The seven centuries of the Old Russian literature: common features, spirituality and genres. Features of the ancient Russian literature

03.05.2019

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Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Russia. The intensity of its distribution is indisputable proof that the appearance of writing was caused by the needs of the state.

History of appearance

Writing was used in various spheres of public and public life, in the legal sphere, international and internal relations.

After the appearance of writing, the activities of the correspondencers and translators were stimulated, a variety of high-Russian literature genres began to develop.

She served the needs and needs of the Church, consisted of solemn words, lives, teachings. In ancient Russia, secular literature appeared, began to lead the chronicle.

In the consciousness of the people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.

Old Russian Writers: Chronicles, Agiographs, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of the X - early XI century. In Russia, a huge work was carried out, aimed at transferring the ancient Greek language of literary sources. Thanks to such activities, ancient Russian scribes managed to familiarize themselves with many monuments of the Byzantine time, on their basis, create a variety of high-Russian literature genres. D. S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of the introduction of Russia to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, allocated two characteristic features of a similar process.

He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Russia.

Such literature, intermediary included liturgical books, scriptures, chronicles, essays of church writers, natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments of historical narration, for example, "Roman about Alexander Macedonian".

Most of the ancient Bargar literature, the Slavic mediatory, was transfers from the Greek language, as well as the works of early Christian literature written in the III-VII centuries.

It is impossible to mechanically divide the Old Slavic literature on the transferable and original, they are organically related parts of a single organism.

Reading in the ancient Russia of other books is evidence of the secondaryness of national culture in the field of artistic words. First, among the monuments of writing there was a sufficient number of texts of a non-leaturated type: Proceedings of theology, history, ethics.

Folklore works became the main type of verbal art. To understand the identity and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize themselves with the works that are "outside the genre systems": "teaching" Vladimir Monomakh, "The Word about the regiment of Igor", "Prayer" Daniel Sharpener.

Primary genres

The genres of Old Russian literature includes such works that have become a building material for other directions. They are counted:

teaching;
note;
word;
life.

In such genres of the works of the Old Russian literature include the chronicle story, weather entry, church legend, the chronicle of the tale.

Life

Was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and common. Life was considered a mandatory attribute when a person was counted to the saints, that is, cannonized. He was created by people who directly communicate with the man who could reliably tell about the bright moments of his life. The text was drawn up after the death of Tom who was mentioned. He performed a substantial educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a reference (sample) of righteous existence, imitated to him.

Life helped people overcome the fear of death, preached the idea of \u200b\u200bimmortality of the human soul.

Canons of life

Analyzing the features of the genres of the ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons on which life created was preserved unchanged to the XVI century. At first it was said about the origin of the hero, then the place was given a detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with the glorification.

Arguing over what Old Russian literature, genres considered the most interesting, we note that it was the living that the existence of holy princes Gleb and Boris was allowed to describe the existence of holy princes.

Old Russian eloctudience

Answering the question of which genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that the eloquence was in three versions:

political;
didactic;
solemn.

Teaching

The system of genres of the ancient Russian literature highlighted it as a kind of ancient Russian eloquence. In the teachings, the chronicles tried to allocate the standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: Proshriter, Prince. The most striking example of this genre is considered the "teaching of Vladimir Monomakh" from the "Tale of Bygone Years", dated 1096. At that time, the maximum intensity was reached by disputes for the throne between princes. In the teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations regarding the organization of his life. He offers the salvation of the soul to search in the pinnacle, calls on to help people who need to serve God.

Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before the military campaign with an example of his own life. He offers to build public relations in harmony with nature.

Sermon

Analyzing the main genres of the Old Russian literature, we emphasize that this speech church genre, which has a kind of theory, was attracted to the historical and literary study only in the form that was at some stages indicative for the era.

The sermon called the "fathers of the Church" of Vasily of the Great, Augustine of Blessed, John of Zlatoust, Grigory Dvoyeslov. Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of new prose, and the statements of Burdal, Bosseyt, other speakers of the XVII century, are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. A high role of sermons in medieval Russian literature, they confirm the originality of the genres of the ancient Russian literature.

Samples of Russian vintage houselombal sermons who give a complete picture of the creation of the composition and elements of artistic style, historians consider the "words" of Metropolitan of Illarion and Kirill Turvoskoy. They were skillfully used by Byzantine sources, their own works created on their basis. In their sufficient quantities, antithesis, comparisons, personification of abstract concepts, allegory, rhetorical fragments, drama of presentation, dialogues, partial landscapes are used.

The following examples of sermons decorated in an unusual stylistic design, professionals consider the "words" of Serapion of Vladimir, "Words" of Maxim Grek. The breakdown of the practice and the theory of preaching art fell on the XVIII century, they were talking about the struggle of Ukraine with Poland.

Word

Analyzing the main genres of the ancient Russian literature, a particular attention will be paid to the Word. It is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of his political variability, let's call "the word about the regiment of Igor". This work in many historians causes serious disputes.

The historic genre of the Old Russian literature, to which the "Word about Igor's regiment can also be attributed to the unusualness of techniques and artistic means.

In this work, a chronological traditional narrative version is broken. The author is first transferred to the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical retreats, which make it possible to enter various episodes: Yaroslavna's crying, Svyatoslav's sleep.

"The Word" contains different elements of oral traditional folk creativity, symbols. There are epics, fairy tales, and political background: Russian princes in the fight against the general enemy united.

"The word about the regiment of Igor" refers to the number of books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is located in one row with other works:

"Song of Nibelunga";
"Vityaz in Tiger Shkure";
"David Sasunsky".

These works are considered one-way, belong to one stage of folk-literary formation.

In the "Word" combined two folk genres: crying and glory. Through all the work there is a mourning of dramatic events, the glorification of the princes.

Such techniques are characteristic of other works of ancient Russia. For example, "the word about the killed Russian land" is a compound of crying the dying land of Russian with the fame of the powerful past.

As a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence, "the word about the law and grace", the author of which is Metropolitan Illarion. This work appeared at the beginning of the XI century. The reason for writing was the end of construction in Kiev military fortifications. In the work, the idea of \u200b\u200bcomplete independence of Russia from the Byzantine Empire is laid.

Under the "law", Illarion celebrates the Old Testament, given to Jews, not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a new covenant, called "grace". Illarion writes that Emperor Konstantin, as they read in Byzantium, also the Russian people respects Prince Vladimir Red Sunshiko, who kussed Russia.

Tale

Having considered the main genres of the Old Russian literature, we will pay attention and stories. These are the texts of the epic species that tells about military exploits, princes, their acts. Examples of such works are:

"The story of Alexander Nevsky's life";
"The story of the ruin of Ryazan Khan Batym";
"Tale of the battle on the river Kalka."

The most common in the ancient Russian literature was the genre of military story. Different lists of works belonging to it were published. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of the lead: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of military stories was considered a secular verbose of ancient Russia, it is inherent in the circle of church literature.

The multifaceted theme of such works is due to the association of the heritage of the pagan past with a new Christian worldview. These elements generate a new perception of a military feat that combines heroic and everyday traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the XI century, experts allocate translation written writings: "Alexandria", "Devgeniyevo Act".

N. A. Meshchersky, which is engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that in the maximum "history" influenced the formation of the military story of ancient Russia. He confirms his opinion to a significant quotation used in various ancient Russian literary works: "Life of Alexander Nevsky", Kiev and Galician-Volyn chronicles.

Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military episons were used in the formation of this genre.

Warrior endowed a courageous valor and holiness. The idea of \u200b\u200bit is similar to the description of the epic hero. The essence of the military feat has changed, the desire for the great faith comes to first place.

A separate role was given to the princely ministry. The desire of self-realization goes into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in the connection of verbal and ritual forms of culture.

Chronicle

It is a certain story about historical events. The chronicle is considered one of the first genres of the Old Russian literature. In ancient Russia, she played a special role, because it did not simply report any historical event, but also was a legal and political document, was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. It is considered the most ancient chronicle by the "Tale of Bygone Years", which came to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the XVI century. She tells about the origin of the Kiev princes, about the appearance of an ancient Russian state.

The chronicles are considered to be "unifying genres", which subjugate the following components: military, historical story, the lives of saint, praise words, teaching.

Chronograph

These are texts that contain a detailed description of the time of the XV-XVI centuries. One of the first such works of historians consider the chronograph for the great presentation. This work did not reach the full amount to our time, so the information about it is quite contrary to.

In addition to those genres of the Old Russian literature, which are listed in the article, there were still many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the multifaceted and uniqueness of literary works created in ancient Russia.

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

The Old Russian literature (DRL) is doubly specific, since in addition to national trains, the features of the Middle Ages (XI-XVIIIIV), which have determined the impact on the minerosopsy and the psychology of the person ancient Russia.

You can select two block of specific features.

The first block can be called the general culture, the second most closely connected with the inner world of the person's personality of the Russian Middle Ages.

On the first block, let's say quite briefly. First, the ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of the Russian literary process, the writing material was parchment (or parchment). They produced him from the skin of calves or lambs and therefore it was called in Russia "Veal". Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and wrote the most important thing on it. Later, a paper appeared in return for Parchment, which partly contributed, saying by the words of D. Lihachev, "breakthrough of literature to massibility."

In Russia, three main types of letters were consistently replaced. The first (XI-XIVV) was called the charter, the second (XV-XVIV.) - semi-supest, the third (XVIIV) - Scrop.

Since the writing material was roads, book customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wished that under the cover the most interested in their works of various themes and the time of their creation were collected.

The works of the ancient Russian literature is customary called monuments.

Monuments in ancient Russia functioned in the form of collections.

Particularly should be highlighted in the second block of specific features of the DRL.

1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is due not only to the big price of the book. Ancient Russian man in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him sought a peculiar encyclopedicity. Therefore, in the ancient Russian collections, monuments of various subjects and issues are often found.

2. In the first centuries, the development of DRL, artistic literature has not yet been mediated as an independent area of \u200b\u200bcreativity and public consciousness. Therefore, the same monument at the same time was both a monument of literature, and a monument of historical thought, and a philosophy monument, which existed in ancient Russia in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, the Russian chronicles until the beginning of the XXVEK were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianovoy-penets, the chronicles became the object of literary studies.

At the same time, the special philosophical saturation of the Old Russian literature in the next centuries of Russian literary development will not only be preserved, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national traits of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A.Lostov with all certainty to say: "Artistic literature is a storehouse of original Russian philosophy. In the prosaic writings of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the creations of Tyutchev, Feta, Lion Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...> Often the main philosophical problems are developed, by itself, in their specifically Russian, exceptionally practical form-oriented form. And these problems are permitted here in such a way that an uncompressed and knowledgeable judge will call these decisions not just "literary" or "artistic", but philosophical and ingenious. "

3. The Old Russian literature was an anonymous (impersonal) character, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of the ancient Russia (often called the scribes) did not seek to leave their names of the centuries, firstly, by virtue of the Christian tradition (the monk scribes often call themselves "unreasonable", "sinful" inquars who daring to become the creators of an artistic word); Secondly, due to the understanding of their work as part of the community, collective business.

At first glance, this feature seems to indicate a weakly developed personal beginning in ancient Russian author compared with Western European masters of the artistic word. Even the name of the author of the ingenious "word about Igor's regiment is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can" boast "hundreds of great names. However, there can be no speech about the "backwardness" of the ancient Russian literature or her "impersonality". Speech can go about its special national capacity. Somehow, D. Lihachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and ancient Russian - with a chorus. Is choir singing less beautiful than performances of individual soloists? Is it really no manifestation of a human person?

4. The main hero of the Old Russian literature is the Russian land. Agradiya with D. Lihachev, who stressed that the literature of the Domongolian period is the literature of one topic - the themes of the Russian Earth. This does not mean anywhere that the ancient Russian authors "refuse" from the images of the experiences of a separate human person, "loan" in Russian land, depriving itself individuality and abruptly limiting the "universal" significance of the DRL.

First, the ancient Russian authors are always, even at the most tragic moments of national history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongolian yoke, they sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. So, in the XIIIV, the medieval encyclopedia "Melissa" ("Bee") and "physiologist" are translated into ancient Russian.

Secondly, this is the most important thing, it should be borne in mind that the personality of the Russian person and the personality of the Western Europee is formed on various ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is approved by its special significance, exclusivity. This is associated with the special course of Western European history, with the development of the West Christian Church (Catholicism). The Russian man due to its orthodoxity (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy) denies an individualistic (egoistic) beginning as a destructive and for the very personality, and for its surroundings. Russian classical literature - from the nameless scribes of ancient Russia to Pushkin and Gogol, A.OSostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V.Rasputina and V. Belova - depicts the tragedy of an individualistic personality and approves his heroes on the ways to overcome the evil of individualism.

5. Old Russian literature did not know the fiction. This refers to conscious installation for fiction. The author and reader are absolutely believe in the truth of the artistic word, even if we are talking about fiction from the point of view of a secular person.

Conscious installation for fiction will appear later. This will occur at the end of the 18th century during the exacerbation of the political struggle for leadership in the process of unification of the original Russian lands. The rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. So the genre of political legend will arise. Moscow will appear in Moscow: the eschatological theory "Moscow - Third Rome", naturally adopted a topical political painting, as well as the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir." In Veliky Novgorod - "Tale of the Novgorod white hood".

6. In the first centuries, DRLs sought not to depict due to the following reasons. The first (religious): life of sinwood, his image prevents the earthly man to send his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. And grandfather, and father, and the son was worn out the same clothes, did not change weapons, etc.

Over time, under the influence of the system of secularization, life more and more penetrates the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence of a household tale genre in the XVIV ("Tale of Ulyania Osorgina"), and the century of the Genre of household stories will become the most popular.

7. For DRL, a special attitude to history is characteristic. The past is not only not separated from the present, but also actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is the "Tale of Bygone Years", "the story of the crime of Ryazan princes", "the word about the regiment of Igor" and others.

8. Old Russian literature wore lessacharacter. This means that the ancient Russian scribes sought first of all to enlighten the light of the Christianity of the readers. In DRL, in contrast to Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to put the reader with wonderful fiction, to lead from life difficulties. Adventure translations will become gradually penetrating into Russia from the beginningXVIUK, when Western European influence on Russian life will become apparent.

So, we see that the individual specific features of the DRL will be gradually lost with time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature, which determine the core of its ideological orientation, will remain unchanged until the present.

Medieval picture of the world.

Each period of historical and cultural development has its own worldship, its ideas about nature, time and space, the order of everything existing, about the attitude of people to each other, i.e. What can be called paintings in the world. They form partly spontaneously, partly purposefully, in the framework of religion, philosophy, science, art, ideology. The paintings of the world make up on the basis of a certain way of life of people, become part of it and begin to have a strong impact on it. The medieval person proceeded from the painting of the world developed by Christianity, or rather, the Western form of its name catholicism. In the Christian Symbol of Faith, compiled in the IV century, the church is called a single (only), saint, Catholic (Church Slavonic - Cathedral) and Apostolic.

The church is a Catholic (Cathedral), as it has its followers in all countries of the world and concludes in their dogmas all the completeness of truth, the same for all Christians. After the division of Christianity in 1054, the Roman Catholic and Greek Catholic Church appeared on the Western and East, and the latter became known as the Orthodox as a sign of constant confession of the right faith.

Christianity - Religion of salvation. For him, the essence of the history of the world is to disappear of mankind (in the person of Adam and Eve) from God, subordinated to the person of the power of sin, evil, death, and the subsequent reassembly to the Creator who realized his fall of the prodigal son. This return was headed by God the descendants of Abraham, with whom God concludes the "covenant" (contract) and gives them the "law" (rules of conduct). The chain of the Old Testament Righteous and the Prophets turns into a staircase, ascending to God. But even leaving over, even the Holy Man cannot be completely completely, and then there is an incredible: God is embodied, he becomes a man, more precisely by Bozhochlekom, because of his wonderful birth "from the Spirit of Saint and Mary of Virgin" free from sin. God-word, the Savior, the Son of God is like the Son of Man, a preacher from Galilee and voluntarily takes a shameful death on the cross. He descends into hell, frees the souls of those who worked well, is resurrected on the third day, it is the disciples and soon then falls on the sky. A few days later, the Holy Spirit (Pentecost) appears on the Apostles and gives them the power to fulfill the covenant of Jesus - to preach the gospel ("good news") to all peoples. Christian evangelists combines ethics based on love towards neighbor, with a feat of faith, which "close gates" leads to the kingdom of heaven. His goal is to burn believer, i.e. The transition to eternal life with God is achieved by promoting (synergies) of human efforts and God's grace.

In the medieval consciousness, both folk and elitar, a great place occupied faith in magic, authority. In the XI-XIII centuries. Magic moves into the background, giving way to the waiting for the onset of God's kingdom on earth. The new flourishing of witchcraft, demonology, the occult is accounted for by the XV-XVI centuries.

In general, the medieval folk culture cannot be reduced only to the relics of paganism and primitive beliefs. Created by her the world of images gave the richest material for the art of the Middle Ages and the New Time, became an important and integral part of European artistic culture.

Features of the ancient Russian literature, its difference from the literature of the new time.

Old Russian literature is the solid foundation on which the magnificent building of the National Russian Artistic Culture of the XVIII-XX centuries is erected. It is based on high moral ideals, faith in a person, in its possibilities of limitless moral improvement, faith due to the word, his ability to transform the inner world of a person, the patriotic pathos of the ministry of Russian land - the state -Rodina, faith in the ultimate celebration of goodness of evil, Mixing unity of people and his victory over a hated retail.

Chronological boundaries of the ancient Russian literature and its specific features.Russian medieval literature is the initial stage of the development of Russian literature. Its occurrence is closely related to the process of forming an early refortional state. Subordinate to the political tasks of strengthening the foundations of the feudal system, she in its own way reflected various periods of development of social and social relations in Russia XI-XVII centuries. Old Russian literature is the literature of the emerging Great Russian nationality, gradually developing in a nation.

The question of the chronological boundaries of the Old Russian literature is finally not resolved by our science. The ideas about the volume of the ancient Russian literature still remain incomplete. Many works died in the fire of countless fires, during devastating raids of steppe nomads, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar invaders, Polish-Swedish interventionists! Yes, and at a later time, in 1737, the remains of the library of the Moscow kings were destroyed by the fire that broke out in the Greater Kremlin Palace. In 1777, the Kiev library died from fire. During the Patriotic War of 1812 in Moscow, the handwritten collections of Musina Pushkin, Buturlin, Bause, Demidov, Moscow Society of Lovers of Russian Literature burned in Moscow.

The main custodians and correspondencers of books in ancient Russia, as a rule, there were monks, less interested in storing and correspondence of books of worldly (secular) content. And this largely explains why the overwhelming majority of the works of Old Russian writing are church.

Works of ancient Russian writing were divided into "worldly" and "spiritual". The latter were fully maintained and applied, as they contained the incredit values \u200b\u200bof religious dogmatics, philosophy and ethics, and the first, with the exception of official legal and historical documents, were declared "siest". Thanks to this, we present our ancient literature to a greater degree of church than she really was.

Starting to the study of the ancient Russian literature, it is necessary to take into account its specific features other than the literature of the new time.

The characteristic feature of the ancient Russian literature is the nature of its existence and distribution. At the same time, this or that work existed not in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections pursuing certain practical goals. "Everything that serves is not for the sake of benefit, but for the sake of the bedside, shall be charged with judacy." These words of Vasily the Great largely determined the attitude of the ancient Russian society to works by writing. The meaning of this or that handwritten book was evaluated from the point of view of its practical purpose, utility.

"Great Bo to happen plenty from the teaching of the book, books of Boy" and learners of the ESMA Paths to the reasons, the wisdom of Bo acquire and linked from the words of books; Sea Boy The Essence of the River, who attaches the universe, is the essence of the essence of wisdom, the books Bo there is a non-sharp depth, Sima Bo in the sadness of the comforts of the ESMA, si the essence of the UDUD linked ... Through bors, in the books of wisdom diligently, then the creep is great ... "-heads the chronicler under 1037

Another feature of our ancient literature is a n about n and n about with t, the impersonality of its works. It was a consequence of the religious Christian attitude of the feudal society to a person, and in particular to the work of the writer, the artist, the architect. At best, we know the names of individual authors, the "detectors" of books that modestly put their name either at the end of the manuscript, or on its fields, or (which is much less) in the title of the work. At the same time, the writer will not receive his name with such estimated epitats as "Lucky", "unworthy", "multi-way".In most cases, the author of the work prefers to remain unknown, and sometimes to hide behind the authoritative name of this or that "Father of the Church" - John of Zlatoust, Vasily of the Great, and others.

Biographical information about the scientists known to us, the nature of their creativity, the nature of social activities is very and very scarce. Therefore, if when learning the literature of the XVIII-XX centuries. Literary critches are widely attracted by biographical material, disclose the nature of the political, philosophical, aesthetic views of a writer, using the author's manuscripts, trace the history of the creation of works, identify the creative individuality of the writer, then to the monuments of ancient Russian writing have to approach differently.

In the medieval society, there was no concept of copyright, the individual features of the writer did not receive such a bright manifestation as in the literature of the new time. The correspondencers often performed in the role of editors and co-authors, and not simple copyists of the text. They changed the ideological focus of the rewrite work, the character of its style, reduced or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes, requests for their time. As a result, new editions of the monuments were created. And even when the correspondence simply copied the text, his list was always different from the original: he allowed the descriptions, skipping words and letters, unwittingly reflected in the language of the features of his native talk. In this regard, there is a special term in science - "Izov" (Manuscript of Pskov-Novgorod, Moscow, or Khir-Bolong, Serbian, etc.).

As a rule, the author's texts of the works did not reach us, and their later lists have been preserved, sometimes worthwhile from the time writing the original for a hundred, two hundred and more years. For example, the "Tale of Bygone Years", created by Nesser in 1111-1113, was not preserved at all, and the editorial office of Sylvester (1116) is known only as part of the Lavrentiev Chronicles of 1377. "Word about the regiment of Igor", written in late 80 The years of the XII century, found in the XVI list.

All this requires a researcher of the Old Russian literature an unusually thorough and painstaking texture work: the study of all available lists of a monument, the establishment of time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, lists, as well as definitions, in which editor is the list most of all corresponds Initial author text. These questions are engaged in a special branch of philological science - t e to t about l about g and me.

Solving complex questions about the time of writing one or another monument, his lists, the researcher appeals to such auxiliary historical and philological science, as well as a l e r and f and me. According to the features of the drawing of letters, handwritters, the nature of writing material, paper watermarks, the character of screensavers, ornament, miniatures illustrating the text of the manuscript, Paleeography makes it possible to relatively accurately set the time for creating a manuscript, the number of scribes, she wrote.

In the XI-One Half XIV century. The main writing material was a parchman made of calf leather. In Russia, Parchmen was often called "veal", or "harey". This expensive matter was naturally available only to the direct classes, and artisans, merchants used for their ice correspondence bark. Beresta also performed the function of student notebooks. This is evidenced by the wonderful archaeological discoveries of Novgorod Berchinsky Merilight.

To save the letter material, the word was not divided into the line, and only the paragraphs of the manuscript were allocated by a red cinnabarbonate letter - the initial, heading - the "red string" in the literal sense, the words. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under special admirement sign - t and t l about m. For example, gluckle (verbolet -says), BG (God), BCA (Virgin Mary).

Parchmen was pre-raised by a scribe with a chain line. Then the scribe put him on his knees and carefully wrote each letter. The handwriting with the right almost square design of the letters was called with t a in m. Work on the manuscript required painstaking work and large art, so when the scribe completed his hard work, he gladly noted it. "A merchant council is rejoiced and the feeding in otishe attracting and a wanderer in the edema will come, so I am rejoiced and a book writer, dosage to the end of the books ..."- We read at the end of the Lavrentiev chronicle.

Written sheets stuck in the notebooks who intertwined in wooden boards. Hence the phraseological turnover - "read the book from the board to the board." The binding boards were covered with leather, and sometimes enveloped into special salaries made of silver and gold. A wonderful example of jewelry art is, for example, the salary of the Mstislavova of the Gospel (the beginning of the XII century).

In the XIV century Paper came to replacing Parchment. This cheaper writing material climbed and accelerated the letter process. The statutory letter is replaced by an inclined, rounded handwriting with a large number of remote long signs - p about l u s t a in m. In the monuments of business writing, it appears with a r o p and with b, which gradually displaces the semi-suite and occupies a dominant position in Manuscripts XVII B. .

A huge role in the development of Russian culture played a typography in the middle of the XVI century. However, until the beginning of the XVIII century. Books printed mainly church, and the works are worldly, artistic still existed and distributed in manuscripts.

When studying the ancient Russian literature, one very important circumstance should be taken into account: in the medieval period, artistic literature has not yet meditated in an independent area of \u200b\u200bpublic consciousness, it was inextricably linked with philosophy, science, religion.

In this regard, it is impossible to mechanically apply the criteria for the artisticities that we approach the ancient Russian literature with which we approach in assessing the phenomena of the literary development of the new time.

The process of historical development of ancient Russian literature is a process of gradual crystallization of fiction, its discharge from the total flow of writing, its democratization and "priority", that is, release from the custhey of the Church.

One of the characteristic features of the ancient Russian literature is its connection with church and business writing, on the one hand, and oral poetic folk creativity - on the other. The nature of these ties at each historical stage of the development of literature and in its separate monuments was different.

However, the wider and deeper literature used the artistic experience of Folklore, the brighter it reflected the phenomenon of reality, the wider there was a sphere of its ideological and artistic impact.

The characteristic feature of the ancient Russian literature - and with t about r and z m. Her heroes are predominantly historical persons, it almost does not allow fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about the "miracles" - phenomena, seemingly medieval man supernatural, not so much the fiction of the ancient Russian writer, how many accurate records of stories or eyewitnesses, or the persons themselves, with whom Miracle happened.

The historicism of the Old Russian literature is specifically medieval. The course and development of historical events is explained by God's Love, the will of Providence. The characters are the princes, state rulers standing at the top of the hierarchical staircase of the feudal society. However, throwing the religious shell, the modern reader easily discovers that living historical reality, the genuine Creator of which was the Russian people.

Similar information.

Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of serving Russian land, state, homeland.
The main theme of the Old Russian literature is the world history and meaning of human life.
Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of a Russian person who is able to sacrifice the most expensive - life for the whole of the good. She expresses a deep faith by virtue, the ultimate celebration of good and human ability to elevate their spirit and defeat evil.
A characteristic feature of the ancient Russian literature is historicism. Heroes are predominantly historical faces. Literature strictly follows the fact.
A feature of the artistic creativity of the ancient Russian writer is the so-called "literary etiquette". This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subjugate the image of the world to certain principles and rules, once and forever establish what and how to portray.
Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing and is based on books Christian culture and developed forms of oral poetic creativity. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, visual funds of folk art.
The originality of the ancient Russian literature in the image of the hero depends on the style and the genre of the work. In the ratio with styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are also created.
In the ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was determined, in which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was "use" of the genre, "practical goal", for which one or another work was intended.
The traditions of ancient Russian literature are found in the work of Russian writers of the XVIII-XX centuries.

Check questions and tasks

As characterizes Academician D.S. Likhachev Old Russian literature? Why does he call it "a single ambitious whole, one of the colossal work"?
What does the ancient literature compare with the ancient literature and why?
What are the main advantages of ancient literature?
Why, without works of ancient literature, artistic discoveries of literature of the next centuries would be impossible? (Think, what qualities of ancient literature were learned by Russian literature of the new time. Give examples from the works of Russian classics known to you.)
What was valued and what did Russian poets and prosaiki be taken from the ancient literature? What was written about A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, A.I. Herzen, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.N. Mamin-Siberian?
What does an ancient literature about the benefits of books? Give examples of "praise books", known in the ancient Russian literature.
Why were there a high ideas about the strength of the word in ancient literature? What were they related to what they got?
What is said about the word in the Gospel?
With which writers compare books and why; Why books are rivers, sources of wisdom, and what they mean the words: "If you diligently look for in the books of wisdom, you will find the great favor of your soul"?
Name the monuments of the ancient Russian literature known to you and the names of their writers.
Tell us about the method of writing and character of ancient manuscripts.
Name the historical prerequisites for the emergence of the ancient Russian literature and its specific features, in contrast to the literature of the new time.
What is the role of folklore in the formation of ancient literature?
Using dictionary-reference material, briefly retell the story of the study of ancient monuments, write down the names of scientists engaged in their research, and stages of study.
What is the image of the world and man in the representation of Russian scribes?
Tell us about the image of a person in the ancient Russian literature.
Name the themes of ancient literature using vocabulary-reference material, characterize its genres.
List the main stages of the development of ancient literature.

Read also the articles section "National originality of ancient literature, its emergence and development."

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

Old Russian literature (DRL) is doubly specific, since in addition to national traits, the features of the Middle Ages (XI - XVII centuries) carrying the effects on the world-era and human psychology of ancient Russia.

You can select two block of specific features.

The first block can be called the general culture, the second most closely connected with the inner world of the person's personality of the Russian Middle Ages.

In Russia, three main types of letters were consistently replaced. The first (XI - XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV - XVI centuries) - semi-supest, the third (XVII century) - Scroping.

The works of the ancient Russian literature is customary called monuments.

Monuments in ancient Russia functioned in the form of collections.

Particularly should be highlighted in the second block of specific features of the DRL.

2. In the first centuries, the development of DRL, artistic literature has not yet been mediated as an independent area of \u200b\u200bcreativity and public consciousness. Therefore, the same monument at the same time was both a monument of literature, and a monument of historical thought, and a philosophy monument, which existed in ancient Russia in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, the Russian chronicles up to the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianovoy-penets, the chronicles became the object of literary studies.

First, the ancient Russian authors are always, even at the most tragic moments of national history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongolian yoke, they sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. So, in the XIII century, the medieval encyclopedia of "Melissa" ("Bee") and "Physiologist" are translated into ancient Russian.

Over time, under the influence of the system of secularization, life more and more penetrates the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the XVI century the genre of household stories ("The Tale of Ulibia Osorgina"), and in the XVII century, the Genre of Domestic Tale will become the most popular.

8. Old Russian literature wore lessa character. This means that the ancient Russian scribes sought first of all to enlighten the light of the Christianity of the readers. In DRL, in contrast to Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to put the reader with wonderful fiction, to lead from life difficulties. Adventure translations will become gradually to penetrate Russia from the beginning of the XVII century, when Western European influence on Russian life will become apparent.

The problem of the authorship of the monuments of literature ancient Russia is directly related to the national specifics of the first centuries of the development of the Russian literary process. "Copyright," said DS Likhachev, - was muffled in ancient literature.<…> The lack of great names in the ancient Russian literature seems to be a sentence.<…> We prejudice proceed from their ideas about the development of literature - submissions brought up<…> centuries when bloomed individual, Personal art is the art of individual geniuses.<…> The literature of ancient Russia was not literature of individual writers: she, like folk creativity, was the art of Nadindividual. It was the art created by the accumulation of collective experience and producing a huge impression by the wisdom of traditions and the unity of all - basically Unnamed - writing.<…> Ancient Russian writers are not architecting separate buildings. These are urban planners.<…> Every literature creates its own world that embodies the world of the ideas of modern society. " Hence, anonymous (impersonal) The nature of the creativity of the ancient Russian authors is the manifestation of the national originality of Russian literature and in this regard unnamed "Words about the regiment of Igor" is not a problem.

Representatives of the skeptical literary school (the first half of the XIX century) proceeded from the fact that the "backward" ancient Russia could not "generate" a monument of such a level of artistic perfection as "the word about the regiment of Igor".

Philologist-orientalist O.I. Senkovsky, for example, was confident that the creator of the "Words" was able to samples of Polish poetry of the XVI - XVII centuries, which the work itself cannot be ancient times of Peter I, that the author of "Words" - Galichanin, transferred to Russia or educated in Kiev. The creators of the "Words" were called A.I. Musin-Pushkin (holder of the collection with the text "Words"), and Ioli Bykovsky (one who has acquired a collection), and N.M. Karamzin as the most given Russian writers of the late XVIII century.

Thus, the "word" was represented by a literary hoax in the spirit of J. Macherson, allegedly opened in the mid-XVIII century the composition of the legendary warrior and singer Celts Osian, who lived by legend in the III century AD. in Ireland.

The traditions of the skeptical school in the 20th century continued French Slavist A. Mazas, originally considered that "the word" was created alleged A.I. Music-Pushkin to justify the conquest politics of Catherine II on the Black Sea: "We have a case when history and literature are in the right time bring your testimonies." In many respects, the Soviet historian A. Zimin, who called the creator of the "Words" of Iolia Bykovsky, was solidary with A. Mazon.

Arguments of the supporters of the "Words" authenticity were very convincing. A.S. Pushkin: The authenticity of the monument is proved by the "spirit of antiquity, which is impossible to fake. Which of our writers in the XVIII century could have a rather talent? " V.K.Kyhehelbecker: "By giving, this deceiver would be superior to almost all the then Russian poets, and thereby taken."

"" Skepticism's docks, "V.A. fairly emphasized Chivihin, "they were to some extent useful - they revived a scientific and public interest in the" Word ", encouraged the scholars of Zurce to look at the depths of times, spent studies made with scientific care, academic objectivity and a detail."

After disputes associated with the time of creating the "Words" and "Zadonshchina", the overwhelming majority of researchers, even, ultimately, and A. Mazon, came to the conviction that "the word" is a monument of the XII century. Now the search for the author "Word" focused on the circle of contemporaries of the tragic campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, which took place in the spring of 1185.

V.A. Chivihin in the Roman Essay "Memory" gives the most complete list of the alleged authors of the "Words about the regiment of Igor" and indicates the names of the researchers who put forward the data of the assumptions: "called some" Ginchi "(N. Asksakov), Galician" Promotroid scribe "Timothy (N. Golovin), "People's Singer" (D. Lihachev), Timofeya Raguilovich (writer I.Novikov), "Writing singer Mitusa" (writer A.Yugov), "Thousands of Raguil Dobrynich" (V.Pedorov), some unknown court The singer, an approximate Great Princess of Kievan Maria Vasilkovna (A.Solovyev), "Singer Igor" (A.Petrushevich), "Mergility" of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Chronicle Kochka (American researcher S. Tarasov), an unknown "Wandering Book Singer" (I. Malyshevsky), Belanoda Prozovich (Anonymous Munich Translator "Words"), Chernigov Voivod Olstina Aleksić (M. Sokol), Kiev Boyarova Peter Borislavich (B. Rybakov), the likely heir of the Generic Singer (A.Robinson), Unnamed Boyan's Grandson (m .Bpkin ), as applied to a significant part of the text - Boyan himself (A.Nikitin), mentor, adviser Igor (P. Ohrimenko), a unknown Polovtsovsky Saucer (O. Suleimenov)<…>».

V.A. himself Civivichin is confident that the creator of the word was Prince Igor. At the same time, the researcher refers to long and, in his opinion, the undeservedly forgotten report of the famous zoologist and at the same time specialist in the word "N.V. Chalmemannya (1952). One of the main arguments V. Chivivikhina is the following: "It was not a singer and not a vigor to judge the prince's princes, indicate that they should be done; It is the prerogative of a person standing on one public step with those to whom he addressed "