History of Russia XVII – XVIII centuries. Glossary of the most important terms and concepts
Assertiveness - self-promotion or promotion of one's will, the ability to insist on one's own, the ability to convince. The basis of the skill of assertiveness is the ability to freely express one's emotions, express desires and needs.
Association is a connection between words, concepts, ideas, in which the perception or recollection of one entails the extraction of another from the memory.
Communication barriers are behaviors, forms of conversation that prevent people from understanding each other, worsen their relationships, and cause negative emotions: anger, protest and irritation.
Life strategy is an individual life program, the concept of happiness, a system of values and goals of a person. Their implementation in accordance with his ideas allows him to make life the most successful.
A significant other is the person whose attention, approval, or disapproval is important to that person. The most noticeable is the influence of a positive “significant other” - a person (or image) who this person wants to imitate and whose instructions and roles he is ready to accept.
Personal potential is a generalized systemic characteristic of individual psychological characteristics of an individual, which underlies his ability to proceed from stable internal criteria and guidelines in his life and maintain the stability of activity and semantic orientations under external pressure and in changing conditions. A complex of psychological properties that gives a person the ability to make decisions and regulate their behavior, taking into account and assessing the situation, but based primarily on their internal ideas and criteria.
Personal growth of a person consists in the constant, steady development of his personal potential. With personal growth, changes occur both in the inner world of a person and in his relationship with the outside world. The essence of these changes is that a person is gradually freed from the distorting influence of psychological defenses, becomes able to trust the perceived information, and not “filter” it in order to protect his “I-image” and can live in the present. Personal growth is possible only if a person relies on the benevolent participation of others, if he achieves recognition and respect for his inner world by other people, at least by “significant others”.
Personality - 1. An individual as an individual, as a subject of relationships and conscious activity, in the process of which he creates, reproduces and changes social reality. 2. A relatively stable system of socially significant and unique individual traits that characterize the individual, which is formed in the process of socialization and is the product of individual experience and social interaction. 3. A relatively stable system of ideological, psychological and behavioral characteristics that characterize a person. 4.
The internal system of human self-regulation, which establishes a balance between the internal world (i.e., a person as a living being in general, with his needs, motives, emotions, etc.) and the environment, the external world in a broad sense, including primarily others of people.
Manipulation is a type of psychological influence performed skillfully and secretly. Main characteristics of manipulation:
leads to the excitement of another person (victim) desires, intentions or attitudes that do not coincide with his actually existing;
is aimed at changing the direction of the victim's activity, performing certain actions by the manipulator;
gives the victim a false impression of self-managing behavior.
Communication is the interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange of information of a cognitive or emotional-evaluative nature. When communicating, there is an influence and impact on the behavior, state, attitudes of the partner.
Memory is a collection of information acquired by a person and used to control behavior.
It includes the processes of memorizing, storing and retrieving, as well as forgetting information.
Training rules: I.
Be active, act, speak. II.
Think and speak only about what is happening "here and now." III.
Act and speak only on your own behalf. IV.
Suggest, try, experiment, don't criticize. V.
Everyone is worthy of respect, respect others - they will respect you. Vi.
Try to understand yourself and others. Tell us what you understood and felt.
Psychological impact is a type of communication, interaction between people, in which only one-sided influence is taken into account, as a result of which there are changes in the mental characteristics or state of the addressee of the impact.
Roles are stable places in the system of relations with other people (for example: student, teacher, wife, customer, etc.). Representations of the external manifestations of roles are based on socio-cultural norms, constraints and expectations. In accordance with the social norms adopted in a given culture, each person in a certain role receives certain rights, certain restrictions are imposed on him and is expected to behave accordingly.
Self-awareness is a person's awareness and assessment of himself as a person, his interests, values and motives of behavior.
Self-development is a conscious human activity aimed at the fullest possible realization of oneself as a person. Self-development presupposes the presence of clearly realized life goals, ideals and personal attitudes. Resistance is overt or covert action aimed at disorganizing and even disrupting classes.
Training (from the English train - to teach, educate) is a systematic training or improvement of certain skills and behavior of its participants. An intensive course of study combining short theoretical seminars and hands-on skills training in a short time. There are business communication training, sales training, behavioral training, sensitivity training, role training, video training, etc.
psychological training concerns psychological skills: self-regulation, self-development, communication, etc., including professional skills that are especially important for those who work with people;
personal growth training - group training, during which, with the help of various techniques, participants try to realize and overcome their psychological problems that hinder the solution of their life and professional tasks;
communication trainings are designed to teach group members effective behavior in various communication situations, to develop their relevant skills;
business trainings are focused on solving specific professional problems. Most often there are trainings on the sale of something, as well as trainings in negotiation, conflict resolution, team building, effective management, etc.
Character - the most pronounced, closely interconnected personality traits. The character is clearly manifested in various types of activity, is determined and formed throughout a person's life.
A personality trait is a person's tendency to behave in a similar way in different situations. A personality trait is what determines constant, stable, typical characteristics of human behavior.
Effective listening is an active process of understanding and making sense of what you hear.
"I-image" ("I-concept") - how the individual sees himself and wants to see. "I-image" includes the idea of a person about himself, his physical and psychological characteristics: appearance, abilities, interests, inclinations, self-respect, self-confidence, etc. It includes ideas about his capabilities and self-esteem of the individual. On the basis of the "I-image" a person distinguishes himself from the outside world and from other people.
Social Science Dictionary from A to Z.
Absolute truth - this is a complete correspondence of the form of the psyche (for example, judgment, image, etc.) and the object of cognition.
Absolute delusion - this is a complete discrepancy between the form of the psyche and the object of knowledge.
Agency - this is a type of contract, according to the terms of which the agent for a fee is obliged to perform legal and other actions on behalf of the other party (the principal) on his own behalf, but at the expense of the principal.
Socialization agents - these are individuals, groups or organizations that provide training and help a person to master roles, this is a family, school, media, a group of adolescents.
Agitation period - the period during which it is allowed to conduct pre-election campaigning.
Agnosticism - this is a theory about the fundamental impossibility of knowing the world around us, since the outside world does not exist, but only our consciousness and our sensations exist.
Addictive behavior - This is a behavior that consists in escaping reality through the use of various psychotropic drugs - alcohol, drugs, toxins, tobacco smoking.
Administrative offense (misconduct) - This is an action or inaction that infringes on public order, the rights and freedoms of citizens.
Axiology is the science of values.
Stock - this is a security sold to an investor for money going to the development of the company, and giving him the right to co-owner of the property of the company and to receive future profits of the company (dividends).
Ordinary share - this is such a promotion that gives the right to participate in the management of the enterprise and receive a part of the net profit.
Preferred share is a share that gives the right to receive dividends of a fixed amount, regardless of the amount of profit, but does not give the right to participate in the management of the company.
Altruism is the willingness to sacrifice for the sake of other people.
Amnesty - this is the release from further serving the sentence of certain categories of persons (but not personally), which is announced by the State Duma in connection with a significant date or event.
Application form is a reproduced document containing several dozen questions.
Anomie - this is a state of lawlessness, lawlessness that exists in modern big cities, occurs in the country during a revolution or rebellion.
Antisocial behavior - this is such behavior, which is the commission of actions that are contrary to ethics and morality.
Philosophical anthropology - this is the doctrine of man.
Apartheid - This is a system of separate residence of whites and "colored" in South Africa in the recent past.
Apeiron (according to the theory of Anaximander) is infinitely divisible.
Aporia (translated from Greek) is a stalemate, logical contradiction or puzzle.
Apostles - these are the disciples of Jesus Christ.
Rentals - this is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the lessor undertakes to provide the lessee with the property for a fee for temporary possession and use.
Aristocracy - it is a form of government in which there is the power of a good minority of citizens.
Artifacts are the creations of human hands
Asceticism (from Greek "exercise") - this is the ultimate limitation of their needs.
Atheist - this is a person who does not believe in the existence of God, he is an atheist.
Atman (in Buddhism) is emptiness, God.
Bank is a financial intermediary for accepting deposits, granting loans, organizing settlements, buying and selling securities.
Bankruptcy (insolvency) of an enterprise is the inability to repay debts to creditors.
Barter is a direct natural exchange of one product for another product.
Non-cash funds - these are the amounts on the accounts of citizens and organizations in the bank, while calculations are carried out by changing the entries on the accounts.
Unemployed - these are people who are willing and able, but do not have the opportunity to work due to the fact that they cannot find a job.
Biosphere - this is the shell of the Earth, it is an open system created by living organisms.
Behaviorism - behavior) is the science of behavior.
Economic benefits - these are the means to meet human needs
Bohemia is the culture of artists and artists.
Marriage is a voluntary union between a man and a woman for the purpose of creating a family.
Bourgeoisie is a class of entrepreneurs.
State budget is an estimate of government revenues and expenditures.
Budgetary (fiscal) policy (from the ancient Roman "fiscus" - "money basket") - the use of the state budget (and it consists of taxes and expenses) to regulate business activity, stimulate economic growth, overcome the recession, fight inflation, and the like.
Budget deficit - this is the excess of government spending over revenues, covered either by loans or by issuing money
Bureaucracy is a hierarchical organization built on administrative control and behind-the-scenes struggle of cliques for power.
Gross National Product (GNP) is the aggregate market value of all goods and services produced in the country per year
Promissory note is the obligation of one person to another to pay a fixed amount of money at a certain point in time.
Amount of supply is the volume of a certain type of goods in physical terms that sellers want and can offer within a certain period of time at a certain level of the market price.
Verification procedure - this is a test of philosophical concepts for scientific character, for compliance with the facts.
Veto is the right of one authority to accept or reject proposed regulations, decrees or laws passed by another authority.
Guilt - This is a negative judgment about yourself.
Political power is the ability to exercise social control over the activities of people in the political sphere.
Perception is an image consisting of several sensations.
Elections is a democratic procedure by which the executors for the positions of president, deputy or governor are determined
Superior or exploitative (in Marxist terminology) class is a group of people who are controllers in society.
Heliocentric theory is a theory about the rotation of the Earth and the planets of the solar system around the sun.
Geographic direction in sociology - This is a theory whose representatives believed that geographical factors affect society.
Geopolitics (from Greek land + state affairs) is a social science about space control.
Geocentric theory is a false theory about the rotation of the Sun, planets and stars around the Earth.
Geoeconomics is the world economy.
Gerontocracy - this is the rule of old people.
Gerousia - this is the council of elders (in Greek - gerontov).
Hypnosis - This is the instilling of norms of behavior through the immersion of a person in a trance.
Global society - this is a modern society all over the globe, when instead of a multitude of isolated local civilizations, a single earthly civilization arose.
Epistemology - This is a theory about human cognition of the world.
Homeostasis is the process of maintaining balance.
State is a political organization that controls the activities of citizens in society.
Civil plaintiff is a person or organization that suffered material damage from a crime and is demanding compensation.
Civil defendant is a person or organization that, by virtue of the law, is financially liable for damage to a civilian.
Civil society is a collection of people, groups and non-governmental organizations that should be able to control the activities of the bureaucracy.
Group marriage is a marriage between several men and several women.
Traffic - this is movement in space for a certain period of time. Social movements are active groups of people, the purpose of which is to establish a new order of life.
Devaluation is the depreciation of the national currency.
Deviant behavior is abnormal behavior.
Deduction is a condescension from the abstract to the concrete, from axioms to consequences and predictions that should be verified.
Legal capacity is the ability to conclude deals and contracts
Acting crowd is an aggressive crowd.
Demagogue - this is a person who knows how to influence the crowd for personal unseemly interests.
Demography is the science of the size, composition and change of population.
Democracy - This is a political regime in which the ruler can control only the political sphere, but within the framework of the constitution.
Democracy extreme - It is a form of government in which power belongs to the majority of citizens, which rules poorly.
Polis or polis democracy is a form of government in which power is in the hands of a majority of citizens who rule well.
Dumping - selling goods at low prices in order to ruin competitors, and becoming a monopolist, the company begins to inflate prices and compensate for the loss of profit from dumping in excess.
Money supply is the sum of the denominations of all cash and non-cash money in the country.
Monetary policy (monetary policy) - measures of the central bank aimed at increasing or decreasing the money supply in the country in order to regulate the economic situation, curb inflation, stimulate economic growth, and the like.
Money is a special commodity that is accepted by all people in exchange for any other commodity.
Deposits - these are deposits in the bank.
Deficit - this is a situation in the market when buyers at the current price level are ready to buy a larger volume of goods than sellers are willing to offer.
Government budget deficit is the excess of government spending over revenues.
Default - this is a gross deception, the government's refusal to pay the debts to its creditors.
Price discrimination is the sale of the same product in the same market to different buyers at different prices.
Dialectics is the art of arguing.
Dictatorship is a strong power that often means tyranny.
Dynamics - this is a description of the sequence of stages in the development of the structure of a social organism, that is, the emergence of more and more new organizations and groups.
Trust property management - this is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the founder of the management transfers the property to the trustee for a certain period of time in trust and the trustee undertakes to carry out management in the interests of the founder.
Contract - This is an agreement of two or more persons on the establishment of civil rights.
Strike (strike) - This is a way of conducting an administrative conflict on the part of employees, which means stopping work until the employer agrees to a wage increase.
Loan and credit - this is a type of agreement, under the terms of which the borrower takes money from the bank and undertakes to return the amount received and pay interest on it.
Law - this is the norm and rule of behavior.
Pledge - this is a value (for example, gold and jewelry) that the creditor can acquire in ownership in the event that the debtor has violated the terms of the contract.
General costs - this is the cost of acquiring resources necessary for the production of a certain volume of products
Mortgage is a pledge of land plots, enterprises, buildings, structures, apartments and other real estate.
Id - this is the instinctive core of the personality.
Subjective idealism - this is a theory according to which things are complexes of our sensations, there are not things, but only our consciousness.
Ideology is a theoretical system that justifies certain values and norms.
Excess goods (overstocking) - a situation on the market when sellers offer a volume of goods more than buyers can buy.
Isomorphism - this is the similarity of different systems.
Social hierarchy is a pyramid.
Empire is a country built by conquest.
Impeachment (English impeachment - accusation, conviction) - the procedure for the removal from office of the president of the country by the parliament.
Import is the purchase of goods abroad.
Investments is the capital invested in production.
Investment - this is the direction of money for the acquisition of additional capital.
Induction - this is an ascent from the concrete to the abstract, from experimental data to theory.
Industrialization is the creation of an industry.
Instinctiveism is a theory according to which social processes are explained by human instincts.
Symbolic interactionism - This is a theory, whose representatives believe that people exchange information, conflict and control the activities of other people with the help of symbols - gestures, acting out scenes and creating an image.
Introvert - this is a person whose interest is directed towards himself, he is guided in his behavior only by internal principles.
Intuition - this is the perception of the surrounding world by a person or an animal with the help of the unconscious, when, on the basis of past experience and without any thought, from somewhere in the depths of the subconscious, a ready-made recipe for solving a problem or a ready-made plan of action in the form of a premonition pops up.
Inflation (from Latin "bloat") - This is the process of increasing the general level of prices in the country, leading to the depreciation of the monetary unit.
Economic infrastructure - this is the construction of a transport network, ports, communication facilities, gasification and electrification.
Irrationalism - this is a trend in philosophy that insists on limiting the role of reason in history and cognition, where the main role is played not by reason, but by instincts, intuition and feelings.
Art is a specific form of reflection of the surrounding world with the help of artistic images.
Correctional labor - these are deductions from the convicted person's earnings within a period determined by the court to the state income in the amount established by the court's verdict.
True is confirmability, consistency and efficiency.
Cadastre is the book of taxpayers.
Physical capital - these are equipment, machines, buildings, structures that are created by the labor of people.
Intangible capital (invisible) is knowledge, skills and information (patents, licenses, copyrights, people's skills, trade marks).
Cartel is an agreement between oligarchs on dividing the sales market, agreeing on sales volumes and price levels for each of them.
Castes - these are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where social elevators are completely turned off, so people have no opportunity to make a career.
Qualification of a crime - this is the correspondence between the crime and the article of the criminal code.
Import quota - This is the maximum value of imports per year from a particular country.
Social class is a large group of people that occupy a certain place in the system of social control.
Clique (from French "gang", "gang") - this is a small group of associates, closely united with each other for the sake of achieving unseemly goals at any cost.
Clergy is a hierarchical pyramid of priests with severe discipline within this pyramid.
Coacervates are protocells, organic structures surrounded by fatty membranes.
Code of Laws - this is a set of laws that describe the norms of behavior in some area of activity - in the economy, family sphere, and the like.
Collective agreement is a legal act governing the relationship between the employer and employees at the enterprise.
Command economic system is a way of organizing the economy in which land and capital are in state ownership and the allocation of resources is in the hands of central state bodies in accordance with state plans.
Commission - this is a type of agreement, according to the terms of which the commission agent undertakes to perform one or several transactions on his own behalf, but at the expense of the principal, on behalf of the other party (principal).
Inferiority complex is a deep, all-pervading sense of one's own inferiority in comparison with other people.
Communist movement - this is one of the directions of the socialist movement, the communists, in fact, following the example of Lenin, strive to seize power without elections or to abolish free elections after their coming to power in elections, to establish tyranny or oligarchy instead of representative democracy, to abolish private property and the market.
Competitiveness increasing - this is an increase in the quality and a decrease in the price of goods.
Market competition is an economic conflict over the right to obtain economic resources.
Conservative movement is a movement whose representatives aim to establish public order, sometimes even a return to the past, preserve the power of the old elite, bureaucracy or aristocracy, preserve traditional moral, family and religious values.
Contracting - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the producer of agricultural products undertakes to transfer the crop to the harvester for processing or sale.
Counterculture - this is a kind of culture, the norms of which are contrary to the norms of the dominant culture.
Social control - This is a type of social interaction in which the controller forces the object of control to comply with the norms through the threat of positive or negative sanctions, through the introduction of stereotypes.
Confederation - this is a form of territorial structure, where almost all powers and tax revenues remain at the periphery.
Social conflict is a type of social interaction in which participants try to defeat their opponents using various means with the aim of physically destroying the enemy, turning him into an object of control or conquering someone else's sphere of influence and resources.
Conflict school is a school in sociology, whose representatives believe that social conflicts are inevitable, but they need to be resolved.
Conformism is the readiness of a person to obey pressure or threats.
Commercial concession - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the rightholder grants the user, for a fee, the right to a company name and trademark.
Market conditions is the ratio of supply and demand.
Corner - this is a secret agreement between merchants or manufacturers on the temporary withdrawal from the market of some of their goods in order to artificially create a temporary shortage and an increase in prices for this product, after which the scarce product is thrown onto the market, and the participants in the conspiracy receive increased profits.
Indirect intent in the process of crime - this is such an intent when the person did not want, but admitted the dangerous consequences of his actions.
Lending (from the Latin "creditum", that is, "loan", "debt") - this is the provision of funds for temporary use to commercial organizations for a certain price.
Borrowers' creditworthiness - this is the ability and ability to repay the debt to the bank.
Blood revenge - it is the custom of members of a primitive tribe to help each other in the process of revenge for damage caused by strangers.
Xenophobia - this is fear and dislike for other cultures and foreign customs
Cult is a system of ceremonies, symbolic objects, musical instruments that have the function of an amplifier of influence in the hands of a priest.
Culture (from the Latin "colere" - to cultivate or cultivate the soil) is a system of values, ideas about the world and rules of behavior, common to a certain group of people.
Material culture are material values created by members of society, from weapons to cars.
Intangible culture is a world of ideas created by members of society from altruism to Buddhism.
Purchase and sale is the exchange of goods for money.
Laconic style of speech (from the name of the region in Sparta - Laconia) is a concise and clear style of expression.
Legitimate - it's legal.
Liberal movement (from the English word liberty - freedom) is a movement whose representatives aim to carry out gradual peaceful reforms and the introduction of political freedoms.
Leasing (financial lease) is a type of contract under which the lessor undertakes to acquire the property specified by the lessee from the seller specified by him and provide this property to the lessee for a fee for temporary possession and use for business purposes.
Foreign trade license - This is a permit issued by the state to import or export from the country of certain types of goods.
Stock or money liquidity - this is the confidence of buyers that they will be able to sell them at any time.
Lobby are pressure groups.
Formal logic is the science of the laws of correct thinking.
Lie - it is unconfirmed, inconsistent and ineffective.
Lockout (from the English "slam the door in front of someone") - This is the closure of the enterprise for several weeks without pay for employees.
Love - This is the attraction between a man and a woman.
Lumpen proletariat is a social group that includes the lower classes of society - criminals, vagabonds and beggars.
Majority system is an electoral system in which voters do not vote for parties, but for specific candidates
Macroeconomic policy - This is the regulation of economic activity by influencing the level of consumption and investment, as well as the money supply through budgetary and monetary policy.
Maximalist - this is a person who wants to get everything or nothing from life, he does not accept half measures.
Small group - this is a small amount of people - from 2 to 15 people, between whom the relationship of moral leadership is established.
Margin (from the Latin "margin", that is, "border") - this is the bank's income received for providing a loan to commercial organizations, which goes to the banker's expenses for doing business and the banker's profit.
Marketing is the study of supply and demand in the market.
Weight - this is the uncreative majority of people, this is a collection of people who are worried about the same problem, but they are not in close proximity to each other.
Matter - this is everything that surrounds us, except for ideas and feelings, this is matter and physical fields.
Melancholic (from the Greek "molasses chole" - black bile) is a weak type of temperament.
Meritocracy (from the English merit - "merit") - this is "the power of honored people."
Mechanism in Sociology is a theory whose representatives believed that society is like an aggregate of elements, each of which can be studied independently of each other.
Mysticism (from Greek - "secret") are supernatural phenomena and spiritual practice aimed at connecting with the other world and supernatural forces.
Social mobility is the movement of people up the social “ladder”.
Vertical mobility - This is the movement of people up or down the social "ladder" during life with an increase or decrease in social status.
Horizontal mobility - this is moving up one rung of the social ladder without changing social status.
Fashion - this is the desire of the lower classes to imitate the elite.
trendy things - these are identification marks that indicate belonging to the elite.
Monetarism - This is the direction of economic thought, which denies - in contrast to Keynesianism - the need for state regulation of economic activity. Gives preference to anti-inflationary policies aimed at maintaining the stability of the monetary system.
Monogamy is the marriage of one man and one woman.
Foreign trade monopoly - this is a situation when only the state, and not private firms, has the right to conclude foreign trade transactions on the export and import of goods.
Monotheism is monotheism.
Multiplier (in Keynesian theory) - This is a coefficient characterizing the increase in national income as a result of the initially spent amount of money - government spending or investment.
Cash is paper money and a bargaining chip.
Tax - These are compulsory payments levied by tax authorities from organizations and individuals in order to finance the state and municipalities.
Nationality is an ethnos that managed to create their own state.
Naturalism in Sociology is the point of view that social phenomena obey the laws inherent in nature - the laws of physics, mechanics, biology, geography.
Nationalization of enterprises - This is the buyout or takeover by the state of enterprises from private owners.
The science is the activity of a person to obtain, systematize and test knowledge
Nation - this is an ethnos that managed to build a capitalist society - a common national market, democracy, private property, the rule of law, national culture.
Incapacitated - this is a citizen who, due to a mental disorder, cannot understand the meaning of his actions, only a court can recognize a citizen as incompetent.
Arrears - the amount of unpaid tax.
Unfinished crime - is preparation for a crime or attempted crime.
Minors - these are persons who have not reached the age of 18 by the time the crime was committed.
Forfeit, fine, penalty - this is a certain amount of money, determined by the contract, which the debtor is obliged to pay to the creditor in case of violation of the terms of the contract, for example, in the event of a delay in the payment of a debt.
Inferior or exploited (in Marxist terminology) class is a group of people who are the object of control in society.
Nirvana (in Buddhism) - this is the achievement of a state of complete equanimity and indifference, highest bliss, happiness and tranquility.
Nomenclature - this term originally meant "a list of posts", and later came to mean the ruling stratum under socialism
Noosphere - this is the shell of the Earth, which is the result of human activity.
Normal goods - these are goods, the demand for which increases along with the growth of incomes of the population.
Norms are the rules of conduct.
Morals - this is a system of taboo, they distinguish between right and wrong,
Accused is a person at the trial stage.
Bond is a security that certifies that its owner has lent a certain amount of money to a company or state and has the right to receive it back along with a certain premium.
Exchange theory in sociology is a theory that believed that in the process of social interaction, people exchange goods, services, information and gratitude, before engaging in social interaction, people weigh future rewards and costs.
Society is a progressively developing system of groups and organizations, which is built on the relationship of conflict and control between people.
Folk customs - these are moral norms that distinguish between the right and the offensive.
Mandatory work - this is the performance by convicts in their free time from their main work, free community service.
Restriction of freedom - this is the maintenance of a convict who has turned 18 years old in a special institution without isolation from society in the conditions of supervision over him.
Oligarchy is a form of government where power is in the hands of a few and unworthy citizens - oligarchs.
Homonyms - these are words that have not one, but two or more meanings.
Opposition parties - these are the parties that lost in the last elections.
Exit poll, or exit poll - an informal proposal to those who voted to write down their choice to control the actions of the election commission.
Organization is a system of interrelated and specialized statuses. Organism in sociology is a theory whose representatives believe that society and the organism are similar to each other.
Orthodoxy - this is the desire of some scientific workers for backwardness.
Convicted - this person after the conviction of the court.
Ostracism - This is the extreme sanction of the group, expressed in the refusal to talk, bullying, persecution.
Open system is a system that has input and output, exchanges with environment substance and energy and maintains internal balance.
Relative truth - this is a partial correspondence of the form of the psyche and the object of knowledge.
Ochlocracy (from Greek ochlos - crowd) - this is the power of the crowd, rabble, bandits.
Sensation - this is the most elementary form of sensory knowledge.
Memory is the ability of a person to save and reproduce the information received from a wound.
Pan-Slavism is a cultural and political trend among the Slavic peoples, which is based on ideas about the ethnic and linguistic community of the Slavs, the need for their political unification.
Punks (from the English punk - scum, scum) - a counterculture, a characteristic feature of which is a love of fast and energetic rock music (punk rock) and freedom, protest against the establishment, conservatism, authoritarianism, nationalism and radical capitalism, as well as adherence to the ideals of antiracism and anti-fascism
Paradigm (from Greek - "pattern", "pattern") is a scientific principle, model or pattern for conducting research, or a scientific formula.
Parliament is the legislature.
Parliamentary republic is a state where the government bears full responsibility for its activities before parliament.
The consignment is an organization created to win elections and take over government leadership
Passionarity - this is passion, will to live, strength of character.
Patriarchal marriage - this is a form of marriage where the husband has great power over other family members,
Pacifism - this is the desire to maintain peace and the prohibition of wars.
The first principle in ancient Greek physics - this is what everything consists of.
Peripatetics (from Greek "strolling") - a school in Greek philosophy, to which the students of Aristotle belonged.
Permanent revolution is a global, continuous revolution in a chain in different countries.
Plagiarism is the "stealing" of ideas in science.
Tribe - this is an ethnos that managed to streamline the reproduction of people, exclude cases of the appearance of children with hereditary diseases caused by incest and create its own dialect, customs, and conquer its territory.
Pluralism is ideological diversity.
Absorption - buying up competing firms that bring down the price of the monopolist.
Suspect - this is a person at the stage of investigation.
Contract - this is a type of contract, under the terms of which the contractor undertakes to perform work on the instructions of the other party (customer) for a fee.
Polyandry is the marriage of one woman and several men.
Polygyny is a marriage of one man and several women.
Polytheism is polytheism.
Political science is the science of the political structure of society.
Pardon - This is the release from further serving the sentence, which is announced by the president for individuals.
Concept is the designation and name of things.
Attested - these are citizens who are not interested in a court case, who are summoned by an investigator in the amount of at least 2 people during a search and examination.
Victim is a person who has been harmed by a crime.
Customs duties - These are taxes in favor of the state, levied on the owner of a product when he crosses the border in order to sell this product within the country.
Right is a system of norms and rules of conduct established by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by the force of state coercion.
Constitutional state - this is a state where the law rules, and not an official, where even an official, even the president of the country is obliged to abide by the law.
Ownership is the right to own, use and dispose of your property.
Legal capacity - this is the ability to have rights, it arises at the moment of a person's birth and disappears at the moment of death.
Ruling parties - these are the parties that won the last elections.
Pragmatism - This is a philosophical theory, from the point of view of which, thought is true insofar as belief in it is beneficial for our life.
Entrepreneurial activity - this is independent activity aimed at the systematic receipt of profit from the sale of goods or the provision of services.
Performance is an image of an object previously perceived or created by the imagination.
Presidential republic - a state where the president who won the general election is the head of the executive branch, and the legislative power is concentrated in the hands of parliament.
The crime - this is a socially dangerous act stipulated by the criminal law.
Profit - this is the excess of the amount of income from the sale of goods over the amount of costs for the production of these goods.
Privatization - this is the transfer of state ownership to private ownership through the sale at an auction of state enterprises in the hands of private owners
Progress - this is the complication, the emergence of new connections and elements in the system.
Progressive income tax is a tax that is collected according to the principle: the greater the amount of the taxpayer's income, the greater the percentage of income tax that the tax authorities collect from him.
Living wage is a "basket" of food and clothing items that provide a person with the minimum necessary for simple survival.
Labor productivity is the amount of goods produced per unit of time.
Arbitrariness are illegal actions of the authorities.
Rental - this is an agreement under the terms of which the lessor undertakes to provide the tenant with movable property for a fee for temporary possession and use.
Proletariat (in Marxist terminology) is a class of wage laborers.
Proportional system is an election system that determines the rating of political forces, in proportion to which seats in parliament are distributed.
Protectionism is a policy of protecting domestic producers from competition from foreign producers.
Surplus is the excess of revenues over expenditures in the state budget
Interest rate - the fee charged for money provided on credit.
Direct tax - This is a levy in favor of the state, levied on each citizen or organization. The direct intent in the process of the crime is that the person desired to achieve the dangerous consequences of his actions.
Psychologism in sociology - This is the direction, whose representatives believe that the laws of society can be reduced to the laws of psychology.
Development is a complication or simplification of the system.
Revolution (from the Latin revolution - turn, change) social is such a way to change social structure, in which innovations are often carried out from below through mass riots or armed seizure of power, this is a process when one social group takes political power from another social group by force of arms
Regression - this is a simplification of the system, the disappearance of some connections and elements from it.
Reincarnation - the myth of the transmigration of souls.
Raiding is a violent takeover of a competing enterprise with the help of criminals.
Rent - this is a type of contract when one party (the recipient of the rent) transfers the property to the other party, and the payer of the rent undertakes to periodically pay the recipient the rent in the form of a certain amount of money.
The respondent - this is the person to whom the questions of the sociological questionnaire are addressed.
Referendum - This is a popular vote on any issue.
Reform (from the Latin reformo - transform) social - this is a way of developing a social structure, in which innovations are carried out from above, by the government, in a peaceful way.
Recession (from the Latin recessus - retreat) in the economy - this is a moderate decline in production, characterized by zero growth of the gross national product or its fall for more than six months, the recession is one of the phases of the economic cycle following the boom and giving way to depression
Rigidity is the inability of a person to adapt to new people or to a new environment environment,
Rhetorician is a teacher of public speaking.
Rhetoric is the science of eloquence.
Social role - This is the behavior expected from someone who has a certain social status.
Stock market is the stock market.
Ruble is a legal tender throughout the Russian Federation.
Self-realization - the highest desire of a person to realize his talents and abilities.
Sanguine (from Latin "sanguie" - blood) - This is a strong, balanced mobile type of temperament.
Sanction is a reward or punishment, so the sanctions can be positive or negative.
Samsara (in Buddhism) is a circle of rebirths in the process of reincarnation.
Saving - part of income not spent on consumption that can be used for investment.
Collection is a mandatory fee levied from organizations and individuals in exchange for the issuance of rights or permits.
Political freedom - this is the absence of arbitrariness of the authorities.
Transactions - these are actions of citizens and legal entities to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations
Segregation is a system of separating African Americans from whites in the southern states of the United States in the recent past.
A family - is a group of people based on consanguinity, marriage or adoption, linked by a common life and responsibility for raising children.
Senate - the legislative assembly of aristocrats in ancient Rome.
Symbols - this is everything that carries a special meaning, recognized by people of one culture.
System is the sum of elements and connections between them.
Political system is an open, evolving system that consists of elements such as government, parliament or other legislature, political parties, army, court, police and bureaucracy.
Skinheads - the culture of "skinheads" (from the English skinheads).
Layers - these are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where social “filters” do not create any artificial obstacles for those wishing to make a career, the only condition for this is the applicant's talent and financial resources.
Estates - these are groups of people in the social hierarchy, where strict "filters" strongly limit social mobility and slow down the movement of "elevators".
Sophists (from the Greek sofos - wisdom) - these are paid teachers to think, prove and speak beautifully.
Social Darwinism - This is a theory whose representatives believe that the mechanism of social evolution is no different from the mechanism of biological evolution, therefore the strongest survives in society.
Socialization is learning how to perform social roles.
Socialist movement - this is a movement whose representatives promise to improve the situation of wage workers, they have achieved the introduction of benefits for poverty, old age, disability and unemployment.
Sociometry is a method for identifying the composition of small groups and persons of leaders.
Speechwriters are people writing speeches for too busy politicians.
Rush demand - this is the demand that arises in the event of fears of a rapid rise in prices, when people take any goods for future use.
Middle class is a group of people who are outside the control system or occupy an intermediate position in the social control system.
Stagflation period - this is a period when prices rise unusually quickly and at the same time there is a decline in production
Statics is the social structure or anatomy of a social organism at a given historical moment, as a system of organizations that resemble organs in the body.
Social status - this is the position of a person in society, this status has a corresponding list of rights and obligations.
Stereotype is a role model that is embedded in the minds of people through the media and culture.
Price is the amount of money that is paid or received when buying or selling a product.
Strata - these are social strata.
Social stratification - this is the stratification of society.
Streaming (from English stream - stream, flow) - this system of sorting students in Britain into four streams, depending on academic success (from test results).
Social structure is a system of social groups and organizations, roles and statuses.
Shame - this painful feeling that other people do not approve of our actions.
State sovereignty - This is the independence of one country from other countries.
Suicide is suicide
Sublimation is a way to get rid of anxiety through the safe release of energy through other channels (through sports, art, politics, etc.)
Judgment - This is a statement or denial of the connection between two concepts.
Subculture - this is a kind of culture, the norms of which do not contradict, but differ from the norms of the dominant culture
Superego - This is the moral side of the personality, which is acquired in the process of socialization, that is, learning.
Scholasticism (from the Greek "school philosophy") - this is medieval philosophy, as a synthesis of Christian theology and the logic of Aristotle, it is a philosophy that sought to find common ideas - universals, and from them to derive and explain all the wealth of the surrounding world
Taboo - a strict ban among primitive people.
Tautology is a circle in the definition.
Theocracy - This is a form of government in which the church controls the government, this is the power of the priests.
Theology (theology) - This is a theoretical justification for the existence of God and the human soul.
Rational expectations theory - anti-Keynesian direction of economic thought, it substantiates the senselessness of state intervention in the work of the market mechanism in order to regulate economic activity.
Technocrats - these are people who believe that the development of technology will solve all environmental, economic and other problems,
Technological determinism - This is a direction in sociology, whose representatives believe that technology develops independently of a person's will according to the law of endless improvement of technical parameters.
Technophobes - these are people who believe that humanity will die from technology, for example, from bad ecology or as a result of a war of people against robots, so you need to break technology or escape from it to a desert island.
Timocracy - the power of the military.
Tyranny - This is a form of government in which one person has power, who abuses his position for selfish interests.
Product is an item to be exchanged for other goods.
Goods of prestigious demand are products that people use to demonstrate their success in life
Goods of inelastic demand - these are such goods, the demand for which increases less than the price of this product decreases
Elastic demand goods - these are such goods, the demand for which increases more than the price of this product decreases.
Crowd - this is a large number of people who are face to face.
Trade is a voluntary exchange of goods and services for money in the form of a sale and purchase.
Totalitarianism is a political regime in which the ruler controls all spheres of society
Trusts - unification of various enterprises in order to coordinate among themselves the volumes of raw materials purchases, the conditions for obtaining financial resources, the volume of sales of goods.
Work is the activity of people to produce economic goods.
Labor contract - this is an agreement between the employee and the employer, according to which the employee undertakes to perform work in a certain specialty, and the employer undertakes to pay wages and provide good working conditions.
Inference - this is the conclusion of new knowledge, a new judgment from two or more initial judgments.
Unitary state - This is a form of territorial structure, where the entire amount of taxes collected in the country and all powers are concentrated in the center.
Urbanization - This is the creation of cities and the resettlement there from the countryside of a significant part of the population.
Services is labor activity on the basis of hiring or in exchange for goods.
Social utopia (translated from Greek, it is "a place that does not exist"). is a pipe dream, a fairy tale for adults about social order, a false theory that calls for a regression of social structure and the violent abolition of great social inventions.
Utopians - these are thinkers who substantiated the possibility of building a utopia in the future.
Production factors are the resources used by people to create the benefits of life
Fanatic is a person who blindly believes in a seemingly attractive idea and ignores all facts and arguments that contradict this idea.
Federation - This is a form of territorial structure, where authority and tax revenues are divided as a result of a budget agreement into three parts between the center, state and city.
Ancient Greek physics - this is the study of nature and the search for the fundamental principle of all things, that is, that of which everything consists.
Physiocrats - these are economists who believed that the only source of wealth is nature, therefore, the more a nation produces agricultural products, the richer it is.
Individuals are individual citizens. Philosophy translates to love of wisdom.
Firm or enterprise is an organization that produces goods for sale.
Phlegmatic person (from the Greek "phlegm" - mucus) is a strong, balanced, inert ("inhibitory") type of temperament.
Phobias is fear and anxiety.
Folklore is a folk culture.
Form of government - this is a type of structure of the supreme power in the country.
Formal logic is the science of right thinking.
Formations - these are the stages of development of society.
Phratries - these are the original births, which later broke up into secondary births.
Functionalism is a theory that believes that every organization, every custom, idea or belief has a function in society.
Charisma - this is the ability of the leader to instill belief that he can work miracles, that he is a god or a "wizard", this is grace, a gift of God, the gift of miracles and prophecy.
Natural economy is an economy without the exchange of goods and trade.
Choleric (from the Greek "chole" - yellow bile) - This is a strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement type of temperament.
Industry holdings - this is the purchase of a controlling stake in competing firms, which allows them to negotiate sales volumes and prices.
Kingdom is a form of government in which one outstanding person has power.
Property qualification - This is the minimum maximum size of a person's condition in monetary terms, which allows him to take a position.
Censorship is a government agency that monitors the media, art and science to prohibit criticism of the dominant ideology.
Equilibrium price - this is the price that allows you to sell the entire volume of goods that manufacturers are ready to offer at that price.
Valuable paper is a document certifying property rights
Values - these are fundamental norms and requirements (imperatives) in society about dignity, beauty, piety, these are cultural standards of good and bad.
Civilization is a society built on a certain set (list) of great social inventions. One civilization differs from another civilization by the set (list) of these inventions.
Cycle in the development of society is the alternation of progress and regression.
Receipt - This is a monetary document containing a written order to the bank to pay a certain amount of money to the check recipient at the expense of the money in the check issuer's account.
Human - This is an intelligent animal that has the ability to tool activity, oral speech and abstract thinking.
Strikebreakers (from German "strike-breaking") - these are temporary workers, willing to work for the same pay instead of strikers, for which the strikers considered them traitors.
Egalitarian family is a family where power and rights are distributed almost equally between husband and wife.
Ego - This is a rational part of the personality, whose task is to draw up a real plan of action in accordance with the limitations of the external world in order to satisfy the requirements of instincts, on the one hand, and to ensure their safety on the other hand.
Selfishness - this is the desire to love only yourself, and not other people.
Existentialism (from the English existence - "existence") - This is a trend in Western philosophy of the 20th century, from the point of view of which, a person is internally free from technology and economics, he is looking for the meaning of life in this meaningless world, this meaning of life is revealed to a person during a period of deep upheavals.
Transport expedition - this is a type of contract, under which the forwarder undertakes to perform the following services for a fee: receipt of documents, sending and receiving goods, performing customs formalities, loading and unloading.
Economy - this is 1), (economy) a way of organizing people's activities to create the goods they need for consumption, 2) a science that studies the behavior of participants in the process of economic activity.
The economic growth is the growth of the gross national product.
Economic cycle - regular change in the phases of the rise and fall of the level of business activity in a market economy.
Export is the sale of goods abroad.
Expressive crowd - this is a dancing crowd that forms when religious sects arise.
Extrovert - this is a person whose interest is directed outside, he is guided by external circumstances and public opinion.
Political extremism - these are movements and organizations that aim to seize power without elections.
Elite - this is the layer of the best people who occupy the status of controllers in society.
Embargo is a ban on trade in their own country for entrepreneurs from another country in order to force this country to make certain concessions.
Issuing money - This is the release into circulation of an additional amount of banknotes.
Ethics - these are arguments about morals, about what is good and what is bad.
Ethnos is a group of people related by blood relationship.
Ethnocentrism is the desire to judge other cultures from the standpoint of the superiority of one's own culture.
Economic efficiency is a method of organizing production in which production costs are minimal.
Effective demand is the effective demand for goods and services for consumer and industrial purposes.
Entity is an organization that owns property and is responsible for its obligations with this property, it can conclude contracts and transactions, bear obligations, be a plaintiff and a defendant.
Language is a means of conveying culture through symbols.
TERM
TERM
1. In formal logic, a concept expressed by a word (philos.). Three terms of the syllogism.
2. A word that is the name of a strictly defined concept. A precise, imprecise term. A good, bad term. New term. Philosophical terms. Technical terms. Special terms (denoting special concepts of certain branches of science, art, technology, production, etc.). "... for the masses it is necessary to write without such new terms, which require special explanation ..." Lenin .
|| A special word and expression adopted to denote something in a particular environment, profession. Terms of card games. Chess terms.
Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary... D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.
Synonyms:
See what "TERM" is in other dictionaries:
term- a, m. terme m., German Termin, gender. termin, lat. terminus. 1.mate. From the first decade of the 18th century the term progression, proportion. Exchanges. 168. In a single geometric progression, it happens to be the edge of 4 and 8748, in those the proportion is 3, and certainly there is, colic ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms
- (from Lat. terminus border, limit, end), 1) a name with a special touch. (scientific) its meaning, clarified in the context of Ph.D. theory or branch of knowledge. 2) In antique. philosophy is a concept that fixes stable and enduring aspects ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (lat.terminus). 1) an accepted conventional expression, a name characteristic of any science, craft. 2) term. 3) among the Romans: the god of borders, to whom the festival of terminalia was established. 4) border post, column. 5) in logic: the name of the concept, ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
- (Terminus). Roman deity of boundaries, originally the god of the boundary and boundary stone. A temple was built for him by King Numa, and the Feast of Terminalia was celebrated in his honor. (Source: "A Brief Dictionary of Mythology and Antiquities." M. Korsh. St. Petersburg, ... ... Encyclopedia of mythology
Term- TERM is a word that has a special, strictly defined meaning. Used in science and technology. In connection with the general history of science and technology, the most magnificent development of which is associated with the 19th and 20th centuries, the terms, by their origin, ... ... Dictionary of literary terms
See the word ... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M .: Russian dictionaries, 1999. term name, word; differentiation, numerator, antilogarithm, continuum, quotient, determinant, extremum, factorial, ... ... Synonym dictionary
- (from Lat. terminus border limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art. In modern logic, the word term is often used as a common noun in the language of Logico ... ...
Term is a word or phrase of a special sphere of use, which is the name of a concept. The term names a special concept and, together with other terms of this system, is a component of the scientific theory of a certain area of knowledge ... Official terminology
- (from the Latin terminus border, limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art ... Modern encyclopedia
- (lat. terminus limit border), in Roman mythology, the god of the keeper of boundary signs, was revered among the peasants. His holiday of Terminalia was celebrated on February 23rd ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- 101 terms of tax law. Brief legislative and doctrinal interpretation, Anna Vladimirovna Reut, Alexey Georgievich Paul, Natalya Alexandrovna Solovieva, Lyubov Nikolaevna Pastushkova. Scientific and practical edition is summary tax, legal and economic views on 101 terms of tax law, including both the terms enshrined in ...
ABORIGENES (lat. Aborigene - from the beginning) - the indigenous inhabitants of a locality (as opposed to immigrants). For example, the Slavs are the aborigines of Eastern Europe. Since the ethnogenesis of Belarusians took place mainly on the lands of today's Belarus, they can also be considered the aborigines of this territory. The name aborigines corresponds to the ancient Greek term "autochthonous".
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY - a kind of monarchical form of government, characterized by the concentration of all the fullness of state power (legislative, executive, religious) in the hands of the monarch.
AVANPOST is a forward post set up by troops for their protection. The term was used in the army in the 18th-19th centuries.
AUTARKIA (Greek autarkeia - self-satisfaction). Creation of a closed economy within a separate country, voluntary or forced isolation from the world market.
AUTONOMY (Greek autonomia - self-government) - in law in a broad sense, a certain degree of independence of any bodies, organizations, territorial or other communities. National-cultural autonomy is the free, independent functioning and development of national cultures of individual ethnic communities.
AUTOCRACY (Greek autokrateia - autocracy, autocracy) is a form of government in which one person has unlimited supreme power. Many states of the Ancient East, the Roman and Byzantine empires were among the autocratic powers. Typical features of autocratic regimes are government based on the bureaucracy, the army, the cult (deification) of the ruler, etc.
AUTHORITARISM (Latin auctoritas - power) is one of the forms of a non-democratic political regime. Its distinctive features are strong personal power (dictatorship), the concentration of power in the hands of a narrow group of people close to the dictator. Historical forms of authoritarianism represent ancient and Asian despotism (for example, Sparta, Persia), absolutist forms of government of the Middle Ages and Modern Times. Authoritarianism is most often established in the context of a political crisis, a coup d'etat, and a civil war. An authoritarian regime was established in the Soviet Union during the rule of Stalin in the 1930s and early 1950s.
AGRARIAN RESIDENCE. Its main features are the lack of land among the peasants, the inadequacy of its size to the labor resources of the village, and the lack of land for the bulk of the peasants in their vital needs. The number of surplus workers in agriculture of the Belarusian provinces at the end of the 19th century was estimated at 2,039.8 thousand people.
AGGRESSION - an armed attack by one or several states on another state to seize its territory, political or economic enslavement of its people.
ADMINISTRATIVE-TERRITORIAL REFORM In Belarus was carried out gradually during 1924-1938. In accordance with the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the BSSR of August 20, 1924, the entire territory of the BSSR, instead of the former provinces and counties, was divided into 10 districts with 10 districts in each. After the second consolidation of the BSSR (November 1926) in December of the same year, two more districts were included in the BSSR. In April 1927, as a result of the struggle against bureaucracy, 4 districts were abolished and included in the remaining 8 districts. In February 1938, all the districts were liquidated in connection with the introduction of the regional division of the BSSR.
ADMINISTRATION (lat. Administratio - service) - in a broad sense, all government activities. The state administration is made up of executive and administrative bodies. Administration is also called management officials, management personnel of institutions, enterprises.
JOINT STOCK COMPANY - organizational form of an enterprise; a company whose capital is formed by combining many individual capitals through the issue and sale of shares.
AMNESTIA (Greek amnestia - oblivion, forgiveness) - full or partial release from punishment of persons who have committed a crime; may provide for the removal of a criminal record.
AMMUNITY - military equipment, items - belts, bags, etc. that make it easier for servicemen to carry weapons and ammunition.
ANNEXIA (lat. Annexio - accession). A type of aggression, the forcible seizure of all or part of the territory of another state or people, as well as the forcible retention of a people within the borders of a foreign
state.
ANTITRINITARISM (Arianism) - a radical trend in the reformation movement in Belarus in the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries. Its ideologues demanded social reforms, condemned serfdom, preached community of property, and opposed state power. Seimov decrees of the middle of the 17th century. Arians who refused to accept Catholicism were expelled from the borders of the Commonwealth.
ANTY is the name of the association of Slavic tribes at the beginning of the 7th century. They lived mainly between the Dniester and the Dnieper.
APOCRYPHES (Greek apokryphos - secret, secret) - works of Jewish and early Christian literature, not included in the biblical canon.
APSIDA (Greek hapsis - vault) is a building protrusion, semicircular, faceted or rectangular in plan, covered with a semi-dome or closed semi-vault. In Christian churches there is an altar ledge.
ARTEL (agricultural cartel) is a collective peasant farm, a form of uniting peasants for joint large-scale farming with public funds. It was first established in Belarus in July 1918. In addition to agricultural cartels, there were such forms of collective farms as communes and partnerships for public cultivation of the land.
ARCHEOLOGY is a science that studies the history of society from the material remains of the life and activities of people - archaeological monuments.
"BAGRATION" is the code name for the summer (1944) strategic offensive operation of the Red Army (Belarusian operation, 23.06-29.08.1944).
BARIN-gentleman, landowner; the appeal of a serf servant to a master in Russia.
BAROQUE is one of the leading style trends in European art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. Its characteristic features are grandeur, splendor and dynamism, a passion for spectacular spectacles, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, light and shadow. Interaction with Byzantine and local traditions is characteristic of the Belarusian Baroque, which gave it a certain originality. Its development in monumental stone architecture went through 3 stages: early (late 16th - first half of the 17th century), mature (second half of the 17th - 1730s) and later (1730s - 80s). In addition, along with the feudal-aristocratic "high" baroque, whose works were created in Polish, Latin and other languages, there was a "middle" and "low" baroque, which corresponded to the needs of the poorest gentry, townspeople and was represented by parody, satirical and humorous poetry , interludes and more.
BARSHINA - a form of feudal land rent, forced labor in the yard for a certain land plot received from the owner for use. It appeared in Russia during the Kiev state. In Western Europe, it came to naught in the XIV-XV centuries. In Russia, it survived after the abolition of serfdom as sharecropping. Legally abolished in 1882. In fact, it existed until 1917 in the form of labor work.
REFUGEES - persons who have left their country of permanent residence as a result of hostilities or other emergencies, persecution for political, racial, religious reasons and have not received the citizenship of another state. In Belarus, refugee acquired an especially large size during the 1st and 2nd world wars. Since the early 1990s. a significant number of refugees from areas of interethnic conflicts and wars in various regions arrive in Belarus the former USSR; their status is determined by a special law of the Republic of Belarus. Under Russian law, a person who has arrived or wishes to enter the country as a result of violence committed against him or a real threat of being subjected to violence because of race, language, religious or political beliefs. A person who has committed a crime against peace and humanity cannot be recognized as a refugee.
BELARUSIAN PEOPLE'S GROUP An organization under this name actually existed in 1917-1918. In 1933, investigators of the OGPU gave this name to an organization invented by them to initiate criminal cases, which became a continuation of the case of the Union for the Liberation of Belarus. F. Kuntsevich and K. Ezovitov were named as the leaders of this organization. As a result, more than 60 people were convicted, mainly writers, teachers, students.
BELGOSKINO (Belarusian State Administration for Cinematography and Photography). It was created in December 1924. Since 1925 it has started the production of newsreels, educational and popular science films. Released the feature film "Forest Story" (1926) and others. In 1928, in Leningrad, Belgoskino organized a studio of feature films "Soviet Belarus".
WHITE GUARD is the unofficial name of the military-political formations that fought during the civil war of 1917-1920. in Russia against the Bolshevik government. The organizers of the "white movement" were the monarchists, the parties of the Right Socialist-Revolutionaries, Cadets and Mensheviks. Its leaders are Generals Denikin, Kaledin, Kolchak, Kornilov, Krasnov, Wrangel, Yudenich and others.
BELARUSIAN COMMUNIST ORGANIZATION (BKO).
It operated in January - August 1920 on the territory of Minsk and Grodno provinces. It arose on the basis of the organization "Young Belarus", which existed since May 1917 at the Minsk Teachers' Institute. It united the student youth, the intelligentsia, the peasantry, and stood on the Socialist-Revolutionary positions. In 1919, a left wing took shape in it, which was actively involved in the struggle against the Polish intervention. On January 1, 1920, an initiative group consisting of V. Ignatovsky, I. Korenevsky and others created the BKO center, which declared the recognition of the program and tactics of the RCP (b) and expressed hope for the possibility of creating a Belarusian Soviet Republic in a federation with the RSFSR. BKO created partisan detachments, kept in touch with the headquarters of the Western Front. Participated in the signing of the Declaration on the Declaration of Independence of the BSSR (07/31/1920). In August 1920, BKO was admitted to the CP (b) B. In the late 1920s - 1930s. almost all of its members were accused of "bourgeois national democracy" and repressed.
"BELORUSSKAYA KRAYEVAYA DOBORONA" (BKO) is a military formation created in March 1944 by the German fascist invaders in the occupied territory of Belarus to fight against Soviet partisans, the Red Army and the Polish Army of the Territory. The BKO was headed by the Main Command, headed by Major F. Kushel.
BELARUSIAN REVOLUTIONARY ORGANIZATION (BRO)
It stood out from the left wing of the Belarusian Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries and in July 1922 took shape as an independent organization. It united about 300-400 members and had several hundred sympathizers. She advocated the confiscation of landowners' land, social and national liberation, the reunification of Western Belarus and the BSSR. On December 30, 1923, a decision was made to join the organization to the Communist Party of Western Belarus (KPZB).
BELARUSIAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC LABOR PARTY (BSDLP). It arose in the fall of 1917 in Petrograd on the basis of the BSG organizations, adherents of the Bolshevik orientation. The executive committee included A.G. Chervyakov, I. V. Lagoon and others. In April 1918. reorganized into the Belarusian section of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) under the Peterhof District Committee of the RCP (b).
BELARUSIAN SOCIALIST GROMADA (BSG) - the first Belarusian national political party of the left-wing population in 1902-1918. The founders and leaders of the party are brothers A. and I. Lutskevichi, A. Pashkevich (Aunt), A. Burbis, K. Kastrovitsky (K. Kaganets), V. Ivanovsky, F. Umyastovsky, etc. In 1903-1904 ... and later the BSG closely interacted with the ideologically close party of socialist revolutionaries, the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party. At the first and second congresses of the BSG (1903, 1906), the program of the party's activities was determined. The BSG advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a socialist system, the formation of a Russian federal democratic republic with free self-determination and cultural and national autonomy of peoples. For Belarus, the BSG demanded autonomy with the local Diet in Vilno, and advocated the free development of the Belarusian national culture and language. She took part in the holding of the All-Belarusian Congress in 1917 in Minsk, took the initiative to proclaim the BNR.
BELARUSIAN CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY (BCD) is the most influential party of a national-democratic character with a non-socialist orientation. It was founded in May 1917 and operated on the territory of Western Belarus until 1940. In January 1935, it changed its name to the Belarusian People's Association. Oriented on the evolutionary path of development of society and parliamentary forms of struggle. She advocated the unification of all Belarusian ethnic lands into one independent state. The founders and main ideologists of the BCD are F. Abrantovich, V. Gadlevsky, A. Stankevich and others. In 1939 - 1940s. many members of the BCD were repressed.
BELARUSIAN SECTIONS RCP (b) - organizations that existed in 1918 as part of local party organizations in large cities and industrial centers of the RSFSR. Mostly they were created from among the Belarusian refugees - members of the RCP (b). The first section emerged in April 1918 in Petrograd, and then similar organizations were created in Moscow, Saratov, Kazan and in the unoccupied part of Belarus. Disbanded in January 1919. Members of the sections took part in the creation of the BSSR.
BELARUSSKY MILITARY DISTRICT (BVO) Formed in October 1926 on the basis of the Western Military District. In July 1938, the district was renamed the Belarusian Special Military District. The territory of the district included the entire BSSR with the western regions reunited in 1939, the administration was in Minsk. On July 11, 1940, the Belarusian Special Military District was renamed the Western Special Military District. During the Great Patriotic War, it was transformed into the Western Front, from May 1946 - again the BVO. May 6, 1992 was abolished in connection with the creation of the Ministry of Defense and the construction of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus.
BELARUSIAN STATE DRAMA THEATER
Opened in Minsk on September 14, 1920. Since 1926 - the Belarusian First State Theater (BGT-1), since 1944 - the Y. Kupala Belarusian Theater; later the National Academic Theater named after Y. Kupa-ly. In the 1920s. the artistic director of the theater was E. Mirovich. The theater's repertoire includes performances based on the works of Y. Kupala ("Paў-linka", "Tuteyshyya"), V. Dunin-Martsinkevich ("Idyliya"), K. Cherny, K. Krapiva, A. Makaenko, A. Dudarev, classics of the world literature.
BELARUSIAN INSTITUTE OF ECONOMY AND CULTURE (BIH and
K) - a cultural and educational organization in Western Belarus, It operated from June 1926 to December 1936 (until the official banning by the Polish authorities). The goal was to organize cultural and educational work among the Belarusian population, to disseminate agricultural knowledge among the peasants.
BELARUSIAN PEOPLE'S COMMITTEE (BNC) is a coordinating body of Belarusian political and public organizations, which operated in 1915-1918. on the territory of Belarus occupied by Germany. The head of the BNK was A.I. Lutskevich.
BELARUSIAN NATIONAL COMMISSARIAT (Belnats-
com) - Department of the People's Commissariat of Nationalities SNK RSFSR. It was created at the end of January 1918. The first leader is A.G. Chervyakov. It had departments: cultural and educational, agitation and political, military, publishing, refugee affairs, etc., worked among the Belarusians of Russia. The organ of the press is the newspaper "Dzyannitsa". Representatives of the commissariat were part of the Provisional Government of the BSSR. It was liquidated in March 1919 in connection with the creation of the BSSR and Litbel.
BELARUSIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE (BNK). Created on March 25, 1917 at the 1st Congress of Belarusian Organizations. He united different directions of the Belarusian national movement on the basis of recognition of the need for autonomy for Belarus within the framework of democratic Russia and preparation of elections to the Belarusian Regional Rada. BNK Chairman - R. Skirmunt. It included P. Aleksyuk, B. Tarashkevich, A. Smolich, E. Kanchar, V. Ivanovsky and others. The BNK's press organ is the newspaper "Free Belarus".
BELARUSIAN REGIONAL COMMITTEE Created in Petrograd from among the delegates from the Belarusian provinces at the All-Russian Congress of Peasant Deputies, members of the Constituent Assembly, as well as representatives of the army and navy. Acting in November 1917 - early 1918, the chairman was E. Kanchar. He advocated the autonomy of Belarus as part of the Russian Federal Republic, was the initiator of the convocation of the All-Belarusian Congress of 1917 in Minsk. At the beginning of 1918, he unsuccessfully tried to secure the convocation of the II All-Belarusian Congress.
BELARUSIAN EMBASSY CLUB (BPC) - national ambassadorial (deputy) faction in the Polish Sejm in 1922-1930. After the elections on November 5, 1922, the BPC consisted of 11 ambassadors and 3 senators, who represented almost all the main Belarusian political parties in Western Belarus: BPSD, BPSR, BCD. Among the deputies of the club were well-known figures of the national liberation movement: B.A. Tarashkevich, CM. Rak-Mikhailovsky, A.V. Stankevich, A. Ovsyanik, A.N. Vlasov, P.P. Voloshin and others.
BELARUSIAN HEADQUARTERS OF THE GUERRILLA MOVEMENT - the body for the leadership of the partisan movement in the occupied territory of Belarus during the Great Patriotic War. Created on September 9, 1942. The chief of staff was the second secretary of the Central Committee of the CPB (b) P.Z. Kalinin. Organizationally, the Belarusian headquarters was subordinate to the Central headquarters and performed similar functions within the territory of Belarus.
BELARUSIAN NATIONAL LIBERATION MOVEMENT is a public movement for the liberation of Belarus from colonial dependence, for national revival and the creation of an independent Belarusian state. At first, it developed within the framework of the Polish liberation process under the influence of the ideas of the uprising of 1794 under the leadership of T. Kostyushka. The uprising of 1863-1864 gave impetus to the selection in the general Polish and Russian liberation movement Belarusian national requirements. K. Kalinouski expressed the idea of independence of Lithuania and Belarus. In 1868, an educational organization arose in St. Petersburg, the members of which had the intention of organizing the publication of literature in the Belarusian language. Further development of the national movement was associated with populist ideology ("Gomon", etc.). In the second half of the 1880s. in Minsk a group of liberal intelligentsia arose (M.V. Dovnar-Za-Polsky, V.Z. Zavitnevich, Y. Luchina, etc.), who sought to awaken national identity by legal means. Organizations of Belarusian students operated in St. Petersburg and Moscow. At the turn of the Хіх-ХХ centuries. the national movement to one degree or another merged with socialist ideology (BSG, etc.), with the Belarusian national-religious movement, creativity and revolutionary-democratic activities of J. Kupala, J. Kolas, brothers A. and I. Lutskevich, V. La -stovsky, J. Lesik, F. Shantyr and others, with the work on the creation of the Belarusian statehood (BNR, BSSR), the liberation struggle of the workers of Western Belarus in 1921-1939.
BERLIN CONFERENCE 1925 (second All-Belarusian Conference) - a meeting of Belarusian political figures in exile in October 1925. Convened by A. Tsvikevich at the request of the leadership of the CP (b) B. By a majority of votes, the conference recognized Minsk as the only center of the Belarusian political and cultural movement. The decisions made were influenced by real changes in the BSSR in 1921-1925. (NEP, Belarusianization, etc.), which took place after the first All-Belarusian Conference (Prague, 1921).
BATTLE AT KLETSK 1506 In the summer of 1506, the 30 thousandth army of the Crimean Tatars broke into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and plundered the Belarusian lands. The main forces of the Tatars were stationed on the Lan River near Kletsk. Men, Novgorod, Grodno militia, led by Prince Mikhail Glinsky, came out against them. On August 6, the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeated the Tatar armies and freed about 40 thousand people from Tatar captivity.
BOBRUISK FORTRESS is an important stronghold of the Russian army. During July - September 1812 it was blocked, but not taken by French troops.
BOBRUISKAYA OPERATION - an integral part of the 1st stage of the Belarusian offensive operation, carried out on June 24-29, 1944 (commanded by General of the Army K.K. Rokossovsky).
BOBRUISK "KOTEL" - the encirclement of 6 divisions of the 9th German army by the troops of the right wing of the 1st Belorussian Front during the Bobruisk operation of 1944.
SEARCHING FOR GOD - a religious and philosophical trend among the liberal intelligentsia of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
BORISOVY STONES - seven large boulders; monumental monuments of epigraphy of Belarus of the XII century. Before the adoption of Christianity, stones were pagan fetishes. By order of Prince Boris Vseslavich, crosses and inscriptions were carved on them.
BOYAR - in Russia in the 9th-17th centuries. the upper class of feudal lords. In the Kiev state - the descendants of the tribal nobility, old warriors - vassals and members of the princely Duma, serf landowners. They had their vassals, enjoyed immunity and the right to leave for other princes. During the period of feudal fragmentation - the richest and most influential feudal lords, rivals of the princely power. In the Novgorod Republic, the state was actually ruled. Since the XIV century. the rights of the boyars were limited to princes. Since the XV century. members of the Boyar Duma, held the main administrative positions. The title was canceled by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century.
BOYARSKAYA DUMA - 1 In the Kiev state, the prince's council of members of squads close to him and other close persons. 2. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the council of noble vassals. 3. In the Russian centralized state, there is a permanent estate-representative body of the aristocracy under the Grand Duke (Tsar) of a legislative nature on issues of domestic and foreign policy.
BREST CHURCH UNION 1596 - an agreement signed in October 1596 at a church council in Brest on the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Provided for the recognition of the supreme power of the Vatican and Catholic dogmas while maintaining Orthodox rituals and worship in Church Slavonic and native languages... It led to the creation of another trend in Christianity - Uniatism, which took into account the national characteristics of Belarusians in language, holidays, rituals, etc. In the XVIII century. became the most massive religious movement in the Belarusian lands.
BUND - National Social Democratic Organization of Jewish Workers in 1897-1939. It was formed in Vilna at the congress of representatives of social democratic groups as the General Jewish Workers' Union in Russia, since 1901 - the General Jewish Union in Lithuania. The Bund acted in contact with the RSDLP (it was part of in 1898-1903).
BURMISTER - an elected person to the magistrate - an administrative and judicial self-government body in the cities of Belarus, which had Magdeburg law in the XIV-XVIII centuries. After the elimination of the Magdeburg Law in Belarus at the end of the 18th century. the burmister was called the manager of the landlord's estate or the elders supervising the execution of peasant duties.
Bureaucracy is literally the rule of the chancellery. Persons belonging to the highest bureaucratic administration, a layer of officials and administrators. In the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. elected members of city magistrates and town halls, in the XIX century. members of deanery boards, police bodies of provincial cities or the capital. They existed in magistrates and town halls until the judicial reform of 1864.
GREAT PRINCE - 1. The highest princely title in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He was the head of state, had broad powers, but his power was limited to the Rada of the ON. 2. Head of the Grand Duchy in Russia X-XV centuries. and the Russian state of the 15th - mid-16th century; a member of the imperial family, a relative of the emperor or empress; part of the title of the Russian emperor (Grand Duke of Finland, etc.).
VEPROVSCHINA - a monetary tax in ON, which was levied from peasants for the right to use the landowner's forest lands.
CREDENTIAL LITERATURE - a document certifying the appointment of a person as a diplomatic representative in another country, presented upon assuming office to the head of a foreign state.
"VESTNIK WESTERN RUSSIA" is a monthly political and historical-literary magazine published in Russian in 1864-1871. in Vilna. He had a clearly expressed anti-Polish and anti-Catholic orientation, adhered to the positions of great-power chauvinism, and actively promoted the ideology of Western Russianism. On its pages were placed documents, materials and articles (often tendentious) on statistics, ethnography of local history of Belarus.
VECHE - a popular assembly for solving the most important public and state affairs (war and peace, the construction and deposition of princes from the throne, the election of various officials, etc.). The veche gathered in a certain place in the city (in the square, in the courtyard of the temple); decisions were made without a vote, with shouts. With the strengthening of the role of the boyars and the weakening of the princely power, its importance increased. For example, relying on the veche meeting, the Polotsk boyars drove out the princes they disliked.
VILENSKAYA BELARUSSKAYA RADA. Is the coordination center of Belarusian political and public organizations in the territory occupied by Germany. Functioned in January 1918-June 1919. Chairman - A. Lutskevich. In March 1918, its representatives were co-opted to the BNR Rada. On the proposal of A. Lutskevich, the Rada adopted on March 25, 1918. Ill Charter, which proclaimed the independence of the BNR.
VILENSKAYA ART SCHOOL -. conditional name art departments Faculty of Literature and Art, Vilnius University. Its teachers were Professor F. Smuglevich - the founder of the school, his students J. Rustem, K. Yelsky and others. For 35 years of her work she has trained more than 250 artists, engravers and sculptors.
"VILENSKIE YAKOBINTSY" - a group of organizers and members of the gentry bloc during the uprising of 1794 in Belarus and Lithuania, which advocated revolutionary socio-political transformations.
VILENSKY EDUCATIONAL DISTRICT - educational and administrative division in the Russian Empire. It was founded in 1803. With territorial changes and temporary transformation into the Belarusian educational district (1829-1850), it existed until 1917. Carried out management and control over the activities of all types of educational institutions on its territory. The center of the district was the Vilnius University, and then the Board of Trustees headed by the trustee.
VILENSKO-RADOM UNIA 1401 - state and political union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. According to the agreement, the countries were to act jointly against foreign enemies. Confirmed special privileges Catholic landowners in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
VITEBSK (SURAZH) "GATES" - a 40-kilometer gap in the front line between Velizh and Usvyaty, which was formed as a result of the offensive of the 4th Shock Army of the Kalinin Front and the liberation of the front-line areas by Belarusian partisans. They existed from February 10 to the end of September 1942, were actively used to transfer weapons and necessary equipment to the partisans, establish operational communications between various partisan formations and the Soviet command, etc.
VITEBSK-ORSHANSKAYA OPERATION - an offensive operation of the troops of the 1st Baltic and 3rd Belorussian fronts on June 23-28, 1944.
"VOLOCHNAYA POMERA" - an agrarian reform in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was carried out from the 1550s. until the middle of the 17th century. mainly in the western and central regions of Belarus. Contributed to the replacement of communal land use by households, as at the disposal of peasant families for certain duties, fixed land plots were transferred in the amount of one "> loka (21.36 hectares).
VOEVODA - military leader, ruler. It has been known among the Slavic peoples in Russia since the 16th century. In the Russian state - the head of a regiment, detachment (late 15th - early 18th century), city (mid-16th century - 1775), province (1719-1775). In the ON and Rzecz Pospolita - an official, the head of the local administration in the voivodeship.
MARTIAL LAW. Introduced in emergency situations that threaten the existence of the state. It is characterized by the transfer of general government (public order, security, etc.) to the military. They receive extraordinary powers, which in normal situations are the prerogative of the highest authorities and judicial authorities (arrests, searches, the right to refer cases of crimes against the state system to military courts).
MILITARY FIELD COURT. It operates in the regime of simplified and expedited proceedings, consists of officers appointed by the command. Usually, the sentences of such courts were not subject to appeal.
THE MILITARY REVOLUTIONARY COMMITTEE (VRK) OF THE WESTERN FRONT is a temporary revolutionary body for conducting an armed uprising on the territory of the Vilna, Vitebsk, Mogilev, Minsk provinces and the Western Front. It was created on October 27, 1917 on the initiative of the Minsk Soviet of Workers 'and Peasants' Deputies, and other organizations that supported the Bolsheviks. Taking measures to suppress the resistance of opponents of the revolution, he was engaged in administrative and economic activities. It ceased to exist on November 26, 1917 after the creation of the Regional Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the Western region and the front.
MILITARY SETTLEMENTS - a special organization of troops in the Russian Empire in 1810-1857, which combined military service with agricultural labor in order to reduce military expenditures. They also existed on the territory of Belarus.
MILITARY TRIBUNALS - the highest courts in military units and in
war time.
RENAISSANCE (Renaissance) - the era of the formation of spiritual culture in Western and Central Europe in the XIV-XVI centuries. The main ideological content of the culture of this period was humanism. A new secular culture arose, on the basis of which the Renaissance-humanistic worldview was formed. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania is one of the countries of the so-called. Northern Renaissance. Here new culture formed from the 16th century. A specific feature of the Renaissance in Belarus was a close connection with the Christian worldview.
WAR is an organized armed struggle between states, peoples, nations and social groups. The main means of waging war is the army and other paramilitary formations.
WAR 1534-1537 between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Moscow state. It was initiated by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The main hostilities took place in the Chernigov-Seversky lands and in the Smolensk region. Litvin connections failed. Since September 1534, clashes between the armies of neighboring principalities took place near Vitebsk, Polotsk, Braslav, Krichev, Mstis-Lavl, Mogilev. In 1537 an armistice was concluded, which was then extended. The Moscow state bought the conquered Sebezh and Zavolochye, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Gomel and Lyubech.
VOYT- 1. An official appointed by the landowner to inspect the performance of duties by the population dependent on him. 2. The head of the city magistrate in the ON.
VOLOKA is a measure of area equal to 21.36 hectares, and a unit of taxation in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
VOLOST is an administrative-territorial unit of Russia and ON. In Ancient Rus - the entire territory of the land (principality), an independent rural area subordinated to the city. From the end of the XIV century. - part of the county. Since 1861 - a unit of estate peasant administration in the Russian Empire (including Belarus). Abolished in the USSR in connection with the administrative-territorial reform of 1923.
VOTCHINA is the oldest type of feudal land ownership in Russia and the ON. The family estate passed by inheritance. It arose in the X-XI centuries.
THE INTERIM GOVERNMENT - the central authority in Russia from March to October 1917. Formed after the February Revolution. The four members of the Provisional Government repulsed the attempts of the ruling classes to consolidate and retain power. 1st composition: 2 Octobrists, 8 cadets, 1 Trudovik. Chairman of the cadets G.E. Lviv from March 1 to May 16, 1917. 2nd composition (until July 24, 1917): 1 Octobrist, 8 cadets, 2 Mensheviks, 3 Social Revolutionaries. Chairman G.E. Lviv. 3rd composition (until September 14): 7 cadets, 5 Socialist-Revolutionaries, 3 Mensheviks. Socialist Revolutionary Chairman A.F. Kerensky. 4th composition (until October 25, 1917): 6 cadets, 2 Social Revolutionaries, 4 Mensheviks, 6 non-party members. Chairman Kerensky. Overthrown as a result of the October Revolution.
TEMPORARY PEASANTS - former landlord peasants who, according to the reform of 1861, are freed from serfdom, but until a certain period are obliged to perform feudal duties in favor of the landlords. On the territory of Belarus, the temporarily liable state was abolished in 1863, and in general in the Russian Empire - in 1881.
SECOND ALL-BELARUSIAN CONGRESS - Congress of the Belarusian Central Rada, held in Minsk on June 27, 1944 with the permission and under the supervision of the German occupation authorities. It was attended by 1039 delegates from Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Warsaw, Krakow, Vienna, Prague and others. The Congress recognized the BCR government headed by President R. Ostrovsky as the only full representative of the Belarusian people and their region.
SPEECH BY BULAK-BALAKHOVICH - an armed attempt by S.N. Bulak-Balakhovich to overthrow the Soviet regime on the territory of Belarus and create an "independent Belarusian state". In autumn 1920, Bulak-Balakhovich's detachments captured Mozyr, Pinsk, Petrikov and other settlements. At the end of 1920, his troops were defeated, and the remnants were forced to retreat to Polish territory.
GOVERNOR-GENERAL - top position local administration in 1703-1917. He possessed civil and military power, from 1775 he headed the General Government.
GOVERNMENT GENERAL - an extraordinary administrative-territorial unit in Russia, was created on the outskirts of the empire or in regions where a tense political situation arose. It was headed by the Governor-General, who was invested with the special confidence of the Emperor.
TENRICH'S ARTICLES (ARTICLES) "- an agreement first drawn up between the pretender to the throne of the Commonwealth, Henry of Valois and the gentry in 1573. It contained a number of obligations that seriously limited the power of the monarch in favor of the gentry estate. the right to disobey, declaring the creation of a confederation, to come up with arms against the king and the grand duke.
HERALDIKA (lat. Heraldus - herald, veshun) - a system of knowledge about coats of arms, the rules for their creation and use; auxiliary historical discipline, which, based on the study of coats of arms, helps to determine the time of their compilation, authorship, ownership of documents and objects marked with coats of arms. The creators of G. were the so-called. heralds, who, before the start of the tournament, announced the personal coat of arms of the knight as proof of his right to participate in the competition. Since the XIV century. v European countries heralds arose — special institutions that dealt with theoretical and practical issues. G. was formed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th-16th centuries. under the noticeable influence of the Polish. In the Republic of Belarus, G.'s problems are studied primarily by the G. and Genealogy Department of the Committee on Archives and Records Management.
GERB (Polish. Herb from German. Erbe - heritage) - a special emblem, hereditary permanent insignia. G. are drawn up in accordance with the regulated heraldic norms and approved by the authorities as distinctive signs. They are subdivided into state, national, land (separate voivodeships, provinces, etc.), city, corporate (workshops, guilds, brotherhoods, etc.), estate, dynastic, tribal, personal. Usually G. were placed on flags, seals, coins, weapons, on the facades of castles, town halls, and later on the buildings of state institutions, embassies, letterheads, bookplates, etc. The first G. appeared on the territory of Belarus in the XII-XIV centuries. The state emblem of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was "Pursuit" - the image of a warrior on a white horse with a sword and shield raised above his head. G. was given to Belarusian cities either simultaneously with the receipt of the Magdeburg Law, or soon after its assignment. In the XVI-XVII centuries. more than 100 Belarusian cities had their own cities. Replacement of G. or changes in them are made, as a rule, only in connection with events of exceptional importance. The right to personal G. was abolished with the establishment Soviet power.
"GERING" is the code name for the punitive expedition of the invaders against the partisans of the Slutsk and Pinsk formations and the civilian population in Gantsevichy, Zhitkovichi, Krasnoslobodsky, Leninsky, Lu-ninetsky, Lyakhovichsky, Slutsky, Starobinsky districts. It was carried out in February 1943. More than 10 thousand civilians were killed by the German fascist invaders.
"GERMAN" is the code name of the punitive expedition of the invaders in Volozhinsky, Ivenetsky, Lyubchansky, Novogrudok and Yura-Tishkovsky districts in July-August 1943. The operation killed 130 partisans, 4280 civilians, the invaders burned more than 150 villages, seized them to be sent to Germany more than 20 thousand people.
HETMAN (Polish. Hetman from German. Hauptmann - chief) - the chief commander over the armed forces in some European states. In Poland since the 15th century. until 1795, the post of commander of the troops (great crown G.). In ON, the position of the highest (from the middle
XVI century - great) G. was introduced at the end of the 15th century. modeled on Polish. Appointed by the Grand Duke, from the second half of the 16th century. for life. He performed the functions of the Minister of War, had the right to recruit the armed forces, to administer the death penalty over the troops subordinate to him. At the beginning of the XVI century. the position of palace G. was introduced - the commander of the Grand Duke's guard, and from the second half of the 16th century. - full G., who headed mercenary detachments. In Ukraine in the XVI-
XVII centuries. commander of the registered Cossacks in the public service. During the war of 1648-1654. hetman. B. Khmelnitsky became the leader of Ukraine and the commander-in-chief of the Cossack troops (in 1704 the post was abolished). In the Left-Bank Ukraine (as part of Russia), Georgia, possessing administrative and military power, were elected by the general Cossack foreman or appointed by the tsarist government (in 1764, the position of G. was abolished).
Gmina is an administrative-territorial unit, similar in size to a rural municipality.
URBAN UNIA 1413 - the union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, legally enshrined in 3 letters. The 1st letter was issued on behalf of 47 Polish feudal lords, who endowed 47 feudal lords of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with their coats of arms and thereby accepted them into their heraldic brotherhood. In the second charter, the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania assumed obligations in the event of the death of Grand Duke Vitovt not to choose a prince for themselves without the advice and consent of the Polish feudal lords. In the event of the death of Jagaila, Polish feudal lords also did not have to choose a new king without the consent of the feudal lords of the Grand Duchy. In the third letter, Jagailo and Vitovt gave a guarantee to appoint only Catholic feudal lords to public office.
GORODNICHY - in Russia in 1775-1862. the head of the administrative and police authority of the county town.
CITY - in Russia since 1862 the lowest rank of the city police guard.
THE CITY DUMA is an elective administrative body of self-government in Russian cities. City dumas had limited competence: they did not have coercive power, were under the strict control of the governors and the minister of internal affairs, and had little financial resources.
CITY GOVERNMENT - the executive body of the city council. In Belarus, she was elected only in large cities. The head of the council was the mayor, who was at the same time the chairman of the city council.
STATE POLITICAL DEPARTMENT (GPU) -
under the NKVD of the USSR, the body for the protection of state security. In 1922-1923. transformed into OGPU.
STATE COUNCIL - the highest advisory (since 1906 legislative) body of the Russian Empire in 1810-1917. He considered the bills submitted by the ministers before their approval by the king.
THE STATE LANGUAGE is the main language of the state, in which, in accordance with the legislation, services are carried out in all spheres of political, economic and cultural life, and communication of the authorities and government with the population is ensured. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the official state language was Old Belarusian, which was enshrined in the Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1566 and 1588. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1696, Polish was declared the official language. Since 1924, Belarusian, Russian, Polish and Jewish have been recognized as state languages in the BSSR. In accordance with the law "On Languages in the Byelorussian SSR" (1990) and the Declaration on State Sovereignty (1990), the Belarusian language was proclaimed the state language; its state status was enshrined in the 1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus. In accordance with the amendments made to the Constitution following the referendum on May 14, 1995, the state languages of the Republic of Belarus are Belarusian and Russian.
STATE SYMBOLS - a set of material or conventional identification marks that embody the state sovereignty of the country. Most often, these symbols of the state are the state emblem, flag and anthem. The state emblem of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was "Pursuit". This ancient coat of arms was approved as the state coat of arms of the Republic of Belarus from the moment it acquired the status of an independent state (1991). At the same time, the old white-red-white flag became the state flag. At the referendum on May 14, 1995, the modern coat of arms and flag of Belarus was approved. Work is underway to prepare a new text and music for the national anthem of the Republic of Belarus, which would symbolize the striving of the Belarusian people for freedom and independence, their devotion to the ideals of humanism, goodness and justice.
GOTICA is an artistic style (mid-12th-16th centuries) that completed the development of medieval art in Europe and replaced the Romanesque style. It was characterized by sublime forms, openwork ornaments. In Belarus, it was mainly reflected in the architecture of the 15th-16th centuries.
GRADONATALNIK - an official in the Russian Empire who governs the city with the rights of a governor.
GUBERNIA is the main administrative-territorial unit in Russia since 1708. It was divided into counties. Some of the provinces were united into governors general. By 1917, there were 78 of them, 25 went to Poland, Finland, the Baltic states. In 1923-1929. on the basis of the provinces, territories and regions were created.
HUMANISM - in the broad sense of the word, a philosophical and worldview position that affirms the high destiny of man - the creator of earthly happiness. In a narrow concrete historical sense - the cultural movement of the Renaissance. The basis of humanism was made up of three principles - the idea of intrinsic value human life, the doctrine of absolute spiritual freedom, naturalism.
DANNIKI - the peasants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV-XVI centuries, who were obliged to provide the feudal lord with a natural tribute for the use of the land allotment.
Tribute - natural and monetary extortion from the conquered tribes and peoples. In Russia, D. has been known since the 9th century. Subjugating individual tribes, the princes taxed them with money (money, in kind, furs, etc.). The growth of feudal ownership of land led to the seizure of the right to levy money by the feudal lords and its inclusion in the composition of feudal rent. In the XII-XV centuries. privileged landowners were often exempted from payment by the dukes by the princes. With the formation of the Russian centralized state of Denmark at the turn of the 10th-16th centuries. became a compulsory tax on black-sow and palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century. it was combined with other fees (for the governor's food, prenatal and yamchuzhny business) and began to be called this money, or quarter income, because they came in the quarters - financial orders. Palace peasants paid, depending on local conditions, from 33 to 70 rubles. from a plow, black-moss - from 48 to 200 rubles, townspeople - 30-58 rubles. in the areas of service land tenure. This money was canceled in 1679 after the most important direct taxes were combined into one - Streltsy money. The patriarch, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops collected church money from church parishes (part of the income from parishioners' contributions). In the XIII-XV centuries. a special variety of money was collected from the Russian lands in favor of the Golden Horde. In Belarus, D. included handicraft products (honey, wax, wool), and later agricultural products (rye, oats, geese, chickens, eggs, flax, hemp, hay, etc.); D. with grain in the form of a quarter of the harvest was the main duty of the tributary peasants.
DOUBLE POWER - a kind of intertwining of two powers in Russia after the February Revolution (March 1-2 - July 5, 1917): bourgeois - the Provisional Government and the Soviets. Created due to difficult socio-economic and political conditions in which the revolution took place. Taking advantage of the speed of the coup and the lack of organization of the masses, the leaders of the big bourgeoisie and landowners seized state power, forming the Provisional Executive Committee of the State Duma on February 27 (March 12). Along with it, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies and local Soviets were created, which were the organs of the dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. The Soviets had the opportunity to take all power into their own hands, but they did not, since the majority in them belonged to the Socialist-Revolutionary and Menshevik parties, who considered Russia not ripe for a proletarian revolution. The domination of the petty-bourgeois parties in the Soviets led to their support of the Provisional Government, the complete surrender of power to it in the July days of 1917, which meant the end of D.
PALACE LAND - lands in Russia of the 15th-18th centuries, which belonged personally to the Grand Duke (Tsar) on the basis of feudal property. Provided food and agricultural raw materials for the royal palace and the palace economy. Since 1797 - specific lands. The palace peasants lived on them, who bore obligations in their favor. The princes acquired land by inheritance, purchase, exchange, seizure, etc. In the XVIII century. the replenishment of the palace peasants and lands was due to the confiscation of lands from the disgraced owners and the population of the newly annexed lands (in the Baltic states, in the Ukraine, in Belarus).
PALACE REVOLUTIONS - a change of government through the seizure of power in the history of Russia in the period 1725 to 1762. They were carried out by various noble groups. The military force of the coups was the palace guard regiments. For 37 years in Russia there have been 5 palace coups: January 28, 1725 A.D. Menshikov elevated Catherine I to the throne; in September 1727, the Dolgorukovs obtained from Peter II the deprivation of power and exile of the temporary worker Menshikov. On November 9, 1740, the regent EI Biron was deposed, Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed ruler. On November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna became empress, overthrowing the young emperor Ivan VI Antonovich. On June 28, 1762, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna overthrew her husband Peter III and became Empress Catherine II.
The nobility is the dominant, privileged estate in Russia. Three stages have passed in its development. The first - until 1714, when the upper ruling classes consisted of boyars who had hereditary land tenure ("fatherland and grandfather") and D. (service class), who received an estate for service and for the duration of the service (they were left part of the villages as a kind of pension ). At this time, the nobleman was in the ranks as a servant and statesman. The second stage - the "Decree on the mayorate" of Peter 1 (1714) equalized the nobles and boyars with the hereditary transfer of the estate, but they were obliged to serve. The third stage - the decree of Peter III "On the freedom of the nobility" (1762) and "Certificate of honor to the nobility" of Catherine II (1785) freed the nobles from their duties, leaving only privileges. This turned D. into a dying class. The bodies of noble estate self-government in the Russian Empire in 1785-1917. there were provincial and district noble assemblies. They met once every three years. Decided noble and general local affairs elected leaders, police officers, etc. After pt forms of the 1860s. They were mainly engaged in the affairs of D. In Belarus, a part of the GDL nobility was transferred to D. It retained its dominant position even after the abolition of serfdom; in the 1870s-80s. in Belarus there were 14 magnate families, which owned a quarter of the total area of landowners' lands.
DECABRISTS - Russian noble revolutionaries who raised in December 1825 an uprising against autocracy and serfdom. Mainly officers, participants in the Patriotic War of 1812. The first organizations in 1816-1821: "Union of Salvation", "Union of Welfare". The Society of United Slavs and the "Northern Society" sought to carry out a military coup by the forces of the army, without the participation of the people. Program: the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a unitary republic ("Southern Society") or a constitutional monarchy with a federal structure ("Northern Society"). With the strengthening of the republican wing in the "Northern Society", it was planned to develop general constitutional foundations. The interregnum after the death of Alexander I caused premature protests - the uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg and the Chernigov regiment in Ukraine (December 29, 1825 - January 3, 1826). After the defeat of the movement, 579 people were involved in the investigation. P.I. Pestel, SI. Muravyov-Apostol, K.F. Ryleev, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, P.G. Kakhovsky were hanged, 121 people were exiled to hard labor and to a settlement in Siberia. More than 3 thousand soldiers were also subjected to repression. The movement was the first armed uprising of revolutionaries in Russia and had a great influence on the subsequent revolutionary movement.
DECLARATION (lat. Declaratio - announcement, proclamation) - an official statement. Typically, D. proclaims the basic principles of external or domestic policy states, program provisions of political parties, basic provisions of the activities of international organizations in a specific area of international relations.
DECLARATION ON THE STATE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE BSSR.
Adopted at the 1st session of the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR of the 12th convocation on July 27, 1990. On August 25, 1991, the Declaration was given the status of a constitutional law. Belarus was proclaimed a sovereign state, established on the basis of the right of the Belarusian people to self-determination, the statehood of the Belarusian language, the rule of the people in determining their fate. The supreme goal of the sovereign Belarusian state is the free development of every citizen on the basis of ensuring the rights of the individual in accordance with the Constitution of the country and its international obligations. The Declaration formulates legal provisions securing the citizenship of Belarus, the ownership of the Belarusian people to land, its subsoil and other natural resources, national cultural and historical values, the indivisibility and inviolability of its territory, the delimitation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers, the right to voluntary alliances with other states. , free exit from these unions.
DECLARATION ON THE FORMATION OF THE USSR. Adopted on December 30, 1922 by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR. Along with the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR, the Declaration formed the constitutional basis for building the USSR as a multinational state.
DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE OF RUSSIA - one of the first acts of the Soviet state. Approved by the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR on November 2 (15), 1917. Proclaimed the principles of equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia, their right to self-determination.
DECLARATION OF RIGHTS OF WORKING AND EXPLOITING PEOPLE is one of the first constitutional acts of the Soviet state. Adopted on January 12 (25), 1918 by the 3rd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Proclaimed Russia the Republic of Soviets. Defined as the main tasks of the Soviet state the elimination of all exploitation of man by man and the establishment of a socialist organization of society. Fully included (1st section) in the first Soviet constitution - the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918.
DECREE (Latin decretum - resolution). In the GDL, decrees were considered decisions of the Grand Duke or the highest spiritual authority, sentences and decisions of the tribunal, zemstvo courts in criminal or civil cases. In the USSR, before the adoption of the Constitution of 1936 - acts of the highest bodies of state power and administration (SNK, All-Russian Central Executive Committee).
DECREE ON EARTH - one of the first laws of Soviet power, written by V.I. Lenin, adopted on the night of October 26-27 (November 8-9) 1917 by the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. It included a general peasant land order, drawn up on the basis of 242 local orders. All landowners, tsarist, church, monastery lands were confiscated along with implements and buildings and transferred to peasant committees and Soviets for distribution among the peasants.
THE DECREE ON PEACE is one of the first laws of Soviet power, written by V.I. Lenin, adopted on the night of October 26-27 (November 8-9) 1917 by the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. He called on the participants of the 1st World War to start negotiations on a just, democratic peace.
MONETARY REFORMS - state legislative acts aimed at strengthening the country's monetary system. In the course of their implementation, depreciated paper money is withdrawn from circulation, new ones are issued, the monetary unit or its gold content changes, and the transition from one monetary system to another is carried out.
DEPORTATION (lat. Deportatio) - in the legislation of some foreign states, expulsion, exile. During the period of mass repressions in the 1920s and 40s. D. were numerous peoples THE USSR. Illegal (without investigation and trial), forced eviction from their native places to Siberia, Kazakhstan, regions of the Far North, the Urals and other remote regions of the USSR of a large number of citizens who, in terms of class, were recognized as enemies of Soviet power. In 1931-1934. about 250 thousand people were expelled from the BSSR. (mostly peasants, numbered among the kulaks). From February 1940 to June 1941, over 125 thousand inhabitants of Western Belarus were deported into the depths of the USSR. The barbaric actions of the Stalinist regime - eviction during the Second World War from their native places of the Balkars, Ingush, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Turks, Meskhetians, Chechens. The forced resettlement policy also affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds and other peoples. The forced resettlement of entire nations is a grave crime, contrary to the foundations of international law.
TIRES - 1. One-tenth of the income collected by the church from the population. It was established by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich shortly after the baptism of Rus (988) and was originally intended for the Kiev Tithe Church, and then acquired the character of a widespread tax levied by church organizations. An extraordinary tax on military needs from the "belly and trades" of merchants, townspeople, backbones and service people who had trade trades, was called "tenth money". Charged "from the ruble to the hryvnia." In the ON in the XV-XIV centuries. there was tithe "sheaf" (the peasants gave every tenth sheaf) and total (every tenth of grain, honey, etc.). 2. Russian land measure. Known since the end of the 15th century. Initially, D. was measured in two quarters and was a square with sides of one tenth of a mile. Later it changed. Canceled after the October Revolution in connection with the transition to the metric system of measures in 1918.
DESYATSKY - an elected official from the peasants to perform police and various public functions. Usually elected from 10 households.
Dictatorship (Latin dictatura - unlimited power) is a term that characterizes the system of exercising power in the state. Means: 1. The essence of state power, ensuring political domination of one class or another (for example, the bourgeoisie's clergy); 2. Exercise of state power by non-democratic methods, authoritarian political regime (for example, personal D.).
DYNASTY - a number of ruling monarchs from the same clan, replacing each other by inheritance (for example, Rurikovich, Rogvolodovich).
The dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist theory, the power of the working class, established as a result of the socialist revolution and aimed at building socialism. The highest principle of D.p. - the leading position in the society and state of the working class, acting in alliance with the peasantry and other democratic forces. The power of the working class and all working people is embodied in the system of political and social organizations (state bodies, political parties, trade unions, youth organizations, etc.). - The Paris Commune of 1871, the Soviets, which were established as a result of the October Revolution (DP in the USSR existed until the mid-1930s), people's democracy, which arose during the revolutions in a number of European and Asian countries after World War II ... The historical experience of the USSR and some other socialist countries has shown the danger of overgrowth of the socialist economy. into authoritarian-bureaucratic power and the associated massive repression, deformation of social structures. The guarantee against this threat is the development of democracy, the rule of law, and civil society.
DIRECTORY ("Council of Five") - a collegium of five ministers of the Provisional Government (Minister-Chairman A.F. Kerensky, Minister A.I. Verkhovsky, Minister of Marine D.M. Verderevsky, Minister of Posts and Telegraphs A.M. (14) September 1917 in search of a way out of the acute government crisis that arose in connection with the Kornilov revolt. D. was entrusted with "managing the affairs of the state until the formation of the cabinet." Denmark ended its existence on September 25 (October 8) with the formation of the third coalition government.
"DIRLEVANGER" - the code name of the punitive expedition of the German fascist invaders against partisans and civilians in the Smolevichi and Logoisk districts in March 1943. The special SS battalion of Dirlewanger played an active role in the operation, which stood out for its special atrocities, the mass destruction of civilians during punitive expeditions ... During the "Dirlewanger" punitive action, the village of Khatyn was burned down by the Ukrainian police battalion.
DISSIDENTS (lat. Dissidere - disagree, disagree) - those who opposed injustice, violation of human rights. The official propaganda media of the USSR emphasized that dissent in the country is not persecuted and that any citizen has the right to his point of view on this or that problem, but in reality everything was different. D, became famous academician A.D. Sakharov, writer A.I. Solzhenitsyn and others. In Belarus, this movement was not so representative, however, the oppositional authorities expressed their views in different forms; among the dissenters were representatives of various social groups and categories of the population. This is described in the books "Inshadumtsy" (Minsk, 1992), "Antysavetskiya rukhі in Belarus: 1944-1956" (Minsk, 1998), "Demakratchnaya apazytsya Belarusi: 1956-1988" (Minsk, 1999).
CONTRACT - in civil law, an agreement of two or more * persons (citizens or legal entities) aimed at establishing, changing or terminating civil rights or obligations. D. often refers to both the legal relationship itself, which arose from the D., and the document in which it is reflected. Depending on the number of participants, D. is divided into bilateral or multilateral. If a deed gives rise to rights for one party, and only obligations for the other, it is unilateral, but if by virtue of deeds each party has rights and obligations, it is called bilateral. An example of a unilateral D. can be a loan agreement, bilateral D. is D. sale and purchase, supply, contract, transportation, etc. D. usually includes conditions that induce the parties to actually fulfill the obligations of the parties established by D.: measures of property liability (sanctions ) for non-fulfillment of D. - compensation for losses, payment of a penalty, etc. The conditions established by the parties in D. are referred to as its content. The material conditions are deemed to be those conditions of the property that are recognized as essential by law or necessary for the property of a given type (for example, the item and price in the property of purchase and sale), i.e. such conditions, without which the conclusion of D. is impossible, as well as all those conditions regarding which, upon the application of one of the parties, an agreement must be reached (for example, conditions for the supply of goods in a certain container or package). D. is considered concluded when an agreement is reached between the parties in the form required in appropriate cases on all its essential points.
INTERNATIONAL TREATY - an agreement between two or more states or other subjects of international law, establishing their mutual rights and obligations in political, economic or other relations. By the number of participants, D.m. are divided into bilateral and multilateral. Multilateral treaties can be open (you can join them in the manner provided for in the treaty itself) and closed (states that have not signed the treaty can join it only with the consent of the parties to the treaty). D. m., As a rule, is concluded in writing and consists of a preamble (contains the motives and objectives of the contract), specific decisions concerning the essence of regulated relations, and final decisions (on the duration of the contract, the procedure for its prolongation, warning of cancellation of the contract , conditions of its entry into force, approval, etc.). Dm signed by the contracting states, as a rule, is subject to ratification (approval), which is usually carried out by the head of state after the formal signature of dm.
AGREEMENT OF FRIENDSHIP AND BORDER. Concluded between the USSR and Germany on September 28, 1939. Consisted of 5 articles and a secret additional protocol. According to the latter, Lublin and part of the Warsaw Voivodeship, including the Bug, were included in the sphere of German interests in exchange for Germany's renunciation of claims to Lithuania.
THE TREATY ON THE FORMATION OF THE UNION OF THE SSR - a document adopted on December 30, 1922 by the first All-Union Congress of Soviets and formalizing, together with the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR, a voluntary unification of independent Soviet socialist republics:
RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR and ZSFSR into a single federal union state - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. According to the agreement, the supreme body of the USSR was the congresses of the Soviets of the USSR, and in the intervals between the congresses - the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (CEC of the USSR). The agreement provided for the formation of people's commissariats, the establishment of the Supreme Court under the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the United State Political Administration (OGPU) under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. The treaty was fully incorporated into the Constitution of the USSR in 1924.
THE TREATIES OF RUSSIA WITH BYZANTIA are the first international treaties of Russia that have come down to us in the text of the most ancient chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years". The terms of the treaties were not presented to the Russians, but were achieved in the struggle against the greatest empire in the world. 911 agreement concluded after the successful campaign (907) of Oleg to Byzantium, established the rules of trade, the ransom of prisoners, the rules of the court, proceedings in case of shipwrecks. The treaty of 944 was concluded after the unsuccessful (941) and successful (944) campaigns of Prince Igor and, in addition to repeating the previous conditions, included the obligation of the Russians not to conquer the Crimean possessions of Byzantium and to provide mutual assistance with military forces. The treaty of 971 was concluded by Prince Svyatoslav with Emperor John Tzimiskes after the famous siege of Dorostol, when a huge Byzantine army could not cope with a small Russian squad, which fought very bravely. Russia promised not to attack Byzantium. All D. speak about the equality and independence of the parties.
DOLLNIKI - peasants who paid off the landowner with a part of the harvested crop.
DOMOSTROY is a set of instructions and everyday rules of behavior for a city dweller, by which he should be guided in relation to the secular authorities and the church, family and servants. In D., instructions for cooking, receiving guests, wedding ceremonies, parenting and housekeeping, handicrafts, trade, paying taxes, up to advice on the treatment of patients. D. is a valuable source of socio-economic and political history, culture and everyday life in Russia, as well as economic and pedagogical thought. It reflected the changes in the socio-economic life of the 16th century. (development of commodity-money relations) and in the worldview of a wealthy city dweller. However, new elements in D. are closely intertwined with old ideas. The economy of the city dweller is already connected with the market, but large reserves are still being made for future use, it is said about the voluntary service of servants from among the former slaves, released into the wild, but the use of servile labor is also envisaged. A rich city dweller, according to D., owes his position in society not to a noble origin, but to his work, or to initiative. At the same time, D. demands subordination to the head of the family - the "lord", and in public life - to the tsar and the authorities. In the upbringing of children, there is a tendency to teach them "needlework"
those. craft and trade, while giving the famous advice on "breaking the ribs" of the slings
Here is all the terminology that will be needed when passing the story - questions on terms are in parts A and B.
The material is great. For convenience, all terms are arranged not only in alphabetical order, but also in accordance with the chronological period.
Empire style - a style in architecture and art, mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Like classicism, the Empire style absorbed the heritage of the ancient world: archaic Greece and imperial Rome.
Anarchists are a political philosophy that contains theories and views that advocate the elimination of any coercive rule and power of man over man. Anarchism is the idea that society can and should be organized without government coercion. At the same time, there are many different directions of anarchism, which often diverge on certain issues: from minor to fundamental (in particular, regarding views on private property, market relations, ethno-national issue). Prominent representatives of anarchism in Russia were P. Kropotkin and M. Bakunin.
Anti-Napoleonic (anti-French) coalitions are temporary military-political alliances of European states that sought to restore the monarchical Bourbon dynasty in France, which fell during the French Revolution of 1789-1799. A total of 7 coalitions were created. In the scientific literature, the first two coalitions are called "anti-revolutionary", starting with the third - "anti-Napoleonic". V different time the coalitions consisted of Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other countries.
Great reforms of the 1860-1870s - bourgeois reforms carried out by Alexander II after the defeat of Russia in Crimean war(1853-1856), which began with the abolition of serfdom (1861). The great reforms also include the zemstvo reform (1864), urban (1870), judicial (1864), military (1874). Reforms were also carried out in the field of finance, education, the press and affected all spheres of life in Russian society.
Military settlements - a special organization of the armed forces in 1810-1857, combining combat service with housekeeping. Some of the state peasants were transferred to the position of military settlers. The villagers combined agricultural labor with military service... It was supposed to eventually transfer the entire army to a settled position. The creation of settlements was supposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the army, destroy recruitment kits, rid the mass of state peasants from recruiting, turning them essentially into free people. Alexander I hoped in this way to take one more step towards the elimination of serfdom. Life in military settlements, subject to detailed regulations, turned into hard labor. Settlements and A.A. Arakcheev evoked universal hatred. The villagers rebelled several times. The largest uprising was the uprising of the Chuguevsky and Taganrog settlements regiments in 1819.
The Eastern question is a designation adopted in diplomacy and historical literature of international contradictions in the 18th - early 20th centuries associated with the incipient disintegration Ottoman Empire and the struggle of the great powers for its division.
Temporarily liable peasants - peasants who have emerged from serfdom and are obliged to fulfill their previous obligations in favor of the landowner before switching to ransom.
Redemption payments - in Russia 1861-1906 redemption by peasants from landowners of land allotments provided by the peasant reform of 1861. The government paid the landowners the amount of ransom for the land, and the peasants, who were in debt to the state, had to pay off this debt in 49 years at 6% annually (redemption payments). The amount was calculated from the amount of the quitrent, which the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. The collection of payments ceased during the revolution of 1905-1907. By this time, the government had managed to collect more than 1.6 billion rubles from the peasants, having received about 700 million rubles. income.
Gazavat is the same as jihad. In Islam, a holy war for the faith, against the infidels (non-believers in the One God and the messenger mission of at least one of the prophets of Islam).
The State Council is the highest legislative body. Transformed in January 1810 from the Indispensable Council in accordance with the "Plan of State Reforms" M. M. Speransky. He did not have the legislative initiative, but considered those cases that were submitted for his consideration by the emperor (preliminary discussion of laws, budget, reports of ministries, some higher administrative issues and special court cases).
The Decembrists are members of the Russian noble opposition movement, members of various secret societies of the second half of the 1810s - the first half of the 1820s, who organized an anti-government uprising in December 1825 and were named after the month of the uprising.
Clergy - ministers of worship in monotheistic religions; persons who are professionally involved in the administration of religious services and services and constitute special corporations. In the Orthodox Church, the clergy is divided into black (monasticism) and white (priests, deacons). In the 19th century - the privileged class of Russian society, exempt from corporal punishment, compulsory service and the poll tax.
Westerners - the direction of Russian social thought in the mid-19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. Westerners fought against the "theory of official nationality", criticized serfdom and autocracy, and put forward a project to free the peasants from the land. The main representatives are V.P.Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin and others.
Zemstvo movement - liberal oppositional social and political activity of zemstvo vowels and zemstvo intelligentsia in Russia 2nd half of the XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, aimed at expanding the rights of zemstvos and attracting them to governing the state. It manifested itself in the filing of addresses addressed to the emperor and petitions to the government, holding illegal meetings and congresses, publishing brochures and articles abroad. At the beginning of the 20th century, illegal political organizations arose: "Beseda", "Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists", "Union of Liberation". Prominent figures: I.I. Petrunkevich, V.A. Bobrinsky, Pavel D. and Peter D. Dolgorukovs, P.A. Geiden, V.I. Vernadsky, Yu.A. Novosiltsev and others. During the Revolution of 1905-1907, with the formation of political parties of the Cadets and Octobrists, the Zemstvo movement ceased.
Zemstvos are elected bodies of local self-government (zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils). Introduced by the zemstvo reform of 1864, they were in charge of education, health care, road construction, etc. They were controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the governors who had the right to cancel the decisions of the zemstvo.
Sharecropping is a type of land lease in which the rent is transferred to the owner of the crop shares. It was a form of transition from feudal land lease to capitalist.
Imamat is the general name for a Muslim theocratic state. Also, the state of murids in Dagestan and Chechnya, which arose in the late. 20s XIX century. during the struggle of the peoples of the North. Caucasus against the colonialist policy of tsarism.
Islam is a monotheistic religion, one of the world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), its followers are Muslims.
Counter-reforms of the 1880s - the name of the measures taken by the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s: the restoration of preliminary censorship (1882), the introduction of estate principles in the initial and high school, the abolition of the autonomy of universities (1884), the introduction of the institute of zemstvo chiefs (1889), the establishment of bureaucratic tutelage over the zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) self-government.
The gendarme corps is a police force that has a military organization and performs functions within the country and in the army. In Russia in 1827-1917. the gendarme corps served as the political police.
The bourgeoisie - in the Russian Empire in 1775-1917 the tax-paying estate of the former townspeople - artisans, small traders and homeowners. They united at the place of residence in communities with some rights of self-government. Until 1863, by law, they could be subjected to corporal punishment.
Ministries - created on September 8, 1802, replacing the collegia. The aim of the reform was to reorganize the central government on the basis of the principle of one-man management. Initially, eight ministries were created: the Army (from 1815 - the Military), the Naval Forces (from 1815 - the Naval), Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice). Also under Alexander I, there was the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education (1817-1824) and the Ministry of Police (1810-1819). Each ministry was headed by a minister appointed by the emperor, who had one or several comrades (deputies).
Muridism is the name of the ideology of the national liberation movement of the highlanders of the North Caucasus during the Caucasian War of 1817-1864. The main feature of Muridism was its combination of religious teachings and political actions, expressed in active participation in the “holy war” - ghazavat or jihad against “infidels” (ie non-Muslims) for the triumph of the Islamic faith. Muridism assumed the complete and unquestioning submission of its followers to their mentors - the Murshids. Muridism was headed by the imams of Chechnya and Dagestan Gazi-Magomed, Gamzat-bek and Shamil, under whom it became most widespread. The ideology of Muridism gave great organization to the struggle of the Caucasian mountaineers.
The Narodniks are representatives of the ideological trend among the radical intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, who spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (revolutionary Narodniks) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (liberal Narodniks ). The founders: A. I. Herzen (creator of the theory of "peasant socialism"), N. G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists: M. A. Bakunin (rebellious tendency), P. L. Lavrov (propaganda tendency), P. N. Tkachev (conspiratorial tendency). Revival of revolutionary populism at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. (the so-called neo-populism) led to the creation of the party of socialist-revolutionaries (SRs).
Neo-Russian style is a trend in Russian architecture of the late 19th century. - 1910s., Using the motives of Old Russian architecture with the aim of reviving the national identity of Russian culture. It is characterized not by exact copying of individual details, decorative forms, etc., but by the generalization of motives, creative stylization of the prototype style. The plasticity and bright decorativeness of the buildings of the neo-Russian style make it possible to consider it as a national-romantic trend within the framework of the modernist style. V.M. Vasnetsov worked in this style (facade Tretyakov Gallery, 1900-1905), F.O.Shekhtel (Yaroslavsky station, 1902-1904), A.V.Shchusev (Cathedral of the Martha-Mariinsky monastery, 1908-1912).
Nihilism - in the 1860s current in Russian social thought, which denied the traditions and foundations of the noble society and called for their destruction in the name of a radical reorganization of society.
The Patriotic War of 1812 was the liberation war of Russia against the army of Napoleon I. It was caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, and Russia's refusal to participate in the Continental blockade of Great Britain.
Working off - in post-reform Russia the system of peasants cultivating landlord land with their own implements for leased land (mainly for land plots), loans with bread, money, etc. A relic of the corvée economy.
Sections - a part of the peasant allotments that went to the landowners as a result of the reform of 1861 (the allotments were reduced if their size exceeded the norm established for the area).
Peredvizhniki - artists who were part of the Russian art association - the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. We turned to the image Everyday life and the history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, exposure of social order. I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov became the ideological leaders of the Itinerants. The main representatives: I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; among the Itinerants were also artists from Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia. In 1923-1924, part of the Itinerants entered the AHRR.
Petrashevsky - participants in the evenings held on Fridays in the house of the writer M.V. Petrashevsky. At the meetings, they discussed the problems of restructuring autocratic politics and serfdom. The Petrashevites shared the ideas of the French utopian socialists. Among the members of the circle were the writers F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. Ya. Danilevsky, V.N. Maikov, composers M.I. Glinka, A.G. Rubinstein, geographer P.I. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky and others. At the end of 1848, the revolutionary-minded part of the Petrashevites decided to seek the implementation of their plans by force, for which to create a secret society and organize the issuance of proclamations. However, it was not possible to accomplish what was planned. Members of the society were arrested, 21 of them were sentenced to death. On the day of the execution, she was replaced by hard labor. The convicted Petrashevites were sent to Siberia.
The poll tax is in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. the main direct tax, which was introduced in 1724 and replaced the household taxation. All men of taxable estates, irrespective of age, were subject to the poll tax.
Industrial revolution (industrial revolution) - the transition from manual labor to machine labor and, accordingly, from manufacture to factory. Requires a developed market for free labor, therefore, in a feudal country it cannot be fully accomplished.
Raznochintsy - people from different classes: clergy, peasantry, merchants, philistines - engaged in mental activity. As a rule, bearers of revolutionary democratic views.
Realism is a stylistic trend in literature and art, a truthful, objective reflection of reality by specific means inherent in one or another type of artistic creation. In the course of the historical development of art, realism takes on specific forms of certain creative methods (enlightenment realism, critical, socialist).
Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend in the culture of the late 18th - 1st half. XIX century. Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and social progress, romanticism opposed the excessive practicality of the new bourgeois society with the striving for unlimited freedom, the thirst for perfection and renewal, the idea of personal and civil independence. An agonizing rift between a fictional ideal and brutal reality is the foundation of romanticism. Interest in the national past (often - its idealization), the traditions of folklore and culture of their own and other peoples found expression in the ideology and practice of romanticism. The influence of romanticism manifested itself in almost all spheres of culture (music, literature, visual arts).
Russian empire - name the Russian state from 1721 to 1.09.1917
The Russian-Byzantine style is a pseudo-Russian (otherwise - neo-Russian, false-Russian) style that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century. and is a synthesis of the traditions of Old Russian and Russian folk architecture and elements of Byzantine culture. For Russian-Byzantine architecture, borrowing a number of compositional techniques and the motives of Byzantine architecture, most vividly embodied in the “exemplary projects” of the churches of Constantine Ton in the 1840s. Within the framework of this direction, Ton built the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory in Moscow, as well as cathedrals in Sveaborg, Yelets (Ascension Cathedral), Tomsk, Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk.
Holy Alliance - an agreement concluded in 1815 in Paris by the emperors of Russia, Austria and the king of Prussia. The initiative for the creation of the Holy Alliance belonged to Russian emperor Alexander I. Subsequently, all other European states, with the exception of the Vatican and Great Britain, joined this treaty. The Holy Alliance considered its main tasks to be the prevention of new wars and revolutions in Europe. Aachen, Troppau, Laibach and Verona congresses of the Holy Union developed the principle of interference in the internal affairs of other states with the aim of violent suppression of any national and revolutionary movements.
Slavophiles - representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, proceeding from the position of the fundamental difference between Russian and European civilizations, the inadmissibility of Russia's mechanical copying of European orders, etc. They argued with both Westerners and the "theory of official nationality." Unlike the latter, they considered it necessary to abolish serfdom, criticized the Nicholas autocracy and others. The main representatives: the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, AI Koshelev, Yu. F. Samarin, AS Khomyakov.
Estates are social groups that have rights and obligations enshrined in custom or law and inherited. The class organization of society, which usually includes several classes, is characterized by a hierarchy, which is expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. In Russia, from the second half of the 18th century. the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the merchant class, and the bourgeoisie was established. The estates in Russia were officially abolished in 1917.
Social Democrats are a trend in the socialist and workers' movement, advocating the transition to a socially just society by reforming the bourgeois one. In the Russian social democracy of the 1880-1890s. the most widespread was Marxism. In 1883, the Emancipation of Labor group was created in Geneva (V.I. Zasulich, P. B. Axelrod, L. G. Deich, V. N. Ignatov, G. V. Plekhanov), the main task of which is its members considered the spread of Marxism in Russia. In 1895, the Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class was created in St. Petersburg (V.I. Ulyanov, G.M. organization of the strike movement. In 1898, the first congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held in Minsk. After the October Revolution in 1917, the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (RCP (b)), which later became the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (VKP (b)) and, finally, the CPSU - the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The theory of the official nationality is a state ideology that arose during the reign of Nicholas I. It was based on the conservative views on education, science, literature, expressed by the Minister of Public Education SS Uvarov. The main formula of this ideology is “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.
Specific peasants - a category of the feudal-dependent rural population of Russia in the late 18th - mid-19th centuries, which included peasants who lived on specific lands and belonged to the imperial family. Obligations were carried out mainly in the form of a quitrent. In 1863, the main provisions of the peasant reform of 1861 were extended to the appanage peasants, and they received a part of the appanage lands in their ownership for the obligatory redemption.
The factory is a large enterprise based on the use of machines and the division of labor.
“Going to the People” is a mass movement of radical populist youth to the countryside, aimed at promoting socialist ideas among the peasants. The idea of "going to the people" belongs to A. I. Herzen, who in 1861, through the "Bell", addressed this appeal to the students. It began in the spring of 1873, and reached its greatest scope in the spring and summer of 1874 (it covered 37 provinces of Russia). The "Lavristi" aimed at promoting the ideas of socialism, the "Bakuninists" tried to organize mass anti-government protests. By November 1874, over 4 thousand people were arrested, the most active participants were convicted.
Censorship is a system of state supervision over the press and the media with the aim of suppressing undesirable, from the point of view of the authorities, influences on society. Introduced in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, since 1804 it was regulated by censorship charters and temporary rules.
Menshevism - arose at the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), after opponents of the Leninist principles of building the party were in the minority in the elections of the central bodies of the party. Main ideologists: Yu.O. Martov, A.S. Martynov, I.O. Axelrod, G.V. Plekhanov, A.N. Potresov, F.I. Dan. Until 1912, formally they were together with the Bolsheviks in a single RSDLP. In 1912, at the 6th Paris Conference, the Mensheviks were expelled from the ranks of the RSDLP. During the First World War, the bulk of the Mensheviks took the position of social-chauvinism. After the October Revolution, the Mensheviks became participants in the struggle against Soviet power.
The World of Art is a Russian art association. It took shape in the late 1890s. (officially - in 1900) in St. Petersburg on the basis of a circle of young artists and art lovers headed by A. N. Benois and S. P. Diaghilev. As an exhibition union under the auspices of the World of Art magazine, it existed in its original form until 1904; in an expanded composition, having lost ideological and creative unity, - in 1910-1924. In 1904-1910, most of the masters “M. and." was a member of the Union of Russian Artists. In addition to the main core (L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lancers, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, K. A. Somov), “M. and." included many St. Petersburg and Moscow painters and graphic artists (I. Ya.Bilibin, A. Ya.Golovin, I.E. Grabar, K.A.Korovin, B.M.Kustodiev, N.K. Roerich, V.A.Serov and etc.). MA Vrubel, II Levitan, MV Nesterov, as well as some foreign artists took part in the exhibitions of the World of Art.
Modernism (from the French “newest, modern”) is the general name for trends in literature and art of the late 19th-20th centuries. (cubism, avant-garde, surrealism, dadaism, futurism, expressionism), characterized by a break with the traditions of realism, advocating a new approach to reflecting being.
Monopoly is a large economic association (cartel, syndicate, trust, concern, etc.), privately owned (individual, group or joint-stock) and exercising control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital for the purpose of establishing monopoly prices and extracting monopoly profits. In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were: the Prodamet syndicate (1902) in ferrous metallurgy, the Prodparovoz cartel (1901) and the Prodvagon syndicate (1904) in mechanical engineering, the Produgol association (1906 d.) in the mining industry. In total, during this period, there were about 200 monopolies in Russia.
The Octobrists are members of the right-wing liberal party “Union of October 17”. It was formed by 1906. The name is from the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. She spoke out with the demand for popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The number, together with the affiliated groups, is about 80 thousand members. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov, D.N. Shipov and others. Printed organs: the newspaper "Slovo", "Voice of Moscow" and others, more than 50 in total. The largest faction in the 3rd State Duma, alternately blocked with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 it ceased to exist.
The cut - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - is a peasant farm, separated from the community by land. At the same time, the house remained on the territory of the community.
Progressive bloc - was created in August 1915 from the members of the IV State Duma (it included 236 out of 422 deputies from the Cadets, Octobrists, progressives) in order to put pressure on the government. The association was headed by the left Octobrist S. I. Shidlovsky, but the actual leader was the leader of the Cadets P. N. Milyukov. On August 26, 1915, a declaration of the Progressive Bloc was published demanding a renewal of the composition of local government bodies, an end to persecution for the faith, the release of certain categories of political prisoners, the restoration of trade unions, etc. The main goal of the bloc was to create a government of "public trust" from among representatives of the administration and Duma leaders in order to bring the country out of the complex political and economic situation, in which she found herself in the conditions of the First World War, to prevent a possible revolutionary explosion.
A revolutionary situation is a situation that serves as an indicator of the maturity of socio-political conditions for a revolution. A revolutionary situation is characterized by: a “crisis at the top,” that is, the impossibility of representatives of the authorities to maintain their dominance unchanged, while it is necessary that the “top” themselves cannot live in the old way; exacerbation, above the usual, the needs and calamities of the oppressed classes and strata; a significant increase in the political activity of the broad masses. In Russia, the first revolutionary situation in the late 50s and early 60s. XIX century. was an expression of the crisis of the feudal-serf system after the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The growth of the peasant movement and the general democratic upsurge pushed the autocracy to prepare for reforms. The revolutionary situation was resolved by the Peasant Reform of 1861. The second revolutionary situation arose as a result of the exacerbation of socio-political contradictions after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. It culminated in the years 1880-1881. In the conditions of the ensuing reaction after the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya, the government carried out counter-reforms. The revolutionary situation at the beginning of the XX century. ended with the revolution of 1905-1907. Revolutionary situation 1913-1914 did not develop into a revolution because of the outbreak of World War I. The revolutionary situation in 1916-1917 poured into the February Revolution of 1917 and ended with the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917.
Russian Seasons Abroad - performances by Russian opera and ballet companies organized by S.P.Dyagilev in 1907-1914. in Paris and London. They contributed to the popularity of Russian art abroad. The term has taken root, has become a household name to denote the success of Russian cultural and art workers abroad.
Symbolism is a trend in European and Russian art in 1870-1910. Focuses primarily on artistic expression through symbolism. In an effort to break through visible reality to “hidden realities”, the supertemporal ideal essence of the world, its imperishable beauty, the Symbolists expressed rejection of bourgeois and positivism, longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of world social shifts, trust in age-old cultural values as a unifying principle. Main representatives. P. Verlaine, P. Valerie, A. Rimbaud, M. Metterliik, A. Blok, A. Bely, Viach. Ivanov, F. Sologub, P. Gauguin, M.K. Churlionis, M. Vrubel and others.
A syndicate is one of the forms of monopolistic associations characterized by the fact that the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of manufactured products is carried out through a single sales office. The members of the syndicate retain production, but lose their commercial independence.
Soviets - arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. (the first Council was in Ivanovo-Voznesensk on May 15 (28), 1905) as independent bodies of leadership and coordination of the workers' struggle for their rights in the localities. On an incomparably wider scale, the Soviets revived during the February (1917) revolution and until June 1917 acted as a “second” power opposing the bourgeois Provisional Government (later they began to support it). During this period, the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies operated. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets were the representative bodies of state power in the center and locally in the RSFSR, the USSR, and until the end of 1993 in the Russian Federation (from 1936 to 1977 - Soviets of Working People's Deputies, from 1977 - Soviets People's Deputies). Since 1988, the Congress of People's Deputies (until 1991) has become the supreme body of state power. A distinctive feature of the Soviets was the inseparability of the legislative and executive powers.
The Stolypin reform is an economic reform aimed at accelerating the development of capitalism in Russia, the reform of peasant land tenure, which marked the turn of the agrarian-political course of the autocracy, named after the Minister of Internal Affairs and Chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1906 P.A.Stolypin (1862-1911) ... Permission to leave the peasant community for farms and cuts (law of 11/9/1906), strengthening of the Peasant Bank, compulsory land management (laws of 6/14/1910 and 05/29/1911) and resettlement policy were aimed at eliminating land shortages while maintaining landlord ownership, accelerating the stratification of the village, the creation of an additional support of power among the well-to-do peasants. The reform was thwarted after the assassination of P.A.Stolypin by the Socialist-Revolutionary D. Bogrov.
A trust is a form of monopoly in which the members of an association lose their production and commercial independence and are subject to a single management.
Third June coup - dissolution of the State Duma on June 3, 1907 and amendments to the electoral law. Considered the end of the First Russian Revolution.
The Triple Alliance is a military-political bloc of states during the First World War, which included: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In 1915, Italy and Turkey joined.
Trudoviks are a faction of peasant deputies and the populist intelligentsia in the 1st-4th State Dumas (1906-1917). The program was close to the program of the People's Socialist Party, and included demands for the introduction of democratic freedoms and the nationalization of the landlords' lands. The print organ is the Trudovy Narod newspaper. In June 1917 merged with the People's Socialists
The farm - according to the Stolypin agrarian reform - is an economy that was separated from the community along with land and a house. It was privately owned.
The Black Hundreds (from the Old Russian "Black Hundred" - a heavy settlement population) are members of extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1917, who spoke under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism and anti-Semitism ("The Union of the Russian People", "The Union of Archangel Michael", "Unions of Russians people ”, etc.). Leaders and ideologists: A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, N.E. Markov. During the years of the revolution of 1905-1907, they supported the repressive policy of the government, staged pogroms, organized the murders of a number of political figures. After the February Revolution of 1917, the activities of the Black Hundred organizations were banned.
The Social Revolutionaries (Social Revolutionaries) are a revolutionary party formed in Russia in 1901-1902. The leader is V.M. Chernov. The tactics are political terror. The Left SRs were a political party in Russia in 1917-1923 (until December 1917, the left wing of the SRs). Leaders: M.A. Spiridonova, B.D. Kamkov, M.A. Nathanson. Newspapers "Land and Freedom" and "Znamya Truda". They took part in the October Revolution, were members of the Military Revolutionary Committee, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (December 1917-March 1918). Since the beginning of 1918, opponents of the Brest Peace, the agrarian policy of the Bolsheviks. In July 1918, an armed uprising was organized, which was suppressed. Separate groups of Left SRs operated in the Ukraine, the Far East, and Turkestan. In 1923 the activity ceased.
1917-1920
Annexation (from Latin “annexation”) is the violent seizure of a part of the territory of a defeated state by the winner.
White movement is a collective name for political movements, organizations and military formations that opposed Soviet power in the years Civil War... The origin of the term is associated with the traditional symbolism of white as the color of the supporters of the rule of law. The basis of the white movement is the officers of the former Russian army; leadership - military leaders (M. V. Alekseev, P. N. Wrangel, A. I. Denikin, A. V. Kolchak, L. G. Kornilov, E. K. Miller, N. N. Yudenich).
White is the name of the opponents of Soviet power, which spread during the Civil War.
The Military Revolutionary Committee is the organ of the Petrograd Soviet for the preparation and leadership of an armed uprising. The regulation on the PVRC was approved by the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet on 10/12/1917. Most of the members were Bolsheviks, and there were also Left Socialist-Revolutionaries and anarchists. In November-December - the supreme emergency body of state power. Disbanded in December 1917.
The Provisional Government is the central organ of state power, formed after the February bourgeois-democratic revolution. It existed from March 2 (15), 1917 to November 25 (November 7), 1917. It was created by agreement between the Provisional Committee of the State Duma in 1917 and the Socialist-Revolutionary Menshevik leadership of the Petrograd Soviet. He was the supreme executive and administrative body, and also performed legislative functions. The local authorities of the provisional government were provincial and district commissars.
Second coalition. Provisional government of A.F. Kerensky (8 seats for the capitalists and 7 for the socialists) July 24 (August 6) - August 26 (September 8) 1917
Homogeneous bourgeois Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov March 2 (15) - May 2 (15) 1917
The first coalition Provisional Government of the book. G.E. Lvov (10 seats for the capitalists and 6 for the socialists) 5 (18) May - 2 (15) July 1917
Third coalition. Provisional government A.F. Kerensky (10 seats for the socialists and 6 seats for the capitalists) September 25 (October 8) - October 25 (November 7).
After the armed uprising in Petrograd, the deputy capitalist ministers who remained at large, together with a group of socialist ministers (Gvozdev, Nikitin, Prokopovich), decided to continue the activities of the Provisional Government. On the basis of a forged protocol of August 17 (30), the self-proclaimed Provisional Government issued orders against the Soviet government, received up to 40 million rubles from the State Bank, of which it paid salaries to saboteur officials. The underground Provisional Government “acted” until November 16 (29), 1917
All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies (after January 1918 - workers', peasants' and Cossack's deputies) - the body that carried out general management of the Soviets in the interval between the congresses of Soviets. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the first convocation was elected at the I Congress of Soviets (held from June 3 to June 24, 1917). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was formed at its first plenum on June 21 (plenums were convened weekly). The apparatus of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee included the Presidium, the Bureau and about 20 departments. After the October Revolution, a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected at the Second Congress of Soviets. It included 62 Bolsheviks, 40 representatives of other parties (of which 29 are Left SRs). At the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1918), 162 Bolsheviks were elected, 143 representatives of other parties (122 Left Social Revolutionaries). Since the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 1918), representatives of other parties in the All-Russian Central Executive Committee have not been elected. In January 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee formed the Council of People's Commissars, the people's commissariats to manage individual branches of government. The chairmen of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee were: from October 27, 1917 - L.B. Kamenev, from November 8, 1917 - Ya.M. Sverdlov, from March 30, 1919 - M.I. Kalinin. After the adoption of the new Constitution in 1937, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ceased to exist.
VChK - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-revolution, speculation and ex officio crimes; until August 1918 - to combat counter-revolution and sabotage) - formed under the Council of People's Commissars (decree of December 7, 1917). In December 1921, "in connection with the transition to peaceful construction" V.I. Lenin proposed to reorganize the Cheka, limiting its competence to political tasks. By a decree of February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee transformed the Cheka into the State Political Administration (GPU) under the NKVD of the RSFSR.
Civil war is the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. In the course of the war, the problem of power is being solved, which, in turn, should ensure the solution of the main life issues facing the warring parties.
Dual power - the simultaneous existence of two powers in Russia from March 1-2 to July 5, 1917.After the February Revolution, a peculiar situation developed in Russia: two bodies of power were simultaneously created - the power of the bourgeoisie in the person of the Provisional Government and the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry - Advice. Officially, power belonged to the Provisional Government, but in fact to the Soviets, since they were supported by the army and the people. The petty-bourgeois parties, which had a majority in the Soviets, supported the Provisional Government and completely ceded power to it in July 1917, which meant the end of the dual power. The period of struggle between two dictatorships for autocracy.
Decree (from Lat. “Decree”) is a normative legal act issued by the government. After the October Revolution, legislative acts were issued in the form of decrees, which were adopted by the congresses of the Soviets, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and the Council of People's Commissars. According to V.I. Lenin, "Decrees are instructions calling for a mass practical cause."
The dictatorship of the proletariat - in Marxist literature, this concept is defined as the state power of the proletariat, established as a result of the elimination of the capitalist system and the destruction of the bourgeois state machine. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the main content of the socialist revolution, necessary condition and the main result of her victory. The proletariat uses its power to suppress the resistance of the exploiters and destroy them completely; then the power is used for revolutionary transformations in all areas social life: economy, culture, everyday life, for the communist education of the working people and the construction of a new, classless society - communism. The basis of the dictatorship of the proletariat is the alliance of the working class and the peasantry, with the leading role of the working class .. In 1917, after the October Socialist Revolution, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established in the form of Soviets.
Intervention (from Lat. "Invasion") - the intervention of one state in the internal affairs of another. Modern international law considers intervention as an offense. The intervention can be both military and economic, ideological, carried out in other forms.
“Greens” is the name in Russia during the Civil War of persons hiding in the forests who evaded military service. Liquidated by the Red Army after the end of the Civil War.
Contribution (from Latin “to collect”) - money or other material values collected from a defeated state by the victorious state after the war, as well as compulsory monetary levies levied by the authorities from the population in the occupied territory.
Confiscation (from Lat. "Take away to the treasury") - seizure by compulsory means, without compensation by the state of the property of a private person. In Russia, as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, landowners' lands, private enterprises, and other property were confiscated.
The Kornilov mutiny is an unsuccessful attempt to establish a military dictatorship on August 27-31 (September 9-13), 1917, undertaken by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army of the General Staff, General of Infantry L.G. Kornilov. Suppressed by the forces of the Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government.
The Red Guard attack on capital is a term characterizing the methods of carrying out socio-economic measures of the Soviet state in the first 4 months of its existence (November 1917 - February 1918), when the task of direct expropriation of the expropriators was in the foreground. During this period, the Soviet government legalized and extended workers' control over production and distribution, carried out the nationalization of banks, transport, the merchant fleet, foreign trade, a significant part of large-scale industry, and a number of other measures.
Reds are a generalized name for supporters of the Bolsheviks, defenders of Soviet power during the Civil War and military intervention. In a broad sense, it is applied in relation to members of communist parties and adherents of communist ideology.
Educational program - the elimination of illiteracy, the same as the elimination of illiteracy. Mass campaign to educate adults in the basics of literacy in the 1920s – 1930s. As a result of the campaign by the end of the 30s. the literacy rate in the USSR has reached 90%.
Nationalization is the transfer of private enterprises and sectors of the economy to the ownership of the state.
Food detachment - food detachments, armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1921. They were created by the organs of the People's Commissariat of Food (part of the Prodarmia), trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets (procurement, harvesting, harvesting, harvesting and requisitioning detachments; the governing body is the Military Food Bureau of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions). We carried out surplus appropriation in the countryside; acted in conjunction with the commissars, food committees and local Soviets. Half of the seized bread was received by the organization that sent the detachment.
Prodrazvorstka is a system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of “war communism”, established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Obligatory delivery by peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surplus grain and other products. It caused discontent among the peasants, led to a reduction in agricultural production, was replaced in 1921 by a tax in kind.
Rabfak is a working faculty. In 1919-1940. a general educational institution in the USSR for the preparation of young people who did not have a secondary education in universities; were created at universities (training 3 years for daytime, 4 years for evening).
Reparations - compensation by a defeated state for damage to the victorious state.
Sabotage is the deliberate failure to perform duties or their negligent fulfillment.
Council of People's Commissars - Council of People's Commissars (SNK), the highest executive and administrative body of state power, the government of the Soviet state. He was first elected during the October Revolution at the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26 (November 8) 1917. Until his death, he was headed by V.I. Lenin, from 1924 to 1930 A.I. Rykov, from 1930 to 1941 V.M. Molotov, and then I.V. Stalin (in 1946 transformed into the Council of Ministers).
Communist clean-up - voluntary free work of workers for society. The first subbotnik took place on Saturday 12.4.1919 at the Moscow-Sortirovochnaya depot. The first massive subbotnik on 05/10/1919 at the Moscow-Kazan railroad... They spread during the Civil War. Since 1970, the All-Union Leninist Communist Subbotniks have been held.
Terror (from Lat. “Fear, horror”) is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures, up to physical destruction.
The Constituent Assembly is a representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage, designed to establish a form of government and develop a constitution. It was elected in November-December 1917 and met on January 5, 1918 in Petrograd, and after 13 hours of work it was closed at the request of the guard.
Emigration (from Lat. “To move, move out”) - leaving the country, associated with the loss of the status of a citizen of a given state and caused by economic, political or personal reasons, for the purpose of temporary or permanent settlement in the territory of a foreign state. States may permit the restoration of citizenship to expatriates.
1920-1930
Autonomization is an idea put forward by Stalin I.V. in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR with the rights of autonomies, which would violate their independence and equality.
Authoritarianism is a political regime in which political power is in the hands of one person or a group of persons. Authoritarianism is characterized by the complete or partial absence of political freedoms of citizens, the restriction of the activities of parties and organizations.
Antonovshchina - peasant movement of 1920-1921 in the Tambov province, directed against the Soviet regime and named after the leader and organizer (A.S. Antonov). The uprising was liquidated by the forces of the Red Army, sometimes even with the use of gas attacks. In June 1922 Antonov was killed. The abolition of the food appropriation system in 1921 significantly reduced the number of dissatisfied peasants.
“The Great Turning Point” is an expression of Stalin, with which he characterized the policy of forced industrialization and collectivization of agriculture, begun in the late 1920s in the USSR.
GOELRO (abbreviated from the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia) is the first unified state long-term plan for the restoration and development of the national economy of the RSFSR. Developed in 1920 under the leadership of V. I. Lenin by the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia. It was designed for 10-15 years, provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy on the basis of electrification. Mainly completed by 1931. The firstborn of GOELRO is the Volkhovskaya HPP in the Leningrad Region.
GULAG - Main Directorate of Forced Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention), in 1934-1956 a division of the NKVD (Ministry of Internal Affairs), which was in charge of the system of forced labor camps (ITL). Special departments of the GULAG united many ITLs in different regions of the country: Karaganda ITL (Karlag), Dalstroy of the NKVD / USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs, Solovetsky ITL (USLON), Belomorsko-Baltic ITL and the NKVD combine, Vorkuta ITL, Norilsk ITL, etc. conditions, severe punishments were applied for the slightest violations of the regime, mortality from hunger, disease and backbreaking work was extremely high. The prisoners worked for free on the construction of canals, roads, industrial and other facilities in the Far North, Far East and other regions.
Twenty-five thousand people - workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, who went to the countryside at the call of the Bolshevik Party for economic and organizational work in the early 1930 during the period of mass collectivization of agriculture. By the resolution of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), it was envisaged to send 25 thousand people, in fact, 27.6 thousand people went.
Industrialization is the process of creating large-scale machine production and, on this basis, the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. In Russia, industrialization has been successfully developing since the late 19th - early 20th centuries. After the October Revolution (from the end of the 1920s), industrialization was forcibly carried out by the totalitarian regime by violent methods due to a sharp restriction of the standard of living of the majority of the population, the exploitation of the peasantry.
Collectivization - the transformation of small, individual peasant farms into large public farms - collective farms - through cooperation. During the years of the USSR, it was considered as a programmatic installation of the agrarian policy of the CPSU (VKP (b)) in the countryside. The material base was created during the years of industrialization. It was carried out during the years of the 1st five-year plan (1928/29 - 1932/33). By the end of 1932, it was largely completed. By 1936, the collective farm system was fully formed.
A collective farm is a cooperative association of peasants in the USSR, mainly created during the period of collectivization in the late 1920s and early 1930s. XX century. They ran the economy on state land assigned to K. for the so-called perpetual use. The highest governing body is the general meeting of collective farmers, which elects the board, headed by the chairman, for the most part a protege of local party bodies, district and regional party committees. In 1986 there were 26.7 thousand collective farms. Most of the colonies had by that time been transformed into state state farms.
The Comintern is an international association of communist parties from different countries. It was formed on the initiative of V.I. Lenin, operated from 1919 to 1943 with the center in Moscow, in essence became an instrument for the implementation of the idea of a world revolution. Higher bodies: Congress (in 1935 the last 7th Congress was held), the Executive Committee (a permanent body). The Comintern was the historical successor to the First International (1864-1876) and the Second International (1889-1914). Since the end of the 20s. the Bolsheviks began to abandon the idea of a world revolution. On May 15, 1943, JV Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Sotsintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
Concession (from Lat. "Permission, concession") - an agreement on the transfer into operation for a certain period of natural resources, enterprises and other economic objects owned by the state; an agreement for the lease of enterprises or land plots with the right to production activities to foreign firms, the enterprise itself, organized on the basis of such an agreement.
The cult of personality is a policy that exalts one person, characteristic mainly of a totalitarian regime and propagandizing the exclusivity of the ruler, his omnipotence and unlimited power, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, eliminating democracy.
The Cultural Revolution is a radical revolution in the spiritual development of society, carried out in the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. XX century, an integral part of socialist transformations. The cultural revolution provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new, socialist intelligentsia, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control.
The League of Nations is an international organization, established in 1919. The official goal is to develop international cooperation, guarantee peace and security. The USSR was included in its composition in 1934. It was expelled in 1939 for aggression against Finland.
Peaceful coexistence is a type of relations between states with different social systems, which presupposes the rejection of war as a means of resolving controversial issues, their settlement through negotiations; equality, mutual understanding and trust between states, consideration of each other's interests, non-interference in internal affairs, recognition for each people of the right to freely choose their socio-economic and political system: strict respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries: development of economic and cultural cooperation on the basis of full equality and mutual benefit.
NEP (New Economic Policy) is a policy aimed at overcoming the political and economic crisis that had developed by 1920 in the Soviet republic. The highest point of dissatisfaction with the current policy of "war communism" was the Kronstadt mutiny. At the X Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin's food appropriation was replaced by a smaller in-kind tax. The main elements of this policy are: progressive income tax on the peasantry (1921-1922 tax in kind), freedom of trade, concessions, permission to lease and open small private enterprises, hiring labor, abolition of the rationing system and rationed supply, payment for all services, transfer of industry to full cost accounting and self-sufficiency. At the end of the 20s. the new economic policy was curtailed.
The opposition is an organized group opposing the ruling elite in terms of assessments, programs and policies. The main types of opposition are parliamentary and intraparty.
The tax in kind - introduced by decrees of the Council of People's Commissars in March 1921 to replace the food appropriation system, was the first act of the new economic policy. Charged from peasant farms. The size was set before spring sowing for each type of agricultural product (significantly lower than the surplus appropriation), taking into account local conditions and the prosperity of peasant farms. In 1923 it was replaced by the uniform agricultural tax.
The five-year plan is the period for which the centralized planning of the economy in the Soviet Union was carried out. Five-year plans for the development of the national economy of the USSR, or five-year plans, were intended for the rapid economic development of the Soviet Union. There were 13 five-year plans in total. The first was adopted in 1928, for a five-year period from 1929 to 1933, and was completed a year earlier. In 1959, at the 21st Congress of the CPSU, a seven-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1959-1965 was adopted. In the future, the five-year plans were again adopted. The last, thirteenth Five-year plan was calculated for the period from 1991 to 1995 and was not implemented due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent transition to a decentralized market economy.
Repressions are coercive measures of state influence, including various types of punishments and legal restrictions, applied in the USSR to individuals and categories of persons. Political repressions in Soviet Russia began immediately after the October Revolution of 1917 (red terror, decossackization). With the onset of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, as well as the strengthening of Stalin's personal power, the repressions acquired a massive character. They reached particular scope in 1937-1938, when hundreds of thousands of Soviet citizens were shot and sent to the Gulag camps on charges of political crimes. Political repression continued with varying degrees of intensity until Stalin's death in March 1953.
Socialist realism is a creative method of literature and art, officially approved by the Soviet leadership in the USSR and other countries with a socialist orientation, the essence of which is the expression of the socialistically conscious concept of the world and man, the depiction of life in the light of socialist (communist) ideals. It was formed initially at the beginning of the XX century. in the works of M. Gorky, the term itself appeared in 1932. Ideological principles: nationality, partisanship and humanism. The sculpture "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" by V. Mukhina became the symbol of socialist realism.
The Stakhanov movement is a movement of workers in the USSR for an increase in labor productivity and better use of technology. It arose in 1935 in the coal industry of Donbass, and then spread to other industries, transport, and agriculture; named after its founder - A.G. Stakhanov.
Totalitarianism (from Lat. “All, whole, complete”) is a model of the socio-political structure of society, characterized by the complete subordination of a person to political power, the all-encompassing control of the state over all spheres of society.
Trotskyism is one of the ideological and political trends in the labor movement. The Trotskyists, like K. Marx, associated the possibility of building socialism in one country only with the victory of the world revolution. In 1920-1921. During the discussion about trade unions, they called for the expansion of the methods of "war communism", the nationalization, and the militarization of trade unions. Much of what they promoted was soon applied in the Stalinist USSR. In the discussion of 1923-1924. the Trotskyists demanded a change in the norms of internal party relations, the expansion of party democracy, freedom of factions and groupings, and at the same time a more centralized economic policy, proclaimed the slogans of "dictatorship of industry", "overindustrialization". The 13th Party Conference in 1924 characterized Trotskyism as a petty-bourgeois deviation in the RCP (b). The 15th Party Congress in 1927 declared membership in Trotskyism incompatible with membership in the Party. Since 1929, Trotskyism as a political trend in the RCP (b) ceased to exist in connection with the expulsion of Leon Trotsky abroad, but much later the accusation of Trotskyism was considered one of the most serious in the years of Stalinist repressions.
Shock worker - a Soviet concept that originated in the first five-year plans, denoting an employee demonstrating increased labor productivity The shock worker movement was an important means of ideological influence. The names of the shock workers who achieved the most impressive results were widely used by Soviet propaganda as an example to follow (miner Alexei Stakhanov, steam locomotive driver Pyotr Krivonos, tractor operator Pasha Angelina, steelmaker Makar Mazai and many others), they received the highest government awards, they were nominated to elected bodies power, etc. The attitude to shock labor and shock workers among Soviet workers was twofold. On the one hand, a sincere desire to achieve high results in professional activity aroused respect. On the other hand, an increase in the labor productivity of some workers soon negatively affected the earnings of others, since the established production rates naturally increased, and the wage rates fell.
Federation (from Latin “union, association”) is a form of government in which federal units (lands, states, republics, etc.) that are part of the state have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Along with this, single federal (union) bodies of state power are formed, a single citizenship, monetary unit, etc. is established.
Cost accounting (cost accounting) is a method of planned management of a socialist economy, based on comparing the costs of an enterprise for the production of products with the results of production and economic activities, reimbursement of costs and income, ensuring the profitability of production, material interest and responsibility of the enterprise, as well as workshops, sections, teams, each worker in the fulfillment of planned targets, economical use of resources. In fact, it means admitting the principles of a market economy into a socialist planned regulated production.
1941-1945
The anti-Hitler coalition is a military alliance of states that fought in World War II against an aggressive bloc of Germany, Italy, Japan and the states that supported them. The beginning of the creation of the coalition dates back to June 1941, when the governments of England and the United States made statements about their readiness to support the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Nazi Germany. By the end of the war, the coalition included about 50 states. The USSR, USA, England, France, China, Poland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, India, Canada, took part with their armed forces in the common struggle against Hitlerite Germany and its allies, New Zealand and others. In 1944 Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary went over to the side of the coalition. The anti-Hitler coalition ceased to exist in the second half of 1947.
Blitzkrieg is a theory of a fleeting war with the achievement of victory in the shortest possible time. Created in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, this tactic of the German military command failed in the First and Second World Wars.
Blockade - encirclement by armed forces of an enemy territory, city, fortress, port, military base from land, sea or air in order to isolate the enemy from the outside world, as well as a system of measures aimed at isolating any state politically or economically, to put pressure on him.
The Great Patriotic War - the war of the Soviet people against Hitlerite Germany and its allies (June 22, 1941 - May 9, 1945), an integral part of World War II. The name "Great Patriotic War" began to be used in the Russian-speaking tradition after the radio address of I. Stalin on July 3, 1941. Started by Germany, the Great Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the fascist bloc. The Soviet Union lost 27 million people in the course of the battles, as well as the brutal fascist terror in the occupied territory and in concentration camps.
The second front is the front that arose against Nazi Germany in Western Europe in World War II. It was opened by the United States and Great Britain in June 1944 with a landing in Normandy (France).
Genocide is the destruction of certain groups of the population for racial, national or religious reasons.
Deportation (from Lat. "Exile") - during the period of mass repressions, the expulsion of a number of peoples of the USSR. In 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, etc. were evicted. In 1989, a Declaration was adopted on the recognition of illegal and criminal acts of repression against peoples subjected to forced resettlement.
The rationing system is a system for supplying the population with consumer goods in conditions of shortage. In particular, it existed in the USSR. To buy a product, it was necessary not only to pay money for it, but also to present a one-time voucher giving the right to purchase it. The cards (coupons) established certain norms for the consumption of goods per person per month, therefore such a system was also called rationed distribution. In the Russian Empire, cards were first introduced in 1916. Since 1917, they have been widely used in Soviet Russia. The abolition of the rationing system took place in 1921 in connection with the transition to the NEP policy. The rationing system was again introduced in the USSR in 1929. It was canceled in 1935. In connection with the events of the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, card distribution was introduced in July 1941, finally canceled in December 1947. A new and last wave of normalized distribution in the USSR (coupon system) begins in 1983 with the introduction of coupons, primarily for sausage ... Has come to naught since the beginning of 1992, due to the “vacation” of prices, which reduced effective demand, and the spread of free trade. For a number of goods in some regions, coupons were retained until 1993.
A radical turning point in the course of the war - strategic and political changes in the course of hostilities, such as: the transfer of strategic initiative from one belligerent side to another; ensuring reliable superiority of the defense industry and the logistics economy as a whole; achieving military-technical superiority in supplying the active army with the latest types of weapons; qualitative changes in the balance of power in the international arena.
Lend-Lease is a system of loaning or renting weapons, ammunition, food, medicine, etc., undertaken by the United States during the Second World War. US spending on Lend-Lease operations from March 11, 1941 to August 1, 1945 was $ 46 billion. The volume of supplies from the British Empire amounted to over $ 30 billion (% of the loan was 472 million) to the Soviet Union $ 10 billion (% of the loan was $ 1.3 billion).
The occupation zones were formed on the territory of defeated Germany as a result of the Yalta Conference. The American, British, French and Soviet zones of occupation were determined. A Soviet military administration in Germany was established to govern the Soviet zone. After the Federal Republic of Germany was formed on the territory of Trizonia, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in the Soviet zone on October 7, 1949.
Occupation (from Lat. "Seizure") - the temporary seizure of someone else's territory by military force without legal rights to it.
The guerrilla movement is a type of people's struggle for freedom and independence of the Motherland or for social transformations, which is waged on the territory occupied by the enemy, while the armed core relies on the support of the local population. Regular units operating behind enemy lines can take part in the partisan movement. It manifests itself in the form of conducting hostilities, as well as sabotage and sabotage. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. unfolded on the territory of the USSR occupied by the Nazis. Strategic leadership was carried out by the Headquarters through the Central Headquarters partisan movement, republican and regional headquarters. The partisan detachments and formations numbered over 1 million people. The partisans liberated entire areas, carried out raids, and carried out major operations to disrupt enemy communications.
Underground - illegal organizations fighting against the invaders in the occupied territories. "Young Guard" - an underground Komsomol organization during the Great Patriotic War in the city of Krasnodon, Voroshilovgrad region (Ukrainian SSR) (1942, about 100 people). Led by: O. Koshevoy, U. M. Gromova, I. A. Zemnukhov, S. G. Tyulenin, L. G. Shevtsova (all awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, posthumously), I. V. Turkenich. Most of the participants were executed by the Nazis. Lyudinovo underground in 1941-1942 in the Kaluga region.
"Rail War" - the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans during the Great Patriotic War in August-September 1943 to disable the enemy's railway communications in the occupied territory of Leningrad, Kalinin, Smolensk and Oryol regions, Belarus and part of Ukraine.
Evacuation (from Lat. "Empty, remove") - the withdrawal of troops, military property or the population during a war, natural disasters from dangerous areas, as well as from places planned for any major economic transformations (for example, flooding the terrain during hydraulic construction ).
1945-1991
Corporatization is a way of privatizing state and municipal enterprises by transforming them into open joint stock companies. It has been widely developed in the Russian Federation since 1992.
Lease contract - forms of organization and remuneration of employees of leased collectives within enterprises. A work contract is concluded with the administration of the enterprise, according to which the leasing team undertakes to produce and transfer to the enterprise at internal prices and tariffs a certain amount of products. He has the right to dispose of the products produced in excess of this volume on his own. Lease contract form. became widespread in the initial period of economic reform in the Russian Federation (1990-1992).
The bipolar system of international relations is the division of the world into spheres of influence between the two poles of power. An example of a bipolar world order is the Cold War between The Soviet Union and the United States (1946-1991). The second half of the 20th century was the only period in the history of mankind when the world was divided into two camps. Exceptions from the spheres of influence were only a few, most often small and insignificant from a strategic point of view, states that declared their neutrality.
Military-strategic parity - equality of countries or groups of countries in the field of armed forces and weapons.
Voluntarism is a policy that does not take into account objective laws, real conditions and opportunities. Accusations of subjectivity and voluntarism were brought against N. S. Khrushchev in October 1964 at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which led to his resignation.
The military-industrial complex is a military-industrial complex, the designation (owned by D. Eisenhower) that developed in a number of countries (USA, USSR, etc.) during World War II and strengthened during the period “ cold war”The alliance of the military industry, the army and related parts of the state apparatus and science.
Glasnost is a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.
GKChP - State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR, was created on the night of August 18-19, 1991 by representatives of the authorities who disagreed with the reform policy of M.S. Gorbachev and the draft of a new Union Treaty. The GKChP includes: O.D. Baklanov, First Deputy Chairman of the USSR Defense Council; V.A. Kryuchkov, chairman of the KGB of the USSR; V.S. Pavlov, Prime Minister of the USSR; B.K. Pugo, Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR; V.A. Starodubtsev, Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR; A.I. Tizyakov, President of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial Facilities, Construction, Transport and Communications of the USSR; G.I. Yanaev, vice-president of the USSR, member of the USSR Security Council. Troops were brought into large cities, practically all television programs were stopped broadcasting, the activities of parties, movements and associations, opposition CPSU were suspended, and the publication of opposition newspapers was banned. Further, the members of the State Emergency Committee showed indecision. In this situation, the President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin was most active. He called on all citizens for disobedience and a general strike. The center of resistance to the Emergency Committee was the White House, the building of the Russian government. Within three days, it became clear that society did not support the speech of the GKChP (putsch). The GKChP members went to Crimea to M.S. Gorbachev, where they were arrested. They were charged under Article 64 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (treason to the Motherland) in the GKChP case. They were later released from custody. The coup attempt, undertaken by the State Emergency Committee, hastened the process of the collapse of the USSR.
Demilitarization - disarmament, the prohibition of any state to build fortifications, have a military industry and maintain armed forces, the withdrawal of troops and military equipment, the conversion of military industries.
Monetary reform - changes carried out by the state in the field of monetary circulation, as a rule, aimed at strengthening the monetary system. On January 1, 1961, a monetary reform was carried out in the form of a denomination. For all deposits in Sberbank, citizens received one new ruble for 10 old rubles. Cash was exchanged without restrictions at the same rate. Monetary reform of 1991 in the USSR (also known as the Pavlovian reform - after the name of the Prime Minister of the USSR Valentin Pavlov) - the exchange of large banknotes in January-April 1991.
De-Stalinization is the debunking of the personality cult of Stalin and the rejection of repressive and mobilization methods of managing society. It began at the July (1953) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU with a speech by G.M. Malenkov, who condemned the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. After Malenkov's displacement, the process of de-Stalinization continues by N. S. Khrushchev, who made a report “On Overcoming the Cult of the Personality and Its Consequences” at a closed session of the XX Congress of the CPSU (February 1956). After the congress, the process of rehabilitation of victims of repression began. During the years of stagnation, the rehabilitation process fades. A new wave of de-Stalinization begins in the period of perestroika.
Dissidents are “dissidents”. The name of the participants in the movement against the totalitarian regime in the USSR since the late 1950s. Dissidents in various forms advocated the observance of human and civil rights and freedoms (human rights activists), against the persecution of dissent, protested against the introduction of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). They were repressed by the authorities.
“Iron Curtain” - after the speech of W. Churchill in Fulton on March 5, 1946, the expression “ iron curtain”Came to be used to refer to the“ wall ”dividing capitalism and socialism.
Stagnation is a designation used in journalism for a period in the history of the USSR, spanning approximately two decades (1964-1982). In official Soviet sources of that time, this period was called developed socialism.
The Cuban Missile Crisis is an extremely tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States. It arose after the deployment of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which was considered by the Soviet leadership as a response to the deployment of American missiles in Turkey and Italy, as well as to the threat of an invasion of Cuba by American troops. The most acute crisis, which put the world on the brink of nuclear war, was eliminated due to the sober position taken by the top leaders of the USSR (headed by N. S. Khrushchev) and the United States (headed by President J. Kennedy), who realized the mortal danger of the possible use of nuclear missiles. weapons. On October 28, the dismantling and removal of Soviet nuclear missile ammunition from Cuba began. In turn, the US government announced the abolition of the quarantine and the refusal to invade Cuba; the withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey and Italy was also announced in confidence.
Cooperation is a form of work organization in which a significant number of people participate jointly in one or different, but interconnected in labor processes, as well as a set of organizationally formalized voluntary associations of mutual assistance of individuals or organizations to achieve common goals in various areas of the economy. Based on a share participation.
"Cosmopolitanism" (from the Greek. "Citizen of the world") - the ideology of world citizenship, denial national patriotism... Rejection of national, cultural traditions, state and national sovereignty in favor of the so-called. “Common human values”. The campaign against cosmopolitans unfolded in the USSR in the post-war years. They were accused of being apolitical and lack of ideas, “servility to the West”. It turned into a rampant nationalism, persecution and repression against national minorities.
"Lysenkovschina" is the name of a political campaign that resulted in the persecution and defamation of geneticists, denial of genetics and a temporary ban on genetic research in the USSR. Refers to events that took place in scientific biological circles from about the mid-1930s to the first half of the 1960s. The events took place with the direct participation of politicians, biologists, philosophers, including the head of state himself, I. V. Stalin, T. D. Lysenko (who eventually became a symbol of the campaign) and many others.
A multiparty system is a political system in which there can be many political parties that theoretically have an equal chance of winning a majority of seats in the country's parliament. Begins to take shape in the USSR in 1990 after the III Congress of People's Deputies abolished the 6th article of the Constitution, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU.
New political thinking is a new philosophical and political concept put forward by M.S. Gorbachev, the main provisions of which provided for: rejection of the conclusion about the split of the world into 2 opposite socio-political systems; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible; proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; declaring as a universal way of solving international issues not the balance of forces of the two systems, but the balance of their interests; rejection of the principle of proletarian internationalism and recognition of the priority of universal human values over class, national, ideological, etc. It led to the end of the Cold War.
Nomenklatura - officials appointed by the authorities, the ruling stratum that dominates the bureaucratic system of government. Soviet nomenclature: a list of the most important positions in the state apparatus and public organizations.
Scientific and technological revolution (scientific and technological revolution) is a radical qualitative transformation of the productive forces based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of society, production, and a direct productive force. It began in the middle of the XX century. It sharply accelerates scientific and technological progress, has an impact on all aspects of society.
“Thaw” is a common designation for the changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that took shape after the death of JV Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by IG Ehrenburg (1954-1956). The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s - early 50s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned the personality cult of Stalin. The Thaw contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive shifts in the mid-50s. did not receive further development.
Passport regime is one of the means for monitoring suspicious persons in the types of state security protection. By observing their own nationals and foreigners arriving, the authorities may require them to provide identification, as well as proof that they are not dangerous to the peace of the state. Official documents proving the identity of a citizen and containing information about his gender, age, marital status, place of residence were introduced on December 27, 1932. By the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 8, 1968, new rules for registration and discharge of citizens in rural areas were introduced.
Perestroika is the policy of the leadership of the CPSU and the USSR, carried out from 1985 to August 1991. The initiators of perestroika (M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev, and others) wanted to bring the Soviet economy, politics, ideology and culture in line with universal ideals and values. Perestroika was carried out extremely inconsistently and, due to conflicting efforts, created the preconditions for the collapse of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
Human rights activists are persons who criticized the vices of the socialist system in the USSR, spoke out against the violation of human rights, suggested ways to reform and democratize the economic and political system of the USSR. The human rights movement operated in the 60s - 70s. Its active participants: Sakharov, Orlov, Solzhenitsyn, Voinovich, Grigorenko, Yakunin and others. Human rights activists published an illegal bulletin in which they published information about human rights violations in the USSR. The members of the movement were subjected to brutal repression by the KGB. They contributed to the preparation of the restructuring
A coup is a coup d'état by a group of conspirators, an attempt at a similar coup. The events of August 19-20, 1991 in Moscow are applicable to the term, the attempt of the State Emergency Committee to remove the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev from power, contributed to the rapid collapse of the USSR.
Easing international tension - improving relations between countries with different socio-political systems during the Cold War. The term appeared and was actively used in the mid-70s. XX century, when a series of agreements and treaties were concluded between the USSR and the United States recognizing the inviolable post-war borders in Europe, the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed
Rehabilitation - restoration (by court or administrative procedure) in rights, restoration of a good name, former reputation. The reform pursued the goal of getting rid of the excess money supply in cash circulation, and at least partially solving the problem of the deficit in the USSR commodity market.
Market economy is a socio-economic system that develops on the basis of private property and commodity-money relations. The market economy is based on the principles of free enterprise and choice. Resource allocation, production, exchange and consumption of goods and services are mediated by supply and demand. The system of markets and prices, competition are the coordinating and organizational mechanism of the market economy, to a large extent ensure its self-regulating nature. At the same time, a certain degree of government intervention is carried out in the economic systems of developed countries (provision of general conditions for the functioning of a market economy, implementation of social protection measures, etc.).
Samizdat is a way of illegal distribution literary works, as well as religious and journalistic texts in the USSR, when copies were made by the author or readers without the knowledge and permission of official bodies, as a rule, by typewritten, photographic or handwritten methods. Samizdat also distributed tape recordings of A. Galich, V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Kim, emigrant singers and others.
The CIS, the Commonwealth of Independent States is an interstate association formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. In the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS (signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk), these states stated that the USSR in the conditions of a deep crisis and disintegration ceases to exist, declared their desire to develop cooperation in the political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan joined the Agreement and signed the Declaration on the Purposes and Principles of the CIS in Alma-Ata with Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Later, Georgia joined the CIS. In 1993, the CIS Charter was adopted, which determined the main areas and directions of cooperation. CIS bodies: the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Council of Foreign Ministers, the Interstate Economic Council, the Interparliamentary Assembly with the center in St. Petersburg, etc. The permanent body of the CIS is the Coordination and Consultative Committee in Minsk.
The economic councils are territorial councils of the national economy in the USSR in 1957-1965, created instead of branch ministries.
The shadow economy is a term for all types of economic activity that are not included in official statistics and are not included in GNP.
Commodity shortage - shortage, shortage; goods that are not in sufficient quantity.
The Helsinki Process is a process of restructuring the European system of international relations on principles designed to ensure peace, security and cooperation. The beginning of the Helsinki process was laid by the final act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975)
The Cold War is a period in the history of international relations from the second half of the 40s to 1991. The Cold War is characterized by a confrontation between two superpowers - the USSR and the United States, two world socio-political systems in the economic, ideological and political spheres with the use of psychological means of influencing the enemy. Confrontation on the brink of war.
The sixties are representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, mainly of the generation born approximately between 1925 and 1935. The historical context that shaped the views of the “sixties” were the years of Stalinism, the Great Patriotic War and the era of the “thaw”.
1992–…
A share is an equity security that gives the owner the right to receive income, dividends, depending on the amount of profit of the joint-stock company.
Exchange - an institution in which the purchase and sale of securities (stock exchange), currency (currency exchange) or bulk goods sold by samples (commodity exchange) is carried out; the building where exchange transactions are carried out. In Russia, the first exchange was established in 1703 in St. Petersburg.
The Near Abroad is a collective name that emerged in Russia in 1992 after the collapse of the USSR for the CIS countries (and sometimes the Baltic states). The term is more of a historical and cultural nature than geographic. Among the countries belonging to the near abroad, there are those that do not have a common border with the Russian Federation (Moldova, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan), while some states directly bordering with it do not belong to the near abroad (Finland , Norway, Poland, Mongolia, PRC, DPRK).
Voucher, privatization check - in the Russian Federation in 1992-1994 a state security (bearer) of a target purpose with a specified par value. The privatization check was used in the process of privatization of enterprises and other property objects (federal, republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, Moscow and St. Petersburg). All citizens of the Russian Federation were entitled to receive a privatization check.
Devaluation - an official decrease in the gold content of a monetary unit or a depreciation of the national currency in relation to gold, silver or any national currency, usually the US dollar, Japanese yen, German mark.
Default - the economic crisis of 1998 in Russia was one of the most severe economic crises in the history of Russia. The main reasons for the default were: the huge national debt of Russia, generated by the collapse of Asian economies, the liquidity crisis, low world prices for raw materials, which formed the basis of Russian exports, and populist economic policy of the state and construction of the GKO pyramid (state short-term obligations). The actual date of default is August 17, 1998. Its consequences have seriously affected the development of the economy and the country as a whole, both negatively and positively. The exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar fell more than 3 times in six months - from 6 rubles per dollar before the default to 21 rubles per dollar on January 1, 1999. The confidence of the population and foreign investors in Russian banks and the state, as well as in the national currency, was undermined. A large number of small businesses went bankrupt, and many banks collapsed. The banking system was in collapse for at least six months. The population has lost a significant part of their savings, the standard of living has dropped. However, the devaluation of the ruble allowed the Russian economy to become more competitive.
Impeachment (from the English. "Censure, accusation") - a special procedure for bringing to justice (through the lower house of parliament) senior officials.
Conversion - the transfer of military-industrial enterprises to the production of peaceful products.
Corruption is a criminal activity in the sphere of politics, which consists in the use by officials of the rights and powers entrusted to them for the purpose of personal enrichment and growth of resources of influence. The result of corruption is the degradation of power, the increase in crime.
Liberalization of prices is an element of the economic policy of the Russian government, which consisted in the abandonment of state regulation of prices for most goods (since 1992)
Nanotechnology is the technology of objects with dimensions of the order of 10-9 m (atoms, molecules). Nanotechnology processes obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Nanotechnology includes atomic assembly of molecules, new methods of recording and reading information, local stimulation of chemical reactions at the molecular level, etc.
National projects are a program for the growth of “human capital” in Russia, announced by President V. Putin and implemented since 2006. The head of state singled out the following as priority areas of “investment in people”: health care; education; housing; Agriculture.
A presidential republic is a republican form of government in which, according to the Constitution, the president holds supreme power. The president can be elected by popular vote, parliament or any institution (Constituent Assembly, Congress of People's Deputies, etc.). After being elected, the president in a presidential republic receives the following advantages: he cannot be recalled or re-elected without extraordinary circumstances stipulated by the Constitution; enjoys the constitutional right to convene and dissolve parliament (subject to certain procedures); the right of legislative initiative; dominant participation in the formation of the government and in the selection of its head - the prime minister. According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the president has the right to continue to exercise his functions even after, as a result of general elections or the prevailing political environment, the balance of power in parliament has changed in favor of opposition to the president, his election program and political course. Moreover, due to the impossibility under these conditions to continue the policy proclaimed by him, the president, on the basis of the results of the referendum and the implementation of other procedures stipulated by the Constitution, can exercise the constitutional right to dissolve parliament and hold early elections. This form of government took shape in the Russian Federation after the October 1993 crisis.
Privatization is the transfer or sale of a part of state property to private ownership.
The separation of powers is a characteristic feature of the rule of law, based on the principle of delimitation of legislative, executive and judicial powers.
A referendum (lat. Referendum - what must be communicated) is a popular vote held on any important issue of public life.
The Federation Council - according to the 1993 Constitution, the upper house of the parliament of the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly.
Federal Assembly - according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, parliament is a representative and legislative body. Consists of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.
"Shock therapy" is a course towards improving the economy through its accelerated transfer to the rails of a market economy. It was carried out by the team of E.T. Gaidar (A.N.Shokhin, A.B. Chubais) in 1992-1994. (Gaidar reforms).