"Chatsky and Molchalin", "Onegin and Lensky", "Sisters of Larina"

• discrete - presupposes the omission of certain points in the presentation of events. This complex type of organization is characteristic of literary texts. (For example, such a decision is often at the heart of detective stories);

• annular composition - contains a repetition of the beginning and ending of the text. This type of structure makes it possible to return to what was already said in the beginning at a new level of comprehension of the text.

So, for example, an incomplete repetition of the beginning in A. Blok's poem "Night, Street, Lantern, Pharmacy" makes it possible to comprehend what the poet said as a life contradiction to the words "And everything will repeat itself as of old" at the end of the text.);

• contrasting - based on a sharp contrast between the two parts of the text.

Genre types of composition

Depending on the genre of the text, it can be:

• tough- obligatory for all texts of the genre (references, information notes, statements, memos);
• variable- the approximate order of the arrangement of parts of the text is known, but the author has the ability to vary it (textbook, answer in the lesson, letter);
• non-rigid- assuming sufficient freedom of the author, despite the fact that he is guided by existing samples of the genre (story, essay, essay);

In the texts:

• built on the basis of combining elements, a linear, stepped, parallel, concentric composition is used,
• in literary texts, its organization is often more complex - it constructs the time and space of a work of art in its own way.

Our short presentation on this topic

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. OA Mazneva (see "Our Library")

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Composition(from Lat. compositio - compilation, composition),

COMPOSITION... Under the composition of the work in broad sense this word should be understood as a set of techniques used by the author to "arrange" his work, techniques that create a general picture of this latter, the order of its individual parts, transitions between them, etc. The essence of compositional techniques is thus reduced to the creation of some complex unity, complex whole and their meaning is determined by the role they play against the background of this whole in the subordination of its parts. The composition consists of a set, development, culmination, denouement, and there can also be an epilogue and a prologue. Techniques and methods are very diverse. Compositional techniques

• center (semantic, compositional)
• application of the golden ratio
• statics
• dynamics

Comparisons of events, objects, facts, details that are distant from each other in the text of the work sometimes turn out to be artistically significant. The most important aspect there is also the sequence in which the components of the depicted are introduced into the text - the temporary organization of a literary work as a process of discovering and unfolding artistic content. And finally Composition includes the mutual correlation of different sides (plans, layers, levels) of the literary form.

Composition units are divided into:

• Formal. For epic- sentence, paragraph, chapter, part, volume. The dilogy assumes that, along with common heroes, each work is read as an independent one, and a book in two volumes does not imply this. For lyrics- verse, stanza. For dramas- scene, act (action). The “frame” text is the title of the work, sometimes with clarifications: epithets, author's comments, dating, place of writing.
• Speech units. ( speech characteristics are what the character says, i.e. subjective creation).

1. Dialogue is the most private and democratic characteristic.

2. Monologue (Converted) is evidence of a more developed consciousness.

3. Monologue (unconverted) - internal - this is a deeper characteristic of a person, this is what a person thinks about.

4. Internal dialogue is a characteristic of sick consciousness, "destroying" a person.

5. Character's written speech

6. The character's diary (Pechorin) - maximum self-disclosure. The diary is not intended for prying eyes.

The text must necessarily have a composition, must be built according to a certain plan, which usually has a three-part structure - heading, opening, middle part (expansion of thought) and ending.

• Inception directly prepares the reader, listener for the perception of the main content of the text. It formulates the theme of the story. V middle part this topic is being developed. The ending sums up the disclosure of the topic.
• Each of the three components of the composition has its own characteristics and is expressed by special linguistic means. There are certain forms of expression of the beginning of a thought, the transition from one thought to another, the completion of a topic. They are most stable in the beginning and ending.

Heading is the introductory phrase of the text. This is the most important element of an informational message or announcement. Its main purpose is to grab the attention of readers and encourage them to read the main text. Creating a headline is creativity, the successful result of which necessarily presupposes an original one, thinking outside the box... On average, five times more people read headlines than body copy.

Structure of texts according to the rule " inverted pyramid", As a rule, the following:

1. The main idea, the most important information that you need to contact the audience.

2. Supporting information. Helpful, but not essential.

3. Conclusions, conclusion, thanks, whatever. If your readers have gotten to this part, then the article was really worthwhile.

Paragraph is a piece of text between two indents, or red lines. A paragraph differs from a complex syntactic whole in that it is not a unit of the syntactic level. A paragraph is a means of dividing a coherent text based on compositional and stylistic. Paragraph functions in dialogical and monologue speech are different: in a dialogue, a paragraph serves to differentiate the replicas of different persons, i.e. performs a purely formal role; in monologue speech - to highlight compositionally significant parts of the text (both from the point of view of logical-semantic and emotional-expressive). Paragraph division has one common goal - to highlight the significant parts of the text. The main functions of paragraph division are as follows: logical-semantic, expressive-emotional, accent-excretory.

Basically, the concept of composition is used to characterize artistic. It is due to the method, worldview, specific aesthetic, incl. genre tasks that he set. In most cases, the elements of the composition of the work are the exposition, the setting, the development of the action, and the denouement. An artistic whole can consist not only of one novel, but of a whole cycle, a group of poetic or prose works united common hero, common problems, ideas or scene of action ("Belkin's Tale" by AS Pushkin, "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" by NV Gogol). Linguistic stylistics in the concept of "composition" implies the relationship of the dynamic and static aspects of the work, the process of dismemberment text to specific blocks (paragraphs, chapters), the semantic side text... Therefore, there are two types of plans compositional construction works: logical-compositional and proper-compositional. The first includes structural-semantic and structural-logical aspects, and the second - compositional-meaningful and formal-compositional. Composition text is inherent not only in works of art, but also in non-fiction, too, and is understood as a sequence of three main parts: the introduction, the main part and the conclusion. The introduction is an introduction to the topic, content text, problem statement, presentation of material. Sometimes in the introduction psychological goals are pursued (journalism, scientific genres) to take possession of the reader, to establish contact with him. In the main part, the topic is revealed, basic information is reported, the tasks are solved. The ratio of particular and general, concrete examples and abstract concepts is important here. In the main part, the author sets out the main material, evaluates it, analyzes other people's judgments, offers his own understanding of the topic. All that has been said is summed up in the conclusion, where conclusions are formulated, new problems are outlined.

Composition (from Latin compositio - composing, linking, adding) is a connection different parts into a single whole. In our life, this term occurs quite often, therefore, in different areas activity value changes slightly.

Instructions

In "composition" the arrangement and coherence of a work of art, united by the author's intention. To its elements: parts and chapters, prefaces and scenes, dialogues and monologues, songs, etc. and portraits are also included in the composition. However, it cannot be regarded as a sequence of elements, it is an integral system of forms determined by the content of the work.

Science about architectural composition general patterns of building a project and the object of architecture itself. The composition itself is created by three types of means: the arrangement of volumes in space; relation, proportions, symmetry, color, scale of architectural volumes and their details; the inclusion and use of elements of painting, sculpture, gardening art.

A composition is this, which also carries a certain inherent meaning. Sounds convey the inner state of the composer, important life events, emotions (joy, sadness, etc.), etc. A multitude of techniques that convey certain shades create one integral composition.

All types of compositions in different areas have their own characteristics, which intersect in one thing: the combination of many components into one whole work that makes sense.

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A reference group is a social group that is a significant standard for a person, a way of organizing both for himself and for others, as well as a starting point for the development of value orientations and social norms.

The functions of the reference group are divided into comparative and normative ones. Normative norms are the source of norms with the help of which the regulation of people's behavior is carried out. They become a guideline for solving significant problems. Comparative, in turn, is the standard for the individual with whom he identifies himself and the people around him. The same group is capable of being comparative and normative at the same time.

According to the fact of belonging, reference groups are divided into ideal and presence. Presence is different in that the individual is a member of the group. And the ideal group will be for that group, which he does not belong to, but whose views and attitudes he is focused on in his behavior and assessment of people and significant events.

The ideal group can be both fictional and real-life. In a fictional group life ideals and benchmarks are literary heroes, famous historical figures. In any case, he strives to be an adherent of the ideal group.

The negative and positive reference groups are classified according to the denial or agreement of the individual with the values ​​and norms of the group. From this, a person corresponds to disapproving assessments from the group, which norms he does not adhere to, and vice versa - to get his own from the side of the one whose norms he is trying to meet.

E.V. Shchedrina developed a special experimental procedure for identifying reference groups - referentometry. It is designed to establish and identify the level of reference of group members for any individual included in it. That is, it determines the circle of persons whose opinion the individual considers the most significant for himself.

In social and the concept of a reference group is usually used to explain the socio-psychological mechanisms that are involved in the development of individual value-normative attitudes and the regulation of personality consciousness.

The influence of the reference group is important. Therefore, these groups are identified in order to conduct sociological research, which are associated with the development of effective advocates and pedagogical influences. Referentometry helps to study the orientation of the personality and look for ways for its purposeful formation.

Organizations emerged quite a long time ago and over time they have become more complex, proliferating and gaining more and more importance in life. human society... In its simplest sense, an organization is a group of people acting to achieve common goal... For their successful functioning, the activities of the group must be coordinated.

Instructions

Thus, an organization is an association of people whose activities are deliberately coordinated to achieve a goal. Organizations can be formal or informal. Formal organizations have the right legal entity, the goals of their functioning are enshrined in the constituent documents, and the procedure for their activities - in the normative acts that regulate the rights and obligations of each participant. Formal organizations are commercial and non-commercial. The purpose of the former is to make a profit. Non-profit organizations do not have their main goal to make a profit. Informal organizations are groups of people that arise spontaneously, whose members interact with each other.

In economics, an organization means only a formal organization. An organization can have more than one goal, but several. Their implementation is ensured through the well-coordinated functioning of its individual parts. The key goal of any organization, without which its existence is impossible is its own reproduction. If this goal is suppressed by the organization, then it can quickly cease to exist.

In the process of functioning, the organization uses the resources that it transforms to achieve the desired result. The resources include human resources, capital, material resources and information.

The organization is closely connected with the external environment, since it receives resources from it. In addition, there are consumers of the goods and services it produces in the outside world. The external environment of the organization is quite diverse. It includes economic conditions, consumers, legislation, competitors, public views, technology, etc. At the same time, the external environment practically does not lend itself to the influence of the organization. In this connection, the leaders of the organization have to take into account the impact of these factors on its activities.

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Development is, first of all, any process that is aimed at changing spiritual and material objects in order to improve them. This phenomenon can be observed in all areas of life. After all, where there is no progress and development, regression and degradation occur. This is one of the most important concepts of the whole universe.

Instructions

Development takes place in almost all areas. For example, there is a development of the organism. It is expressed in a qualitative adaptation to the environment and other objects within the system. For example, a newborn is not what the adult world is preparing for him. As he receives it, one way or another, he develops and adapts to changes around him. It is impossible for a single person to get away from this process.

You can also observe not only physical and social development, but also mental. They all go hand in hand with each other. While receiving new information, a person develops memory, thinking, attention, will and emotions. Without these components, there would be no "Homo sapiens" species.

Also, development is understood as economic growth or social progress. It is impossible to maintain demand for goods or services without increasing it. This is the main reason for the constant growth of the macroeconomic system. Also, as knowledge accumulates and new technologies are created, social development also occurs. People are more able to fulfill their potential and the human need to develop. Without this aspect, it is impossible to hope for the improvement of the world.

Development should also include the spread of a process. Examples of such phenomena are bad habits person, disease, natural disaster, etc. Sometimes these processes take place for people. For example, cancers from smoking don't show up overnight. They need a certain amount of time. But this aspect does not give people the danger of feeling the approach of a tragic outcome. Therefore, sometimes, to the degree of development of the process, it is necessary to use precise instruments (for example, medical).

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Tip 6: How the composition of historical love stories is built

To love story did not become a dubious story developing against the background of abstract events, it is necessary to thoroughly study the era you are describing, learn about the most influential people of that time and pay attention to the little things that seem insignificant at first glance.

Instructions

Choose the country and time period in which the events of your novel will unfold. Read history books, study the political and military situation of that period. Remember that the state could be called at that time in a completely different way.

Read the notes of contemporaries or studies by historians dedicated to major politicians, military leaders, monarchs who will become participants in your story. This will fill the romance interesting descriptions.

Create a plot for the novel. A classic love story usually develops as follows. Two young and beautiful people meet in difficult times for the country (region, clan or family). They may love each other at first sight, but they may hate each other at first, because they belong to different classes or are the offspring of warring clans. In any case, you should plan the story in such a way that circumstances and intrigues prevent the lovers from being together. Such obstacles may include war, the engagement of one of the main characters to an influential person, the status of an illegitimate child. In the end, all troubles will be overcome and the lovers will be reunited. Usually the story ends there.

Respect the timeline for your storytelling. The events developing in the novel must correspond to the historical events of the period about which in question.

Consider the woman's status at a particular time period. It is quite possible that at the time you are writing about, all the fairer sex were locked up and embroidered tapestries. Therefore, a description of how main character sat on a horse and galloped to chop down enemies, it would be inappropriate for one reason - she simply could not know how to mount a horse. Although, of course, there were exceptions.

Complete the novel with accurate descriptions of cities and natural landscapes. To do this, you can refer to the history of a particular settlement, and study the types of terrain from photographs, excluding modern buildings from consideration.

Explore the features of the costumes and clothing of your chosen era. This will make the story more authentic, especially if the novel contains bed scenes.

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In classical political economy, any commodity has a dual character, which is determined by the abstract and concrete that is embedded in it. It is worthwhile to figure out what is invested in these concepts.

Product

Any product on the market, be it a car, a hammer, or a food product, has two quality characteristics. First, the product satisfies some human needs. Secondly, the commodity has a certain exchange value. Its usefulness is expressed in use value. Exchange value is a concept that characterizes the value of a given commodity in comparison with another commodity, the use value of which is similar to that exchanged.

Before the money exchange appeared, the seller in the market understood that, for example, for his fish he would be given a kilogram of grain or one ax. It follows from this that one fish, a kilogram of grain, and one ax have the same exchange value and the amount of social labor that was incorporated into all these goods. With the advent of money, each of these goods began to have the same value, but different consumer value.

The greatest theoretician in the formation of the dual nature of labor is Karl Marx. He expressed his theory of political economy in the two-volume work "Capital".

Abstract labor

The value of a commodity, expressed by its exchange value, is obtained through the so-called abstract labor. It is expressed in the cost of labor as such. The more it was spent in the production of goods, the higher its exchange value or value, expressed in monetary units... Thanks to abstract labor, the consumer has the opportunity to compare this or that product in terms of its value, which is set by the manufacturer.

Modern world although he prefers the exchange of goods in cash, there are still corners on the Earth where tribes still use natural exchange, evaluating goods from the point of view of use value.

Specific labor

Labor, which is expressed with the help of physical, mental efforts, expenditure of materials, is concrete. In other words, the form of expression of such labor is measurable. Thanks to this form of labor, any commodity has a use value. Thus, the work of the carpenter is expressed in the furniture, the work in the dress, the work of the potter in the jug, etc.

Market commodity relations

Although the economy recognizes the dual nature of the labor that is put into the produced goods, it prefers to evaluate the goods from the point of view of abstract labor, since this made it possible to move from the exchange of goods to money. Money has become a way of assessing abstract labor, since the use value is a rather subjective value, the assessment of which is not always possible.

The concepts of "farm" and "cut" are practically not found in modern Russian speech today, but they can be found in classical literature... People used these outdated terms even in the time of Gogol, calling them small settlements and private peasant landholdings.

Khutor

The farm was a very populated area or a separate peasant estate with a separate farm. Usually the farm consisted of about ten, which were a separate group, which administratively belonged to the larger population. Gradually, the farmsteads expanded, turning into a village or village, but their name often remained in the name of the settlement.

Estonians called their farmsteads manors, while Poles and residents of some eastern and central Europe used the name "folwark".

Each farm could number from one to a hundred households, but it did not have - that is how it differed from a village, where there could be only ten households, but it was always present. Don and Kuban called a settlement on the territory of the farm, which did not have a separate administrative management. Quite often the population of the village farms exceeded the population of the central settlement, the farmstead that had arisen. Large farmsteads often became autonomous villages with a separate communal territory and an assigned Cossack population.

Cut

The concept of “cut” appeared at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia. They were called a piece of land allocated from the communal land area, transferred to a peasant for individual use without transferring the main estate. Thus, the cut was an economic form of private land ownership with the most compact location. For the first time, legal between the farm and the cut were carried out in 1906 in a normative act, which indicated that village communities could go to both the cut and the household form of land tenure.

The difference is that the farm could be striped, and the cut completely united the allotment peasant plots into a common massif.

The owner, who received the newly formed plot, could independently decide whether to give the status to his land - allotment or non-allotment. It was important point, since the allotment area somewhat limited its owner at his disposal. The restrictions made it possible to preserve the peasant land fund from non-agricultural elements penetrating into the villages. In addition, the recognition of allotment land freed it from loans, mortgages and other financial encumbrances of private owners and creditors - except for the Peasant Land Bank.

A person who decides to become a creator of articles for Internet sites naturally wants to know how much he can earn by doing this kind of activity. As a rule, novice authors choose rewriting as the easiest way to create Internet content. But they are faced with the fact that their wages can be very different and depend not on the quality of work, but on other factors that are difficult for a beginner to take into account.

What is rewriting?

For a start, it's a good idea to decide. It is customary to call the creation of an article for an Internet resource based on other materials taken on the Internet or from print media.

The requirements for rewriting are currently quite high. A high-quality rewriting is not just a presentation of the material of the original article in your own words and, moreover, not a primitive replacement of words in the original article with synonyms or rearrangement of their order in a sentence. A rewrite is welcome, when writing which the author used several sources, was able to creatively rework them, and even better - add his own original thoughts and ideas.

But the main requirement for a rewritten article is uniqueness. This means that the resulting text should not be found on the Internet. It is necessary to check the uniqueness using special programs, but the requirements for the degree of uniqueness may be different.

In any case, uniqueness below 80% does not give the right to consider the article suitable for any Internet resource.

Rewrite price

As a rule, the price for any content is set based on the cost of 1000 printed characters.

Some people charge a price per 1,000 characters of printed text, including spaces, but more often there is a fixed price per 1,000 characters of printed text, excluding spaces.

But there may be options: some customers set the desired volume of the article and a fixed price for it, some are willing to pay depending on how many readers the article will gain.

But even if we focus on the cost of 1000 characters without spaces, it can vary greatly depending on the wishes and capabilities of the customer. So, on content exchanges, this price ranges from 10 to 200 rubles or more. Beginners, as a rule, are ready to try their hand at even a minimal fee, but they quickly realize that it is impossible to earn any tangible amount in this way.

Some customers do not make a distinction between an author's article and a rewrite, others pay a little less for a rewrite. The average price for a rewrite is 40-60 rubles. for 1000 printed characters excluding spaces, but with a certain amount of luck and the proper level of skill, you can find a customer who is ready to pay much more for such work, so it is extremely difficult to say exactly how much this or that article will cost.

Another way to try to increase your income by doing rewriting is to list articles for sale on content or on a webmaster forum. But in order to get a high pay, a person needs to establish himself as a high-quality and unique material. Not a single customer will buy expensive articles from a person whose capabilities and abilities he does not know.

In any case, only the literate will be paid, unique material, regardless of whether it is a rewrite or an author's article. For an illiterate, hard to read, non-unique text, the author runs the risk of not getting a dime.

The water-cement ratio primarily determines the strength of the concrete. In order to find out how much liquid is needed in a particular solution, you should pay attention to the quality of the cement, the type of aggregate, its purity and humidity.

The water / cement ratio is the exact proportion of water and cement in the concrete. It determines what its strength will be, and hence its quality.

Effect of water on concrete performance

If there is an excess amount of liquid in the cement-sand mortar, this will lead to the formation of pores in the structure of the monolith and, as a consequence, to a decrease in its strength. The slurry quickly spreads over the form (formwork) and soon begins to seep through the smallest cracks. As the water flows out, the cement is carried away with it, since this binder is the lightest component of the solution in terms of weight. Such concrete takes a long time to set due to the fact that the period of evaporation of the liquid is very significant. In most cases, this leads to cracking of the building stone.

For hard concrete M75, the optimal water-cement ratio is 0.6. Therefore, to prepare 1 m3 of this solution, 150 liters of water will be required. But for the calculation to be absolutely accurate, you need to understand the function of the liquid in the solution. Water has two of them: it takes part in the chemical processes that occur during the hardening of cement, and provides the mixture with relative plasticity (fluidity).

This property is very important, as it ensures the absence of air bubbles in the concrete structure. Therefore, for rigid compositions, compaction (tamping) of the cement-sand mortar is so necessary, regardless of what type of aggregate is used. This work is performed manually or using a special vibration tool (vibrating plate).

How to find out the exact water-cement ratio?

The water-cement ratio is most often determined according to special tables. But experienced builders can do this according to the condition of the mortar in the concrete mixer. If there is little water in the mixture (no more than 30% of the total amount of cement), then hard concrete is obtained. If there is a lot, then it is fluid. An important role in determining the water-cement ratio is played by the moisture and purity of the aggregate. For example, if the sand is damp with an admixture of clay, the cement-to-water ratio must be adjusted.

It is important to pay attention to the quality of the cement. It should be understood that for a month of storage, it loses at least 10% of its binder properties. In three months, losses will increase to 20%, in six months - to 30%. All this will affect the required amount of water to obtain the concrete with the proper strength. It is not recommended to use crushed limestone as a coarse aggregate, since this stone has a sufficiently high hygroscopicity, which does not allow determining the required water-cement ratio for concrete of a certain grade with the necessary accuracy.

An oscilloscope is a device that graphically displays electrical vibrations. Its name comes from the Latin and Greek words - "oscio" and "grapho", which translates as "swing" and "write", which accurately reflects the principle of its work.

History and classification

The very first oscilloscope was invented in France in 1893 by the physicist André Blondel and was more primitive and less accurate than its modern variations.

Today's oscilloscopes provide the ability to examine signals at gigahertz frequencies. To study higher-frequency signals, as a rule, more complex electro-optical cameras are used.

Oscilloscopes are divided into two types according to their purpose and method of displaying information. The former have a periodic sweep for direct observation of the waveform on the screen. The latter, having the same continuous scanning, register the fluctuations of the curve on the photographic tape.

Oscilloscopes with a periodic sweep are divided into universal, high-speed, stroboscopic, storage and special. Digital ones make it possible to combine the use of different functions.

It is also customary to distinguish between oscilloscopes by the way they process the input signal into analog and digital.

There are also classifications by the number of beams: single-beam, double-beam, etc. The number of beams can reach 16 or more.

In addition to the above variations, there are oscilloscopes combined with other measuring instruments. They are called scopometers.

Application area

As mentioned above, an oscilloscope is a device for studying the amplitude and time parameters of an electrical signal. That is why oscilloscopes have found wide application in radio engineering, where they are used for clearer diagnostics and understanding of oscillatory processes in electronic circuits.

With the help of this device, it is possible to evaluate not only and not so much the frequency of oscillations, but the form and pattern of oscillatory processes. Also, using an oscilloscope, you can find interference or distortions in the passage of an electrical pulse in various nodes of the circuit.

Today it is one of the most important devices in radio electronics. It is used for applied, laboratory and research purposes, for monitoring and studying electrical signals.

The oscilloscope was also used in television broadcasting. In this area, it is used for periodic and operational control quality indicators of the television path and its individual links.

The oscilloscope also left its mark on the gaming industry. It was his screen that served as a display for one of the first Tennis For Two video games. It was a virtual version of tennis.

Modern production all areas are increasingly turning to natural materials. Many of them have truly unique properties. One example is textolite - entirely natural and used in many areas.

What is textolite

Textolite is a structural laminate that is obtained by hot pressing of cotton fabrics. The fabrics, in turn, are impregnated with a thermosetting binder based on phenol-formaldehyde resin. Sometimes polyester, phenol-formaldehyde, epoxy, polyamide, furan, organosilicon resins or thermoplastics are used as impregnation.

However, it is thanks to the cotton fabric that this material has compressive strength, increased impact strength and tolerates mechanical processing well: drilling, cutting or punching.

All these qualities determine the scope of use of the textolite - the manufacture of parts loaded with alternating electrical and mechanical loads or operating under friction.

In addition, textolite is an excellent electrical insulator.

In general, the properties of this material largely depend on the properties of the fabrics and the binder from which the textolite is made, as well as the technology of its manufacture.

In this regard, a distinction is made between PCBs, organotexolites, fiberglass laminates, asbestos laminates, carbon fiber laminates and basalt laminates. And the fabrics themselves differ in the type of weaving, thickness and surface density.

Scopes of PCB

Textolite has found application in many areas. For example, it is widely used in electronics and electronics as an insulating material or heat insulator.

Due to its wear and vibration resistance, friction parts are created from it - bearings, bushings, rings, washers, etc. Some types of PCB are used in the chemical industry to work with aggressive media.

In addition, it is used to work in transformer oil and in air under normal humidity conditions the environment at a current frequency of 50Hz.

Machines and devices, parts of which are made of PCB and its derivatives, significantly increase the productivity of the enterprise as a whole.

Distinguish between sheet and core textolite.

Sheet textolite is a polymer designed for laying a shock-absorbing layer in electrical products. It is a composition of cotton fabric pressed and impregnated with a resin composition.

Core textolite is a special form of layering the same cotton material. This winding method allows the use of PCB in industries related to work under high voltage.

The technology for the production of high-strength fibers, obtained in the 60s of the last century, is still widely used today. The trade mark involved in this production is called Kevlar.

Kevlar and its properties

Kevlar belongs to aramids - fibers of high thermal and mechanical strength. Scientific name this fiber is polyparaphenylene terephthalamide. Kevlar is produced by DuPont. Kevlar has a very high strength. It is almost five times stronger than steel.

The strength and elasticity of Kevlar is maintained at fairly low temperatures down to -196 ° C. When exposed to low temperatures, Kevlar even becomes stronger.

Kevlar does not melt when heated. It begins to break down at temperatures of 430-480 ° C. The rate of destruction depends on the temperature and the duration of the temperature exposure. These parameters are quite impressive. If the temperature is 150 ° C, then in 500 hours the strength of Kevlar will decrease by only 10-15%. However, it is easily destroyed by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation, so it should not be exposed to direct sunlight for a long time. Also, Kevlar loses its strength when wet.

Kevlar has excellent impact resistance and crack resistance. Under high loads, Kevlar fibers buckle and form dents. By design, it resembles, but does not require processing.

Kevlar application

Due to its properties, Kevlar has become widespread and used, despite its high cost.

The original purpose of Kevlar fibers was to use it in the reinforcement of automobile tires. In this area, it has been successfully used to this day. They are also reinforced with speakers and fibers of copper cables.

In the manufacture of mixed fabrics, Kevlar is also used as a component for reinforcement. These fabrics are used to make protective gloves, puncture-resistant insoles, protective parts of clothing designed for extreme sports, for example, in motorcyclist uniforms.

The high strength of Kevlar allows it to be used for the manufacture of body armor and helmets. This use of Kevlar has become perhaps the most popular. Kevlar protectors are relatively lightweight and have a tremendous energy absorption rate. Kevlar bulletproof vests have passed most of the tests. To exclude the deterioration of the quality of protective equipment, waterproof coatings were made for them, which also protected from the effects of the sun.

What is meant by the term "freight"

In a narrow sense, the word "freight", from it. "Fracht" means the cargo delivered by the carrier on a leased vehicle, as well as the direct transportation of goods. But this term also has a broader use.

Freight implies a contractual relationship between two parties - the seller of the goods, who needs to deliver them to their destination, and the carrier chosen by him, who takes on the delivery of this cargo. At the same time, in some cases, delivery and insurance of the delivered goods is paid by the seller in advance, before the goods are sent.

But most often, freight is paid after the goods are delivered to their destination. This implies that the seller assumes possible risks and other additional costs for the delivery of the goods. But according to the established rules, the carrier is also obliged to provide insurance in favor of the buyer for such insured events as loss and damage of the transported goods.

The party, which is called the "carrier" in the freight agreement, can be any person who, within the framework of the assumed this agreement obligations must ensure the timely and safe transportation of goods by any means of transport. It can be rail, road, air, sea or inland waterway, or any combination of these.

What determines the cost of freight

First of all, the cost of freight will depend on the duration of the route. It will also be influenced by the situation in the areas through which it will pass. So, in cases of international transport, the cost of freight increases if the route passes in close proximity to areas of hostilities. When the carriage is carried out by sea, its price can be increased if the ship goes through the Panama or Bosphorus Strait - the authorities of Panama and Turkey charge a rather big fee for the passage of ships through these channels. Increases the cost of freight and the use of containers for packing goods of non-standard sizes and shapes.

The cost of freight also includes the cost of loading and unloading goods at the place of departure and destination. In the event that dangerous goods are transported, a multiplying factor is applied. In addition, various international and domestic duties and taxes, as well as seasonal fluctuations in market prices, may affect shipping costs. freight transport.

Meticulous work on the uniqueness of the text is required by representatives of many professions. Really useful information it's not so easy to find on this topic, so you have to figure out many things on your own.

Here are some simple ways to make your text more unique.

When rewriting text, try to rewrite sentences from the end. This approach allows you to get a new offer with the same meaning and high uniqueness. At the same time, make sure that in the text of the sentence it would remain related to each other in meaning.

Do not use programs that increase uniqueness. First, most of them are paid. Secondly, increasing the uniqueness is mainly achieved by filling the source text hidden symbols... The number of characters in the text will increase, but the uniqueness will hardly change. Synonymizing programs - these programs generally produce indigestible text that requires such a serious alteration that it is easier to do everything yourself from the very beginning. No customer will accept such a text, be it artistic text for payment or a student's course book.

Those who are not only forced from time to time to create unique texts (for example, the work of students), but make money on this, they know perfectly well, "shingle". This term denotes the number of words used by the program to check for uniqueness. Most often, the test with the shingle "3" is taken as the standard. When checking the text, the program with such settings will check the loaded text not after three, but after FOUR words. So that your text is checked for uniqueness using this algorithm, the easiest option when working with it would be to replace every fourth word. If this does not work out in all cases, we count back a word or two, change it, then start counting from the last corrected word.

Even if you completely write the text yourself, without using any sources, non-unique fragments can still appear in it. The way out is simple - do not use hackneyed phrases, generally accepted clichés, and your texts will turn out not only unique, but also interesting.