The formation and development of human society. Stone Century Middle Stone Century covers

Stone Age - the ancient period of human development. This cultural and historical period is characterized by the fact that at its length, people made tools and hunting mainly from stone. In addition to the stone, a tree and bone was also used. The Stone Age lasted from 2.6-2.5 million years ago to 3.5-2.5 thousand years before. e. It should also be noted that there is no strict framework of the beginning and completion of the stone age for the reason that in different parts of the Earth, humanity has developed unevenly and in some regions the stone age continued much longer than in others. The beginning of the use of stones as arms of labor also causes controversy, as the abandonment of finds and new discoveries can deepen or bring the beginning of the Stone Age.

In general, the beginning of the Stone Age refer to the period of 2.6-2.5 million years ago. It was during this period that the archaeological excavations show in Africa, the ancestors of a person learned to split the stones to get a sharp edge (Olduva culture).

The Stone Age is divided into several periods, which here will be briefly, but in subsequent articles we will study in more detail:

one. . It covers most of the stone century, ranging from 2.6-2.5 million years ago and ending 10 thousand years before. er, that is, almost the entire period of Pleistocene. The difference is that Pleistocene is a term, which determines the period in the geochronology of the Earth, and Paleolithic is a term determining the culture and history of the development of an ancient person who has learned to process the stone. In turn, Paleolithic is divided into several periods: Early Paleolithic, average Paleolithic and upper Paleolithic. During this time, the culture of the man of the stone age and the culture of the stone processing has succeed significantly.

2.. Immediately after Paleolithic, the new period begins - the mesolithic, which continued throughout the X-VI of Thousands of Years BC.

3.. Neolithic is the new Stone Age, which began during the so-called Neolithic Revolution, when human communities began to move from hunting and gathering to agriculture, agriculture and animal husbandry, which, in turn, led to the revolution and in the processing of stone instruments.

4. - Copper-stone century, copper eyelids or chalcolite. Transition period from the stone century to the bronze century. Covers the period of the IV-III millennium BC. e.

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The Stone Age lasted more than two million years and this is the largest part of our history. The title of the historic period is due to the use of the ancient people of the tools of labor from stone and silica. People lived in small groups of relatives. They collected plants and hunted, getting food to themselves.

Cryanonians are the first modern people who lived 40 thousand years ago in Europe.

A person from the Stone Age has no permanent dwelling, only temporary parking. The need for food forced the band to look for new hunting grounds. A person will still be very soon learned to handle land and keep cattle so that you can settle in one place.

Stone Age is the first period in the history of mankind. This is the conditional designation of the time frame when a person used a stone, flint, wood, vegetable fibers for fixing, bone. Some of these materials did not fall into our hands because it was simply rotted and decomposed, but the stone finds archaeologists worldwide continue to fix today.

Researchers use two basic methods of studying the complementary history of mankind: with the help of archaeological finds and studying modern primitive tribes.

The woolly mammoth appeared on the continents of Europe and Asia 150 thousand years ago. Adult special reached 4 m and weighed 8 tons.

Given the duration of the Stone Age, historians share it for several periods dividing depending on the materials of the labor instruments used by primitive man.

• Ancient Stone Age () - more than 2 million years ago.
• Middle Stone Age () - 10 thousand years BC Appearance of onion, arrows. Hunting for deer, wild boars.
• New Stone Age (Neolith) - 8 thousand years BC Start agriculture.

This is a conditional division for periods, because in each individual region progress has not always appeared simultaneously. The end of the Stone Age is the period when people have mastered the metal.

First people

The man was not always like that we see him today. Throughout a long time, the structure of the human body has changed. The scientific name of a person and his closest ancestors is a hominid. The first hominids were divided into 2 main groups:

• Australopithecus;
• Homo.

First yields

The cultivation of food for the first time appeared 8 thousand years BC. On the territory of the Middle East. Part of wild cereals remained about the reserve for the next year. The person watched and saw that if the seeds fall into the ground, they germinate again. He began to deliberate seeds. Locking small areas, it was possible to feed more people.

To control and plant crop, it was necessary to stay on the spot, it prompted the person less migrate. Now it was possible not to collect and get what kind of nature here and now, but also to reproduce it. So the agriculture was born, about what read more.

Wheat and barley became the first inhydrated plants. Rice was obulted in China and India 5 thousand years BC.

Gradually, the grain was learned to break into the flour to make porridge or pellets from it. The grain was placed on a large flat stone and with a grinding stone, it was triturated into powder. Rough flour contained sand and other impurities, but gradually the process became elegant, and the flour cleaner.

The cattle breeding appeared at one time with agriculture. A person earlier drove cattle into small pods, but it was done for convenience during hunting. Studying began 8.5 thousand years BC. The first was the goat and sheep. They quickly accustomed to the proximity of the person. Notes that large individuals give more rats than wild, the man learned to take only the best. So domestic cattle has become larger and wilderness of wild.

Stone treatment

Stone Age - this period in the history of mankind, when the stone was used and treated to improve life. Knives, tips, arrows, cutters, scrapers ... - seeking the necessary sharpness and shapes, the stone turned into an instrument of labor and weapons.

The appearance of crafts

clothing

The first clothing was needed to protect from the cold and the skin of animals were served. Skins pulled out, screamed and bonded. The holes in the skin could be made using a pointed sewer from a silica.

Later, plant fibers served as the basis for weaving the threads and in the future, for the release of the tissue. Decorative fabric painted with plants, leaves, bark.

Decoration

The first decorations served sinks, teeth of animals, bones, nut shell. Random search for semi-precious stones allowed to make beads bonded by strips of threads or skin.

Primitive art

Primitive man revealed his work using the same stone and walls of the caves. At least, it is these drawings that lived in preservation to this day (). Worldwide, animals and human figures are still found around the world.

End of the Stone Age

The Stone Age ended at the moment when the first cities appeared. Climate change, a settling lifestyle, the development of agriculture and cattle breeding has led to the fact that the generic groups began to unite in the tribes, and the tribes began to grow into large settlements.

The scale of settlements and the mastering of the metal led a person to a new era.

What is "Stone Age", know everything. These are skins, dirt, toilet in the far corner of the cave, rock painting instead of comic and no certainty: Today you will have a mammoth, and tomorrow you appetite to the saber-toothed tiger. However, our life consists of nuances, and the little things of the daily use of our ancestors are known only to individual professionals. Primitive life does not mean a sad life: what, but not to miss ancient people. To protect against the cold, they had to join the skins. Today we decided to turn the story upside down and visit the skins of our ancestors.

Last year, the "World of Fiction" published several articles about the medieval life. At the request of our readers, we decided to dug deep in Terra Incognita of human history - a period when (according to some specialists) aliens put genetic experiments on monkeys, Atlantis citizens flew into space, and our rapids looked at all this disgrace and wondering the bluff.

Long ago, in distant-distant ...

The stone century has never been. At least, this directly follows from the sacred books of most religions. Bible researchers converge in the opinion that our world was created from 6 to 10 thousand years ago. It so happened that after gastronomic experiments with apples, the first people instantly moved to a settlement agriculture, invented complex implements of labor and writing, and then began to kill each other in the name of good.

In 1654, Irish Archbishop James Usher calculated that the person was created exactly at 9 am on October 23, 4004 to our era. The Orthodox Church called another date - 5508 BC. Scientists argue that the formation of man began approximately 3 million years ago.

Unfortunately, no global religion contains the myth on how April 1, a thousand any years BC The Gods hid in the ground the skeletons of dinosaurs and silicon archae's tips so that then from the soul to laugh at archaeologists. The Stone Age has come independently and even contrary to beliefs of billions of people.

It began approximately 100,000 years ago and (in some regions of the planet) launched to the new time. The active development of civilization coincided with the end of the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago. The sea level rose, the climate has changed, and humanity began to quickly adapt to new conditions - to create complex tools of labor, to lay permanent settlements, actively hunt.

People of the late Stone Age did not differ from us with you. The volume of the brain, the structure of the skull, the proportion of the body, the degree of sore and other characteristics were the same with modern. If the child had come into modern times, he could grow, get an education and become, for example, by the author of the articles of the World of Fiction.

Until comparative recently, most people could be considered with full right ... with blacks. The Mutation of the "White" gene of SLC24F5 began with Europeans only 12 thousand years ago and ended 6 thousand years ago.

The darkness of the skin was most likely varied from the region to the region. The most common hair color was black. Blondes and redhead began to appear later - with an increase in the number of humanity, the mutations created, ultimately, various types of appearance were diversified. It is assumed that the people of the stone century painted hair with the juices of herbs, pollen and multi-colored clay not only from ritual, but also aesthetic considerations.

With genetics will not argue

Scientists argue that our DNA set dates back to two common ancestors, conventionally called "Adam" and "Eve." Investigating the gene drift, they found that Eva lived approximately 1,47000 years ago, and Adam - 60000 years ago. This does not mean that we have come from two people. Common ancestors of many people are traced in about 1000 BC. From Eve, we received only mitochondrial DNA (transmitted by the maternal line), and from Adam - Y-chromosome. Both of our progenitor lived in Africa. The presence of common ancestors is beaten by Arthur Clark and Stephen Baxter in the novel "Light of other days", Anime K.R.I.E.G., Parasite Eve's book and works on her (film, game).

Paradise in a halary

Almost all images, the people of the stone century are somewhere in nature (usually among the endless steppe) or sit by the fires. Such an idea is true for Paleolithic, but absolutely does not reflect the reality of neolithic (7000 years BC). The man began to build the first buildings - large stones that served as a roof support from branches - almost 2 million years ago, and 4.5 thousand years ago gigantic pyramids were already built. So by the end of the ice age of architectural knowledge it was enough to create long-term settlements.

The culture of the early Stone Age was surprisingly uniform. Throughout the planet, people, without claiming, used similar tools and did almost the same things with their help. 25 thousand years ago near the village of Dolny Westonice (Czech Republic) were built at home made of clay bricks, a tent was made from the skins and the wrist of Mammoths in Siberia, and when it came to the burial, our ancestors were not lazy to move huge stone slabs, folding from them impressive megalithic graves .

In addition, massive stone blocks walked on signs that limit any territory, "monuments" in honor of any events, and in some cases they turned into objects of worship.

Large cities began to build about 5 thousand years ago. For example, Mohenjo Daro ("Hill of the Dead") in modern Pakistan numbered several tens of thousands of residents, and in the same time the citadel could be gathered simultaneously 5,000 people. But the main part of humanity lived in small settlements, which could be left in case of soil depletion or natural resources.

A typical "village" of the stone century was something like a camp of tourists. For hunting societies, tents of the skins were characterized, in agricultural settlements houses were made of stone or cane. Near the green of the rice field (cultivated from 9000 BC) or flowed the river (the first bones of fish began to appear on the parking lots of people another 500,000 years ago, and to the stone century, our ancestors knew how to fish well).

The first houses were round, one-room. Soon people began to build something resembling modern multi-room cottages who served simultaneously and tips: the bones of dead relatives were buried under the floor covered with hides or straw. Judging by the excavations, the doors were made in the ceilings - people climbed at home and went out of them on the stairs. "Wallpapers" served clay, with the walls of the houses could be painted from the inside (for example, the settlement of Chatal-Guyuk in Turkey).

Under the sky blue An Israeli Jerichon is considered ancient of the constantly populated cities of the planet. It was laid 11 thousand years ago. According to the standards of that time, the city was huge - 40,000 square meters, from 200 to 1000 inhabitants, stone tower and stone wall (in the Bible was destroyed by the sounds of pipes and shouts of warriors, but the archaeologists blame the earthquake in everything). The streets did not have any planning, the houses were built as hit. Room sizes - approximately 7 to 4 meters. Sandstone or clay floors. Decorations - skull ancestors with restored features of clay faces and eyes from seashells.

About times! About moral!

The usual day of man of that time began shortly before the sunrise and ended shortly after sunset. The rhythm of life according to the current standards was very leisurely. The main plots of work were within walking distance. Only hunters were removed from the settlements to considerable distances, which was extremely adversely affected by their lives.

It should be borne in mind that 10,000 years ago, all of humanity numbered only about 5 million people, and the population of the "villages" was calculated by dozens of residents, most of which consisted of each other in kinship. Wild animals are not intimidated as today, and evil, hungry and consider meeting with a person something like "Happy Hour" in an expensive restaurant, - sat hardly under each bush. In Europe, there were tigers and lions. Someone else had woolly rhinos and even mammoths.

The Stone Age would like to taste fans of classical rock, confessing the motto "Live quickly, die young." The fact is that the average life expectancy was 20-30 years. Zamari civilization can hardly be called "paradise". It was a very harsh and dangerous time when the main argument when meeting with an animal or unfamiliar man was a stone ax.

The bulk of the daytime went to the workpiece, the replacement of worn tools with new, repair of housing, religious rites and child care. The latter stood in direct dependence on the low life expectancy - the marriage age was small, and children paid significantly less concerns than now, which clearly influenced baby mortality. The shortage of men stimulated the polygamy, so that 2-3 wives were 15 years old on one "old man" 30 years were not rare.

According to the same reasons, the matriarchy dominated the neolithic societies. Women lived longer than men, they kept the family hearth and were actually responsible for the accumulation of cultural experience. Neolithic was the epoch of women. On the "streets" of the settlements there were much more than men.

In the south of Russia, the burial of the "Amazon" tribes, who lived about 3,000 years ago were discovered.

Little nothings of life

Contrary to some stereotypes, the people of the Stone Age did not go in stinky skins on a naked body. The fashion of the era of Neolithic was quite diverse and in some cases could compete with medieval. Seven thousand years ago, our ancestors began to make clothes from felt, approximately the linen fabric, wool yarn, and in the 30th century BC, the Chinese have established a silk production.

Add here decorations from polished bone, feathers, colored stones - and a person born before the invention of writing will come down in most modern countries of the Third World. Moreover, if Neolithic France wore bracelets or seashell beads, it put it on one step with today's Patek Phillipe watch owner. The settlement deleted from each other practiced Barter, but 10,000 years ago, in some places there was already a developed market economy. Money - shells or stones - often worn as decorations. It was convenient for the repurchase of the bride, the section of inheritance or commerce with neighboring tribes.

Gourmet in the Stone Age was nothing to do. The transition to a settled agriculture meant deterioration in the quality of food, because the hunters and collectors it was more diverse. A modern man is not easy to imagine a neolith diet. No tea or coffee. The main drink is non-filled water from the nearest reservoir. Grand decoctions were made only in medical and religious purposes. The milk was considered a drink of children, and alcohol (or rather, dropping juice) was consumed much less often than now.

The cooking was in the infancy, so vegetables were used raw. Meat and fish on the tables were quite a lot (pigs, goats and sheep were domesticated 9,000 years ago), however, the concepts of "salt" and "spices" in the lexicon of cooks were absent. Bean and grain crops were used for some time without heat treatment - they were triturated in pasta with water and fir like porridge. One day someone decided to heat this mixture for the sake of interest. So the bread appeared, one of the oldest and most important foods of the person.

Scientists suggest that, with all the isolated settlement, the Europeans of the Stone Age If they could not freely understand each other, they could almost certainly guessed about the meaning of most phrases. It is believed that in those days there was a certain pyranceo-European language with a uniform structure and universal roots of words.

The artist is from the word "bad"

Venus from Tan-Tana.

In the conditions of the patient illiteracy of the population, painting, music and war were the most important arts. The most ancient artistic artifact is the so-called "Venus of Tan-Tana" - a stone figure, found near the city of Tan-Tang in Morocco. It was spawn 300,000 years ago, so by the beginning of the stone century, human culture was already beaten by the key.

The upper Paleolithic entered the textbooks of rock painting. It is often considered the main type of art of the Stone Age, although it can be considered as successful that the crown of Mendeleev's research was vodka. Promote material arts in the masses began, oddly enough, the ancient Japanese. It is believed that they are the first on the planet developed a pottery (earlier than agriculture). 11,000 years ago they had already clay figures and dishes, which were applied to firing various patterns with wicker ropes or chopsticks.

In the fishing settlement of Löpenski-Vir (7 Millennium BC, modern Serbia) from the stone was made by figurines of fish or, according to another version, magic fishing. In 5 millennia BC, the European Culture People of European Culture cut out something suspiciously resembling clinies on clay products. It is assumed that it was the protopagance - something average between the drawings and symbols.

Unfortunately, the small works of the art of that epoch are preserved very badly. But before us, Megalites reached us, the most famous of which is Stonehenge. It should not be thought that the decoration of gravestone plates with spiral carvings was the favorite class of artists of the time. Stone tools gave little space for creativity - even skin embroidery bone needles represented the problem. Generously decorated decorations, weapons and armor appeared only in the bronze age.

With music, there were much better. It developed from hunting imitation of animal sounds. Initially, the only musical instrument was human throat. In the Stone Age, people took up the manufacture of musical instruments (22 years ago in China found a flute from the bone of the Heron age of 8,000 years), which assumed the acquaintance of ancient people at least with notes. String tools appeared only at the end of the Stone Age.

Probably, learning a musical game in the Stone Age was mechanical, without any abstract system. The first note on clay signs is dated to the 14th century BC (Ugrit, modern Syria).

Near the Spanish city of Castellón is the Rocks de la Mol, which depict marching warriors. The one who played the "civilization" of Meyer Side, knows well that if the map is small, and many players, the first unit in the first city should be a warrior. The fact that stone walls were erected around the cities, he says much. It was in the stone age that organized armies and professional warriors began to appear.

"Army" is, of course, said loudly. Letters from El-Amarne (correspondence of Egyptian officials, 1350 BC) I say that the detachments of 20 people terrorized whole cities - and this is already in the Bronze Age! The Stone Age shakeped the grandiose battle of several dozen people. True, some researchers believe that large settlements like Chatal-Guyuk could put about a hundred soldiers. In this case, it is already possible to talk about tactics, maneuvers, supply and other elements of real wars.

Conflicts were incredibly bloody. The winners killed all men and children, took women and completely plundered settlements. However, in some regions, there could be tribes who lived with each other in the world and practically unfamiliar with the concept of "murder" (the modern example of Kalahari desert can be.

The most terrible weapon of the ancient hunters was fire. They set fire to the forests and grass, destroying the enemy habitat. The tactics of "scorched land" was much more efficient to hand-to-hand fights. In the near battle used both hunting tools - first of all the spears - and the batons.

According to rocky drawings, you can reconstruct the average battle of the Stone Age: the warring "Army" lined up opposite each other in the line, the leaders went ahead and gave the team to open the shooting of onions (Prash). Separate elements of the drawings suggest that the "infantry" at that time tried to get around the enemy from the flanks.

Professor Lawrence Kili calculated that conflicts between the tribes broke out almost every year, and some of them were fighting constantly. Excavations of some settlements in Africa showed that over half of their inhabitants died with a violent death. The wars of the Stone Age were many times in bloody than today. If you transfer the level of military losses on the realities of today, any local war would take two billion lives.

With the transition from hunting agriculture, the number of wars decreased dramatically. The population was still small to maintain non-working warriors. Conflicts were taking a speed, siege devices were not, so the walls almost always guaranteed invulnerability to the city.

* * *

The words "Stone Age" are usually used in a derogatory sense - to designate primitiveness, stupidity and wildness. Indeed, early neolithic was an era, when the scraping skulls were considered a much more interesting occupation than trade. However, with the transition to agriculture, the world has changed beyond recognition.

Labor made a man's monkey. He also turned bloodthirsty maniacs in architects, sculptors, painters and musicians. Stone Age turned out to be at all so bad times. Healthy lifestyle, good ecology, diet, constant exercise and tranquility of small villages, sincere faith in gods and magic monsters ... Is it not a foundation for any fantasy?

Modern science concluded that all the variety of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The sun is one of the many stars of our galaxy - 10 billion years ago appeared. Our land is an ordinary planet of the solar system - has an age of 4.6 billion years. It is considered now that a person began to stand out from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

Periodization of the history of mankind at the stage of primitive-communal system is quite complex. It is known a few of its options. Most often enjoy the archaeological scheme. In accordance with her, the history of mankind is divided into three large stages depending on the material from which the manual used by the man was manufactured (Stone Age: 3 million years ago - the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Er; Bronze Age: End 3- The Millennium BC. E.- 1-Millennium BC. er; an iron age - from the 1st millennium BC. e.).

In different peoples in different parts of the earth, the emergence of certain instruments of labor and forms of social life occurred undesuned. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from Greek. "Anthropos" - man, "Genesis" - origin) and human society (sociogenesis, from Lat. Societacles - Society and Greek. "Genesis" - origin).

The oldest ancestors of the modern man were like man-like monkeys, which, unlike animals, knew how to produce workers. In the scientific literature, this type of monkey was called Homo Habilis - a skillful man. The further evolution of Habiisa led to the appearance of 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Peteitrontrops (from Greek. "Peteitos" is a monkey, "Anthropos" - a man), or Archantropov (from Greek. "Ahaios" - ancient). Archangets were already people. 200-300 thousand years ago, the archantropips were replaced by a more developed type of man - Paleoanthrops, or Neanderthals (at the place of their first find in the Neandertal location in Germany).

During the early stone century - Paleolithic (about 700 thousand years ago), a person entered the territory of Eastern Europe. Settlement went from the south. Archaeologists find traces of the stay of the most ancient people in the Crimea (Cave Caves of Kikoba), in Abkhazia (near Sukhumi - Yashtuh), in Armenia (Satani Dar Hill near Yerevan), as well as in Central Asia (South of Kazakhstan, Tashkent district). In the area of \u200b\u200bZhytomyr and on the Dniestera, traces of people are 300-500 thousand years ago.

Great glacier. Approximately 100 thousand years ago a large part of the territory of Europe occupied a huge glacier with a thickness of up to two kilometers (since then the snowy tops of the Alps and the Scandinavian mountains were formed). The emergence of the glacier affected the development of mankind. The harsh climate made a person use natural fire, and then mined it. It helped a person to survive under sharp cooling conditions. People have learned to do from stone and bones of stitching and cutting items (stone knives, tips for copies, scrapers, needles, etc.). Obviously, by this time refers to the origin of the self-regulatory speech and the generic organization of the Company. The first began to occur, still extremely vague religious ideas, as evidenced by the appearance of artificial burials.

The difficulties of struggle for the existence, the fear of the forces of nature and the inability to explain them were the causes of the emergence of a pagan religion. Panelism was a deification for the forces of nature, animals, plants, good and evil spirits. This huge complex of primitive beliefs, customs, rites preceded the spread of world religions (Christianity, Muslim, Buddhism, etc.).

In the period of late Paleolithic (10-35 thousand years ago) the melting of the glacier ended, and the climate was established, similar to modern. The use of fire for cooking, the further development of labor tools, as well as the first attempts to streamline relations between the floors significantly changed the physical type of human. It is by this time that the transformation of a person skillful (Homo Habilis) in a man of reasonable (Homo Sapiens). At the place of the first discovery, he is called Cryanonian (the terrain of Cryanon in France). Then, obviously, as a result of adaptation to the medium in the conditions of the existence of sharp differences in the climate between different regions of the globe, the existing races (European-like, non-coordinated and mongoloid) were formed.

Further development was obtained by the processing of stone and especially bones and horns. Scientists are sometimes called the late Paleolithic "bone century". The findings of this time include daggers, copies, harpuna tips, needles with an eye, shill, etc., traces of the first long-term settlements were discovered. The housing served not only the caves, but also halars and dugouts built by man. Found decisions of jewelry that allow you to reproduce the clothes of that time.

In the period of late Paleolithic, a higher form of the organization of the Company is coming to replace the primitive flock - a generic community. Generic community is an association of people of one kind that have collective ownership and leading household based on age and sexual division in the absence of operation.

Before the emergence of pair marriage, the relationship was installed on the maternal line. At that time, a woman played a leading role in the farm, which determined the first stage of the generic system - the matriarchy, which continued until the spread of metal.

We reached us many works of art created in the late Paleolithic era. Picturesque colorful rock paint images of animals (mammoths, bridges, bears, deer, horses, etc.), on which the people of the time, as well as figurines depicting the women's deity, were found in the caves and parking in France, Italy, in the South Urals ( The famous cave cave).

In the Mesolite, or the Middle Age (8-10 thousand years ago), new successes were made in stone processing. The tips and blades of knives, copies, harpunov were made then as peculiar liners from thin flint plates. For wood processing began to use a stone ax. One of the most important achievements was the invention of Luke - a long-range weapon, which allowed more successfully to hunt for animals and birds. People learned to make sinks and hunting traps.

Fisheries added to hunting and collecting. Attempts by people to swim on the logs. Animal domestication began: a dog was tamed, following her - a pig. Eurasia was finally settled: a person reached the shores of the Baltic and the Pacific Ocean. Then, as many researchers believe, people hit the territory of America from Siberia through the Chukchi Peninsula.

Neolithic revolution. Neolithic - the last period of the stone age (5-7 thousand years ago) is characterized by the appearance of grinding and drilling tools from stone (axes, tesla, hoes). Handles were attached to the subjects. Since that time, clay dishes are known. People began to build boats, learned to weave the network for fishing, weave.

Significant changes in the technique and forms of production at this time are sometimes referred to as the "Neolithic Revolution". The most important result was the transition from gathering, from assigning farms to the producing. The man was no longer afraid to break away from the hidden places, could more freely settle in the search for the best living conditions, mastering new lands.

Depending on the natural and climatic conditions in Eastern Europe and Siberia, various types of economic activity have developed. In the steppe strip from the middle Dnieper to Altai lived cattle breeding tribes. In the territories of modern Ukraine, the Transcaucasia, Central Asia, the south of Siberia settled farmers.

The hunting and fishing economy was characteristic of the northern forest areas of the European part and Siberia. The historical development of individual regions was unevenly. Frequently developed cattle and agricultural tribes. Agriculture gradually penetrated steppe areas.

From among the parking lots on the territory of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, nonolithic settlements in Turkmenistan can be distinguished (near Ashgabat), in Armenia (near Yerevan), etc. in Central Asia in the 4th millennium BC. e. The first artificial irrigation systems were created. In the Eastern European Plain, the ancient agricultural culture was trypole, called Trepole near Kiev near Kiev. Trepole settlements are opened by archaeologists on the territory from Dnipro to Karpat. They represented large villages of farmers and cattle breeders whose dwellings were located in a circle. When excavations of these villages, wheat grains, barley, millet were found. Wooden sickles with flint liners, stone grains and other items are found. Tripoli culture refers to the copper-stone century - Eneolyt (3-1th millennium BC. E.).

Stone Age

Stone Age - the most ancient period in the history of mankind, when the basic tools of labor and weapons were manufactured mainly from stone, but a tree and bone also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture) spread.

Stone Age Periodization:

• Paleolithic:
• Nizhny Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the ancient species of people and widespread Homo. erectus..
• The average Paleolithic is the period of extrusion of erectors an evolutionary more advanced species of people, including a modern person. In Europe, Neanderthals dominate during the entire middle paleolithic.
• Upper Paleolithic - the period of domination of the modern species of people throughout the terrestrial ball in the era of the last glaciation.
• Mesolithic and epipalolite; Terminology depends on how this region has affected the disappearance of the megafaun as a result of the melting of the glacier. The period is characterized by the development of techniques for the production of stone tools and the general human culture. Ceramics is absent.

Neolithic - the era of agriculture. The tools of labor and weapons are still stone, but their production is brought to perfection, ceramics are widely distributed.

The stone age is divided into:

● Paleolithic (theascular) - from 2 million years to 10 thousand years BC. e.

● Mesolithic (Middle) - from 10 thousand to 6 thousand years BC. e.

● Neolithic (new) - from 6 thousand to 2 thousand years BC. e.

In the second millennium to the new era, the metals were pushed out a stone and put the end of the stone century.

General Characteristics of the Stone Age

The first period of the stone century is Paleolithic, within which the early, middle and late periods are distinguished.

Early Paleolithic (before the turn of 100 thousand years BC. er) is the era of Archantropov. Material culture developed very slowly. More than a million years needed to go from a roughly frown check to Rubila, in which the edges are smoothly processed on both sides. Approximately 700 thousand years ago, the process of mastering fire was launched: People support the fire obtained by naturally (as a result of lightning strikes, fires). The main activities are hunting and gathering, the main type of weapons - Duby, spear. The archangets are mastering natural shelters (caves), build huts from the rods, which overlap stone boulders (south of France, 400 thousand years).

Middle Paleolith- covers a period of 100 thousand to 40 thousand years before. e. This is the era of Paleoanthrop-Neanderthal. Harsh time. Icing of a significant part of Europe, North America and Asia. Many heat-loving animals have died out. Difficulties stimulated cultural progress. Facilities and hunting techniques are being improved (cloud hunting, pens). It creates very diverse chop, and also used with smokers and treated thin plates - scrapers. With the help of scrapers, a person began to make warm clothes from the skin of the beasts. I learned how to get fire by drilling. This epoch includes intentional burials. Often the deceased buried in the form of sleeping: the hands bent in the elbow, the face, the feet are semi-bent. In the graves appear household items. This means that there were some ideas about life after death.

Late (top) Paleolithic- covers a period of 40 thousand to 10 thousand years before. e. This is the era of Cryanonian. Cryanonians lived in large groups. Stone processing technique has grown: the stone plates are dug and drilled. Bone tips are widely used. Copsetalka appeared - a hook board for which a dart placed. Found a lot of bone needles for sewing clothes. Houses are a twilight with a frame of branches and even from animal bones. The norm was the burial of the deceased, which are put in food, clothing and tools of labor, which spoke about explicit ideas about the afterlife. In the period of late Paleolitis arise art and religion - Two important forms of public life, closely related to each other.

Mesolithic, Middle Stone Age (10th - 6th thousand BC). Onions and arrows appeared in the Mesolite, microlithic tools, a dog was tamed. Periodization of mesolite conditional, for in different parts of the world, development processes come at different speeds. Thus, in the Middle East already from 8 thousand. Currency is read to agriculture and cattle breeding, which is the essence of the new stage.

Neolithic,the new eyelid (6-2 thousand to n. e.). There is a transition from the assignment farm (gathering, hunting) to producing (agriculture, cattle breeding). In the era of the neolithic, the guns from the stone were grinding, drilled, clay dishes appeared, spinning, weaving. In 4-3 millennia in a number of areas of the world, the first civilizations arise.

7. Neolithic Rod Culture

Neolithic - the era of the appearance of agriculture and cattle breeding. Neolithic monuments are widespread in the Russian Far East. They relate to the period of 8000-4000 years ago. The tools and weapons are still stone, however, their production is brought to perfection. For neolithic, a large set of stone guns is characteristic. Ceramic was widespread (dishwashed clay). The Neolithic inhabitants of Primorye learned to produce polished stone tools, decorations and clay dishes.

Archaeological cultures of Neolithic period in Primorye - Boysmanskaya and Rudninskaya. Representatives of these cultures lived in year-round housing of the frame type and exploited most of the available environmental resources: engaged in hunting, fishing, collecting. The population of the boyisman culture, dwell on the coast in small villages (1-3 dwellings), was engaged in summer fishing at sea and caught up to 18 species of fish, including such large as a white shark and skate. In the same period, the gathering of mollusks was practiced (90% was oyster). In the fall, they were collecting plants, in winter and spring hunting on deer, roe deer, kabanov, silence, seals, dolphins, and sometimes gray whales.

On land prevailed, probably the individual hunt, and the sea is collective. Men and women were engaged in fishing, however, women and children caught fish on the hook, and the men were incense and harpoon. Warning hunters had a high social status and stood with special honors. In many settlements, sheaps are preserved.

As a result of a sharp cooling of climate, 5-4.5 thousand years ago and a sharp drop in the sea level, medium-olitic cultural traditions disappear and transformed into the Zaisanovsky cultural tradition (5 - 3 thousand years ago), the population of which had a widely specialized life support system, which on continental monuments Already included both agriculture. This allowed people to dwell both on the coast and in the depths of the continent.

People belonging to the Zaisanovsky cultural tradition set up a wider range than their predecessors. In the continental part, they settled according to the agricultural flows of the rivers flowing into the sea, and on the coast - in all potentially productive and convenient places, using all available environmental niches. Representatives of the Zaisanovsky culture certainly achieved more adaptive success than their predecessors. The number of their settlements increases significantly, they have a much larger area and the amount of housing, the size of which also became larger.

The incarnations of agriculture in the Neolithic recorded in Primorye, and in the Amur region, but the most complete process of the development of the economy of neolithic crops was investigated in the middle Amur basin.

The oldest local culture, named Novopetrovsk, belongs to early neolithic and dates from the V-IV millennium BC. e. Similar changes occurred in the farm of the Primorye.

The emergence of agriculture in the Far East led to the emergence of economic specialization between the farmers of Primorye and the Middle Amur region and their neighbors in the lower Amur (and other northern territories) remaining at the level of traditional assigning farm.

The last period of the stone century - neolithic - characterized by a complex of signs, none of which is mandatory. In general, the trends that have developed in Mesolite continue to develop.

Neolithic is characterized by improving the technique of manufacturing stone guns, especially their final finish - grinding, polishing. Mastered technique drilling and sawing stone. Neolithic decorations made of colored stone (especially widespread brace-lets), chopped from a stone disk, and then polished and polished, are perfectly correct.

For forest areas, grinding tools of wood processing are characterized - axes, chisels, tesla. Along with the silicon, nephritis begin to be used, Jadeit, carnelian, jasper, shale stone and other minerals. At the same time, the flint continues to prevail, the prey expands it, the first underground mining (mines, gallery) appear. The tools on the plates, the inserting microlithic techniques are preserved, the findings of such guns in agricultural areas are especially numerous. There are ordinary insert harvested knives and sickles, and from macrolites - axes, stone hoes and grain processing tools: grains, stupes, pearts. In the areas of predominance of hunting and ^ Fisheries - a wide variety of fish guns: harpuna used for fishing and ground animals, arms tips of different forms, hooks for rear, simple and composite, (in Siberia they were used for catching birds), of different traps For middle and small beast. Often traps were made on the basis of Luke. In Siberia, the bow was improved by lining from the bone - it made it more elastic and long-range. In fishing, networks, shorts, stone blacks and sizes were widely used. In the Neolithic processing of stone, bones, wood, and then ceramic items reached such perfection, which appeared the opportunity to aesthetically emphasize this skill of the master, decorating a thing with an ornament or giving it a special form. The aesthetic value of things seems to strengthen its utilitarian value (so, Australian aborigines believe that the boomerang not decorated with the ornament kills worse than decorated). These two tendencies are the improvements of the function of the thing and its decorations - lead to a flourishing in the neolithic of applied art.

In neolitis, ceramic products are widespread (although in a number of tribes they were not known). They are represented by zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures and dishes. Early ceramic vessels were performed on the basis of a woven of rods. After firing, weaving imprint remained. Later began to apply harness and oven: imposition of clay harness diameter 3-4 see on the shape of the spiral. So that the clay does not crack when drying, it was added to it - chopped straw, thicker shells, sand. More ancient vessels had a rounded or sharp bottom - this indicates that they were put on an open fire. Tableware settled tribes has a flat bottom fitted to the table and snoves. Ceramic tableware was decorated with painting or relief ornament, which became becoming richer with the development of crafts, but retained the main traditional elements and decoration techniques. Due to this, it was ceramics that began to be used to release territorial cultures and for the periodization of neolithic. The most common decoration techniques are a rowing (wet clay) ornament, garbage decorations, finger or nail protection, a flue pattern, comb (using a rowing-shaped stamp), drawing with a stamp "retreating blade" - and others.

The ingenuity of the neolithic person is striking.

melted on a fire in a clay bang. This is the only material that melts at such a low temperature and is suitable for obtaining glazes. Ceramic utensils were often done so skillfully, that the wall thickness by relationship to the value of the vessel was the same attitude that the thickness of the eggs to its volume. K. Blevy - Staros believes that the invention of primitive person is fundamentally different than that of a modern person. He calls him the term "brikolazh" - a literal translation - "game with a rebound". If a modern engineer puts and solves the task, discarding everything outsiders, then the brickler collects and assimilates all the information, it must be ready for any situation, and its decision happens, as a rule, is due to a random goal.

In later neolithic, spinning and weaving was invented. A fiber of wild nettle, flax, shit of trees. The fact that people have mastered the spinning testify to the straight lines - stone or ceramic nozzles, weighting spinning and contributing to its smoother rotation. The fabric was obtained by weaving, without a machine.

The organization of the population in the Neolithic genera and, while the hoe agriculture is preserved, the head of the kind is the woman - the matriarch. With the beginning of pasty agriculture, and it is associated with the advent of stubborn livestock and improved soil processing instruments, patriarchs will be established. Inside the genus people live families, either in community generic homes, either in individual houses, but then the family belongs to a whole village.

The farm is neolithic presents both producing technologies and assigning forms. The territory of the producing economy is expanded compared to the mesolite, but at most of the Okumen, or the assigning farming remains, or it has a complex nature - assigning, with elements of producing. These complexes usually consisted of animal husbandry. The nomadic agriculture, which used primitive furrows, arable guns and did not know irrigation, could develop only in the territories with soft soil and natural moisture - in the floodplains of rivers and on foothill and interguric plains. Such conditions have developed in 8-7 millennia BC. e. On the three territories, which became the earliest centers of agricultural crops: Jordan-Palestinian, Maudazia and Mesopotamsky. From these territories, agriculture has spread to the south of Europe, in Transcaucasia and Turkmenistan (the settlement of Jitun near Ashgabad is considered to be the border of agricultural Okumen). The first autochthonic foci of agriculture in the northern and eastern part of Asia was formed only by the third millennium BC. e. In the basin of the middle and lower Amur. In Western Europe, in 6-5 millennia, three main neolithic cultures have developed: Danube, Nordic and West European. The main agricultural crops that cultivated in the anzia and Central Asian foci are wheat, barley, lentils, peas, in the Far East - millet. In Western Europe - oats, rye, millet were added to barley and wheat. By the third millennium BC. e. In Switzerland, carrots, cumin, poppy, flax, apples, in Greece and Macedonia were already known - apples, figs, pears, grapes. Due to the diversity of the economy specializations and a large need for a stone for tools in neolithic, an intensive interpretable exchange begins.

The number of people in neolithic increased dramatically, for Europe for previous 8 thousand years - almost 100 times; The population density has grown from 0.04 people to 1 person per square kilometer. But mortality remained high, especially children. It is believed that no more than 40-45% of people experienced a thirteen-year-old age. In Neolithic, strong settlement begins to be installed, first of all, on the basis of agriculture. In the forest areas of the East and the North of Eurasia - on the coasts of large rivers, lakes, the sea, in places favorable for fishing fish and the beast, outstanding is formed on the basis of fisheries and hunting.

Neolithic buildings are diverse, depending on climate and local conditions, stone, wood, clay were used as a building material. In the agricultural zones of the house were built from the shoulder, an incelaved clay or raw brick, sometimes on a stone foundation. The form of their rounded, oval, rugged, one or more rooms, there is a courtyard fenced with globbit fence. Often the walls were decorated with painting. In Late Neolithic, there are extensive, apparently cult houses. The squares were built up from 2 to 12 or more than 20 hectares, such villages were sometimes united into the city, such as Chatal-Hyuk (7-6 millennium BC. E., Turkey) consisted of twenty villages, the central of which occupied 13 hectares. The building was a spontaneous, width street of about 2 m. The fragile buildings were easily destroyed, forming a cart - wide hills. The city continued to be built on this hill for thousands of years, which indicates a high level of agriculture, which ensured such a long sideways.

In Europe, community houses with many foci and houses of one-room structure of 9.5 x 5 m are built to the Danube. In Switzerland and South Germany, buildings were ordered on piles and there are houses from stones. The houses of a semi-grade type, widely distributed in the former epochs, are also found, especially in the north and in the forest area, but, as a rule, they are complemented by a log cabbage.

The burial in the neolithic of both single and group, more often in the rapid position on the side, under the floor of the house, between the houses or on the cemetery made beyond the village. In the funeral inventory are ordinary decorations and weapons. Siberia is characterized by the presence of weapons not only in male, but also in women's burials.

G.V. Reschilde proposed the term "Neolithic Revolution", referring to deep social shifts (the crisis of assigning farms and the transition to the producing, an increase in the population and the accumulation of rational experience) and the formation of fundamentally important industries - agriculture, pottery, weaving. In fact, these changes occurred not suddenly, but throughout the time from the beginning of the mesolite to the paleometallic era and in different periods in different territories. Therefore, the periodization of neolithic differs significantly in different

natural zones.

We give as an example the periodization of neolithic for the most well-studied territories of Greece and Cyprus (by A. L.Mugayt, 1973). The early immolite of Greece is represented by stone weapons (of which large plates and scrapers are specific), bone, often polished (hooks, blades), ceramics - women's figures and dishes. Early female images are realistic, late - stylized. Monochrome vessels (dark gray, brown or red), on round - ring nales around the bottom. Residents are alternating, quadrangular, on wooden pillars or with Walls from the Swell, Sludged clay. The burial is individual, in simple pits, in a bent position on the side.

The average immolite of Greece (on excavations in Peloponnese, Attika, Evbea, Fessals and other places) is characterized by housing from raw bricks on a stone foundation from one to three rooms. The construction of the type Megaron is characteristic: a square interior with a focus in the middle, the protruding ends of the two walls form an input portico separated from the courtyard space by pillars. In Fessaly (Parking Sello) there were unreasted agricultural villages forming Telly. Ceramics are fine, burnt, with icing, many spherical vessels. Ceramic dishes occurs: polished gray, black, tricolor and matte painted. Many elegant clay figures.

For the late Neolithic of Greece (4-3 thousand years BC. E.) Characterized by the emergence of fortified settlements (Demini in Fessiona) with the "Housing of the Chief" in the center of the acropolis size of 6.5 x 5.5 m. (The largest in the village).

In the neolithic of Cyprus, the features of the cultures of the Middle East are visible. The early period is dating 5800-4500. BC e. It is characterized by a rounded-ovoid form of global houses with a diameter of up to 10m., Forming villages (a typical village - Hurokiti). Residents were engaged in agriculture and kept pigs, sheep, goats. Hardened under the floor in the houses, on the head of the deceased stone lay. Guns typical of neolithic: sickles, grains, axes, hoes, arrows, along with them knives and bowls of obsidian and stylized figures of people and animals from Andesita. Ceramics of the most primitive forms (by the end of the 4th millennium ceramics with a comb ornament) appears. People of early Neolithic in Cyprus artificially changed the shape of the skull.

In the second period from 3500 to 3150 years BC. e. Along with rounded buildings, quadrangular with rounded corners appear. Ceramics with a comb ornament becomes usual. Cemeteries are made beyond the village. A period from 3000 to 2300 years BC. e. In the south of Cyprus, it applies to the Eneolyt, the copper-stone century, a period transient to the bronze era: along with the prevailing stone tools, the first copper products appear - decorations, needles, pins, drills, small knives, chisels. Copper was found in Malaya Asia in 8-7 millennia BC. e. Finding copper products in Cyprus, apparently, the result of the exchange. With the advent of metal guns, they are increasingly displacing less efficient stone, the farming zones expand, the social differentiation of the population begins. The most characteristic ceramics for this period is white-red with geometric and stylized floral ornament.

Subsequent historical and cultural periods are characterized by the decomposition of the generic system, the formation of an early class society and the most ancient states, which is the subject of studying written history.

8. The art of the most ancient population of DV

9 Language, Science, Education in the Far State

Education, science and literature. In the capital of the Bohai state Sangone (Modern Dunjincheng, PRC) educational institutions were created in which mathematics, the basics of Confucianism and Chinese classical literature were taught. Many offspring of aristocratic families continued their education in China; This indicates a wide distribution of the Confucian system and Chinese literature. Training of Bohaji students in the Tangan Empire contributed to the consolidation of Buddhism and Confucianism in the Bohai environment. The bohawits received an education in China made a brilliant career in their homeland: in the public service they became famous for Wongo * and about Kwanchhan *, who spent many years in Tansky China.

In the People's Republic of China, the tomb of two Bohai Princesses - Chong Hyo * and Chon Hee (737 - 777), on the gravestone plates of which poems are carved in ancient Chinese language; They are not only a literary monument, but also a brilliant sample of calligraphic art. Known the names of several bohai writers who worked in Chinese, is Yanthasa *, Vancher (? - 815), Inchon *, Chonso *, some of them visited Japan. Works of Yanthas " Milky Way so clean», « Night Linen Choice"And" The moon is lit on the heney covered sky"Features impeccable literary style, and they are highly appreciated in modern Japan.

About a sufficiently high level of development of Bohai science, first of all astronomy and mechanics, is evidenced by the fact that in 859, a scientist from Bahai about Hexing * visited Japan and presented one of the rulers an astronomical calendar " Sonmenchnok"/" Arch of heavenly shining ", retaining local colleagues to use it. This calendar was used in Japan until the end of the XVII century.

Cultural and ethnic relationship provided strong bugs with combined Silla, but Bhahians had active contacts as well with Japan. From the beginning of the VIII and in the X century. In Japan, 35 bohayan embassies were visited: the first was directed to the islands in 727, and the latter refers to 919. Bohai ambassadors were taken with me, medicines, fabrics, and took care of the mainland craft products and cloths of Japanese masters. It is reliably aware of the 14 Japanese embassies in Fohai. As the Japanese-Sillensky degrades deteriorates, the island state began to send their embassies to China through the Bohai territory. Japanese historians concluded that the existence of close ties between Bahai, etc. "Okhotsk culture" on the east coast of Hokkaido.

From the beginning of the VIII century. Buddhism is widely spread, there is a lively construction of temples and monasteries, the foundations of some structures have been preserved until our time in the territory of Northeast China and the Primorsky Territory. The state closer to the Buddhist clergy, the social status of clergymen has steadily raised not only in the spiritual sphere, but also among the prevailing class. Some of them became important government officials, so, Buddhist monks Inchon and Chonso, famous as talented poets, were sent to Japan with important diplomatic missions.

In Russian Primorye, the settlements and remains of Buddhist temples belonging to the Bohai period are actively being actively studied. They found bronze and iron tips of arrows and copies, bone ornamented items, Buddhist statuettes and many other real evidence of the highly developed culture of Fohai.

To compile official documents, bohawits, as was customary in many East Asian countries of the time, enjoyed Chinese hieroglyphic writing. They had in use and the ancient Turkish rune, that is, the letter, writing.

10 Religious Presentation of Bohaians

The most common type of religious worldview in Bohaians was shamanism. Among the Bohai nobility and officials receives the spread of Buddhism. In Primorye, the remains of five Buddhist idols are already identified - at the Kraskinsky settlement in the Khassan district, as well as Kopytinskaya, Apricos, Borisov and Korsakovskaya in the Ussuri district. In the process of excavations, these idols discovered a lot of integer or fragmented Buddha statuettes and bodisatum from gilded bronze, stone and burned clay. There are also other items of the Buddhist cult.

11. Material Culture Zhugzhenia

Zhurzhenzhen-Sridgee, which made the basis of Jin's empire, led a settling lifestyle, which was reflected in the nature of the dwellings, which were ground wooden structures of frame-pillar-type-type tanks. Kane was constructed in the form of longitudinal chimneys along the walls (one or three channels), which were covered with a tile, tile and thoroughly fused clay.

Inside the housing, there is almost always a stone stupa with a wooden pest. Rarely, but there are wooden stups and wooden pest. Known in some dwellings melting mountains, stone ribbons of the pottery.

A residential building together with a number of business buildings was the estate of one family. Summer pilembars were built here, in which the family often lived in the summer.

In the XII - early XIII centuries. Chuzhcheny had a diversified farm: agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting * Fishing.

Agriculture was provided with fertile lands and a variety of workers of labor. Watermelon, onions, rice, hemp, barley, millet, wheat, beans, pumps, pumpkin, garlic are mentioned in written sources. It means that poorerity and gardening were widely known. Universally grown flax and hemp. Flax was made by a cloth for clothes, from nettle - burlap for different technological production (tiles in particular). The scale of weaving productions was large, and therefore earthquakes for technical crops were discharged in large sizes (the history of the Far East of the USSR, p. 270- 275).

But the basis of agriculture was the production of grain crops: soft wheat, barley, chumyza, gaolyna, buckwheat, pea, soybean, beans, vigna, rice. Earth processing is fat. Arable guns - a rally and plows - TAGLE. But the plowing of the Earth demanded more thorough treatment, which was produced by hoes, shovels, walks, forks. Multiple iron sickles used for grain cleaning. Interesting finds of the straw knives, which testifies to the high level of feed blanks, that is, not only the grass (hay), but also straw was used. Zhurchzheny grain production is rich in tools for collapsing, the imposition and grinding grinding: wooden and stone stupes, coarse beds; Waterhouse are mentioned in written documents; And along with them - foot. The manual mills are numerous, and in the Shaiginsky settlement, the mill was found, leading in the work of a tight cattle.

Livestock was also an important branch of Chezhurgenia. Divorced cattle, horses, pigs and dogs. Cattle Zhurchzhery is well known for many advantages: fortress, productivity (and meat, and dairy).

Horse breeding was perhaps the most important branch of animal husbandry. Zhugzhenzheny bred three breeds of horses: small, medium and very small in height, but all very adapted to move on a mountain taiga. The level of horse breeding is evidenced by the developed production of horse harness. In general, it can be concluded that in the era of the Jin Empire in Primorye there was an economic and cultural type of pastry farmers with developed agriculture and animal husbandry, for the time high-performance, corresponding to the classical types of feudal societies of agricultural type.

The Chjugzhenskaya economy was significantly complemented by highly developed craft production, in which the leading place was occupied by the railway (mining ore and iron smelting), blacksmith, carpentry and pottery, where the main was the production of tiles. The craft business was complemented by jewelry, weapons, leather and many other types of classes. A special high level of development has reached a weaponality: the production of onions with arrows, copies, daggers, swords, as well as a number of protective types of weapons

12. Spiritual culture of Zhurchzhenia

Spiritual life, the worldview of Zhurchzheny-Sripoe represented a organic fusion system of religious representations of archaic society and a number of new Buddhist components. Such a combination of archaic and new in the worldview is characterized by the societies of a complicated class structure and statehood. New religion, Buddhism, confessed by the benefit of a new aristocracy: state and military

top.

Traditional beliefs of Jurchzheni-Fryjek included many elements in their complex: animism, magic, totemism; The anthropomorphic cults of the ancestors are gradually enhanced. Many of these elements were fused in shamanisa. Anthropomorphic figures, expressing the ideas of a cult of ancestors, are genetically connected with stone sculptors of Eurasian steppes, as well as with the cult of protorted spirits and the cult of fire. The cult of fire had a wide

spread. He was sometimes accompanied by human sacrifices. Of course, sacrifices of another type (animals, wheat and other products) were widely known. One of the most important elements of the world of fire was the sun, found an expression in a number of archaeological monuments.

Researchers have repeatedly emphasized a significant impact on the culture of Chuzhcheni Amur region and the Primorye of the culture of Turks. Moreover, sometimes it comes not only about the introduction of some elements of the Turks of the Turks, but about the depth ethnogenetic roots of such connections. This makes it possible to see in the culture of the Chjugzheny Eastern region of the united and very momentum world of nomads of steppes, peculiarly argued in the conditions of Primorsky and the Amur Forest.

13. Writing and education of Zhurchzhenia

Writing --- Chjugzhen Letter (Jurchen Script.jpg Dʒu ʃʃ Bitxə) - writing used to record Zhurzhensky language in the XII-XIII centuries. It was created by Wanyan Siene on the basis of a Kidan's letter, which, in turn, is formed from Chinese, decrypting partially. Enters Chinese family writing

There were about 720 characters in Chjuzhen writing, among which there are logograms (indicate only the importance, without having a relationship to sound) and phonograms. In Chjuzhen letter, there is also a key system similar to Chinese; Signs sorted on the keys and the number of features.

At first, Zhurzheni used a Kidan letter, but in 1119, Wanyan Siain created a Zhurzhen writing, which later received the name "Big Letter", as it included about three thousand signs. In 1138, a "small letter" was created, taken by several hundred characters. By the end of the XII century. Small letter crowded big. Chjuzhen letter is uncapped, although about 700 characters are known to scientists from both letters.

Creation of Chjuzhen writing is an important event in life and culture. It demonstrated the maturity of Zhurzhen culture, made it possible to turn the Zhurzhensky language into the state language of the empire, to create original literature and the image system. Zhurzhen's writing has been preserved poorly, mostly these are various stone steles, printed and handwritten works. Handwritten books have survived very little, but there are many links to them in printed books. It was actively used by Chuzhseni and Chinese, the works on which not little was preserved.

The existing material allows us to talk about the identity of this language. In the XII-XIII centuries, the language has achieved quite high development. After the defeat of the golden empire, the tongue came into decline, but did not disappear. Some words were borrowed by other peoples, including the Mongols through which they fell into Russian. These are words like "Shaman", "Uzda", "Surprised", "Hurray." Zhurzhensky battle cry "Hurray!" means ass. As soon as the enemy unfolded and began to flee from the battlefield, the front warriors shouted "Hurray!", Giving the rest to understand that the enemy turned back and should be pursued.

Education --- At the beginning of the existence of the Golden Empire, the enlightement has not yet acquired state importance. During the war, Chuzhsen's chuck enjoyed any ways to get kiden and Chinese teachers. The famous Chinese enlightener Hong Hao, speaking in captivity 19 years, was an educator and a teacher at a notable Chezhegh family in five-grade. The need for competent officials forced the government to deal with education issues. Poetry surrendered on the official exams. Everyone who wanted men (even the sons of slaves), except for slaves, imperial craftsmen, actors and musicians, was allowed to the exam. To increase the number of Zhurzheney in the administrations, Zhugzheni handed over a less complex exam than the Chinese.

In 1151, the State University was opened. Two professors worked here, two teachers and four assistant, the university was enlarged later. Higher educational institutions began to be created separately for the Chinese and Zhurzheney. In 1164, began to create a state institute for Zhugzheney, designed for three thousand students. Already in 1169, the first hundred students were issued. By 1173, the Institute began to work at full capacity. In 1166, an institute was opened for the Chinese, in which 400 students were studied. Education at the university and institutes was a humanitarian bias. The focus was on the study of history, philosophy and literature.

During the board, the ul in regional cities began to open schools, from 1173 - Zhurzhensky, only 16, and from 1176 - Chinese. In the school accepted after passing exams on recommendations. Students lived on full provision. In each school he studied, on average, 120 people. There was such a school in Xupin. Small schools opened in the centers of the districts, 20-30 people were studied in them.

In addition to the highest (University, the Institute) and the Middle (School), there was a primary education that little is known. During the reign of Ulu and Madage, urban and rural schools developed.

A large number of textbooks printed the university. Even a manual served in cribs is known.

The student set system was a stepped and class. For a certain number of seats, noble children were first gained, then less notable, etc., if there were places, they could gain children of commoners.

Since the 60s of the XII century. Education becomes the most important care of the state. When in 1216, during the war with Mongols, officials offered to remove students with his satisfaction, the emperor toughly rejected this idea. After the wars, the school was previously restored.

It can be unambiguously argued that Zhurzhenskaya knew was competent. The inscriptions on the ceramic dishes allow us to say that literacy was distributed among the simple people.

22. Religious representations of DV

The basis of the beliefs of Nanaysev, Udahey, Orochi and partly the pelvis was a universal idea that all the surrounding nature, the whole world of living, filled with souls and spirits. Religious pose of pelvis differed from the rest of the fact that they had a large percentage of the influence of Buddhism, the Chinese cult of ancestors and other elements of Chinese culture.

Udagei, Nanice and Orochi represented the Earth at the beginning in the form of a mythical animal: moose, fish, dragon. Then gradually these ideas were changed to the anthropomorphic image. And finally, symbolize the land, taiga, the sea, the rocks have become numerous and powerful perfumes-owners of the terrain. Despite the general basis of beliefs in the spiritual culture of Nanaysev, Udaegei and Orochi, some special moments can be noted. So, Udagei believed that the owner of the mountains and forests was the Terrible Spirit of Owl, whose assistant was less severe in the hosts of certain sections of the terrain, as well as some animals - Tiger, Bear, Elk, Otter, Kotatka. Orochi and Nanaysev, the Supreme Ruler of all three worlds - underground, earthly and heaven, was borrowed from the spiritual culture of Manchhur Spirit Eden. He was obeyed by the Spirits of the Names of the Sea, Fire, Fish, etc. The spirit of the host of the taiga and all animals, besides the bears, was the mythical tiger of a kind. The greatest reverence and in our time for all indigenous peoples of the Primorsky Territory is the master of the fireproof, which is undoubtedly connected with antiquity and the widespread spread of this cult. The fire, as a heat donor, food, life, was for indigenous peoples with a sacred concept and there is still a mass of prohibitions, rituals and beliefs. However, for different peoples of the region, and even for different territorial groups of one ethnic group, the visual image of this spirit was completely different in sexual, age, anthropological and zoomorphic signs. Perfumes played a huge role in the lives of the traditional society of indigenous peoples of the region. Almost all the life of the Aboriginal was used to be filled with rituals, either undermining good spirits, or protecting from evil spirits. The main of the latter was the powerful and omnipresent evil spirit of Amba.

The common ceremonies of the life cycle of the indigenous peoples of the Primorsky Territory were common. Parents protected from evil spirits the life of a child who has not yet born and subsequently until the man can take care of himself or with the help of a shaman. Usually, they were applied to Shaman only when the man himself had already used unsuccessfully all rational and magical ways. The life of an adult was also furnished with numerous taboos, rituals and rites. Funeral rites were aimed at maximizing the peaceful existence of the soul of the deceased in the afterlife. To this end, it was necessary to observe all the elements of the funeral ritual and to supply the deceased to the necessary tools of labor, means of movement, a certain stock of products, which the soul should have been enough for a trip to the afterlife. All things left with the deceased intentionally spoiled in order to free their souls and in order to continue the rest of the rest all new. According to the ideas of Nanaysev, Udahegei and Orochi, the man's soul is immortal and after a while, she reincarnated into the opposite sex, returns to his native cable and puts it in a newborn. Presentations of the pelvis are somewhat different and on them, a person has no two-three souls, but ninety-nine, which alternately die. The type of burial in the indigenous peoples of the Primorsky Territory was dependent in a traditional society from the type of death of a person, his age, gender, social situation. So, the funeral rite, and the design of the grave of the twins and shamans was distinguished from the burial of ordinary people.

In general, the shamans played a huge role in the life of the traditional society of the aboriginal region. Depending on its skill, shamans shared on weak and strong. In accordance with this, they had various shamanic costumes and numerous attributes: tambourine, beast, mirrors, peas, swords, ritual sculpture, ritual structures. The shamans were deeply believers in the spirits who put the goal of their lives to serve and free to help relatives. Shaman could not become a charlatan, or a person who in advance wanted to receive any benefits from the shaman art. Kamlany trees were treated for the treatment of a patient, searching for missing things, receiving fishing production, the soul of the deceased in the afterlife. In honor of his spirits and defenders, as well as for reproduction, their strength and authority before conifers, strong shamans arranged every two or three years old, which was similar to Udaheyi, ornate and Nacans. Shaman with a retinue and with all those wishing to travel their "possessions", where he came into every dwelling, thanked good spirits for his help and expelled evil. The rite often acquired the importance of the people's public holiday and ended with an abundant peem on which Shaman could only enjoy small pieces of ear, nose, tail and liver of the sacrificial pig and a rooster.

Another important holiday of Nanaysev, Udaegei and Orochi was a bear holiday, as the most vibrant element of the medvei cult. According to the ideas of these peoples, the bear was their sacred relative, a first time. Thanks to its external similarity with a person, as well as a natural mind and trick, the power of the bear from ancient times was equated to the Divine. In order to once again strengthen related relations with such a powerful being, as well as to increase the number of bears in the fishery of the genus people and satisfied the celebration. The holiday was held in two versions - the feast after the killing of the bear in the taiga and the feast arranged after the three year old grown of the bear in a special soul in the cable. The last option among the peoples of Primorye was only among the ornamias and nanites. Numerous guests from neighboring and distant cores were invited. At the festival, a number of incentive prohibitions were observed when the sacred meat eating. Certain parts of bearish carcasses persisted in a special barn. As the next after the feast, the burial of the skull and the bones of the bear, it was necessary for the future revival of the beast and, consequently, the continuation of good relations with a supernatural relative. Tiger and kobat were also considered like relatives. They treated these animals on special, worshiped them and never hunted them. After the tiger's random killing, he was satisfied with the funeral rite like the human and then the hunters came to the burial place and asked good luck.

Thankty rituals played a big role in honor of good spirits before departing on fishery and directly at the place of hunting or fishing. Hunters and fishermen treated good spirits with pieces of food, tobacco, matches, several drops of blood or alcohol and asked help to meet the desired beast, so that the spear did not break or worked well, so as not to break the leg in Bully, so as not to turn the boat Make a tiger. National, Udaegie and Oroching hunters built small structures for such ritual purposes, and also brought treats for spirits to a particularly selected tree or on a mountain pass. Thaza used for this purpose Kamigni Chinese type. However, the influence of neighboring Chinese culture was also experiencing Nanixes, and Udagei.

23. Mythology of indigenous minorities

The overall world of primitive peoples, their idea of \u200b\u200bthe world is expressed in various rites, superstitions, forms of cult, etc., but mainly in myths. Mythology is the main source of knowledge of the inner world, the psychology of primitive man, his religious views.

Primitive people in the knowledge of the world put a certain limit. Everything that the primitive person knows, he considers it based on the facts of valid. All "primitive" people by nature of their animists, according to their presentation, everything in nature has a soul: both a person and a stone. That is why the rules of the fate of human and laws of nature are perfume.

The most ancient scientists consider the myths about animals, about the heavenly phenomena and luminaries (sun, moon, stars), about the flood, myths about the origin of the Universe (cosmogonic) and human (anthropogonic).

Animals are the actors of almost all primitive myths in which they speak, think, communicate with each other and with people, make actions. They perform the ancestors of a person, the creators of the earth, mountains, rivers.

According to the ideas of the ancient residents of the Far East, the Earth in the ancient times did not have such a species as now: she was completely covered with water. The myths reached our days, in which the tit, duck or gagar takes a piece of the ground from the bottom of the ocean. The land is put on the water, it grows, and people settle on it.

The myths of the peoples of the Amur region are talking about participation in the creation of the world of swan and eagle.

A mighty creature transforming the appearance of land in Far Eastern mythology is Mammoth. It was represented very large (as five to six moose) Animal causing fear, surprise and respect. Sometimes in the myths, the mammoth acts in conjunction with the gigantic snake. Mammoth pulls out from the bottom of the ocean so much

earth so that it is enough for all people. Snake helps him rave land. According to the wriggling traces of his long body, the rivers flowed, and where the land remained untouched, - Mountains were formed, where the leg went out or lay the body of the Mammont - there were deep depressions. So ancient people tried to explain the features of the earthly relief. It was believed that the Mammont was afraid of sunlight, so he lives under the ground, and sometimes at the bottom of the rivers and lakes. With him, the collars of the coast of the coast in the flood, the crackle of the ice during ice freight, even earthquakes. One of the most common images in Far Eastern mythology is an image of the moose (deer). This is understandable. Elk - the largest and most strong taiga animal. The hunt for it served as one of the main sources of the existence of ancient hunting tribes. Grozen and mighty this beast, the second (after the bear) the owner of the taiga. According to the ideas of the ancients, the universe itself was a living being and was identified with animal images.

Evenks, for example, preserved the myth about the Space Los, living in the sky. Running from the heavenly taiga, Elk sees the sun, clings him to the horns and takes into account. On earth, people are eternal night. They are frightened, do not know what to do. But one bold warrior, putting the winged skis, starts up the trap of the beast, overtakes him and amazes the arrow. Bogatyr returns to people the sun, but himself remains in the sky the guardian of the shovel. Since then, as if it goes on earth a change of day and night. Every evening it ellishes the sun, and the hunter overtakes him and returns to people day. With the image of the moose, the constellation is binding to a large bear, and the Milky Way is considered a trail of the hunter's winged ski. The connection of the Embossing Image with the Sun is one of the oldest ideas of residents of the Far East about Space. Certificate of this is the squeal images of the Sicochi-Alyana.

Residents of the Far Eastern Taiga were built into the rank of the creator of the whole living horns of Mother Losihih (deer). Being underground, on the roots of the world tree, it gives rise to animals and people. The residents of the coastal districts, the universal progenitian seen Morzha's mother, at the same time a beast and a woman.

Ancient man did not separate himself from the world. Plants, animals, birds were for him as creatures as he himself. It is not by chance, so primitive people considered them their ancestors and their births.

In the life and life of Aboriginal, there were a lot of folk decorative art. It reflected not only the original aesthetic worldview of peoples, but also a social life, the level of development of farm and inter-ethnic, inter-bond connections. The traditional decorative art of nations has deep roots on the ground of their ancestors.

Bright testimony - a monument of ancient culture - Petroglyphs (paintings-writing) on \u200b\u200bthe rocks of Sikachi-Alyana. The art of Tungus-Manchurov and Nivkhs reflected the environment, aspirations, creative fantasy of hunters, fishermen, collectors of herbs and roots. The original art of the nations of Amur and Sakhalin always admired those who were in contact with him for the first time. Russian scientist L. I. Schrenk was very struck by the ability of Nivers (Gilakov) to make crafts from different metals, decorate their weapons with shapes from red copper, brass, silver.

A large place in the art of Tunguso-Manchurov, Nivkhov occupied a cult sculpture, the material for which was served by a tree, iron, silver, grass, straw in combination with beads, beads, ribbons, fur. Researchers note that only the nations of Amur and Sakhalin were able to make surprisingly beautiful appliques for fish skin, paint the bark, tree. In the art of Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryakov, ITELEN, Aleutov found his reflection of the life of the hunter, the sea from a tundra reindeer girl. For centuries, they have achieved perfection in the thread on the walrus, thread on bone plates with a depicting of housing, boats, animals, hunting scenes on the marine beast. The famous Russian researcher of Kamchatka Academician S. P. Krasheninnikov, having tried the skill of the ancient peoples, wrote: "From all the work of this other nations, which they are stone knives and topors do quite clean, nothing is surprising for me as a chain of a walrus ... she consisted of rings, smoothness of similar to those accusable, and from one tooth was made; The upper rings were more, the lower less, and she was a little less than half-day. I can safely say that in the purity of work and in art, no one would have honored for the works of Wild Chukchi and for a stoned tool. "