Plan

Lecture No. 1.

Shale gas.

Coal methane.

The largest gas fields World:

North (Qatar) 10640 billion m33

Urengoy (Russia) 10200

Yamburg (Russia) 5242

Bovanenkovsky (Russia) 4385

Polar (Russia) 3532

South Pars (Iran) 2810

Shtokman (Russia) 2762 (3800)

Arctic (P) 2762

Astrakhansky (P) 2711

Groningen (Holland) 2680

Gas hydrates - Substance CH 4 (H 2 O) N, in which methane molecules are introduced into the cavity of crystalline structures composed of water molecules. 164 CH 4 gas molecules in 1 water molecule.

Stocks 02800-25000 TRL. M3, recoverable 10%. Stocks are located under the water layer 100m. In Russia, 1100tl.m3.

Technology:

Absent. MESSOYOK GAS MOVEMENT, CONTAINING GAZED.

Idea: Move the hydrates in the gas directly in the formation with the subsequent selection of traditional methods

Evaluation: 6 times more expensive than the operation of conventional gas deposits.

Perspectives: Mass introduction by 2030.

Coal methane resources in major coal mining countries.

Canada 17-92 trill. M3

Russia 17-80

China 30-35.

Indonesia 13-15

Australia 8-14.

Technologies:

1. Technologies of metal discharge from working mines.

2. Technology of methane production from untouched coal formations outside of shaft fields - pumping of reservoir waters and hydraulic reservoirs. (water pumping takes up to 2 years, a lot of wells are required)

Prey In 4 countries and reached 70mld. M3 (USA - 57mld.m3, China - 6mmld.m3, Canada 5mld.m3, Australia - 2. Mining has begun in India.

Cost price Methane mining from coal layers - 115-305 dol.tys.m3.

Stocks:

Potential -200 TRL.M3

Technologically removed and commercial efficient - 12TRL. M3

OSN. Sex-I - USA, Canada, China, Poland France.

Technology:

Based on the combination of new geophysical methods for searching for fields of shale gas, inclined horizontal drilling and hydraulic reservoirs.

Experience: Prom. Development 1981 Mr Barnet in Texas.

Cost price -80-320 dollants.m3. In the USA - 140-220.

Subject: History domestic literature as a section of science on literature

1. The history of domestic literature as a section of science on literature. Theory of literature literary processBirth and genres, artistic methods.

2. Goals, objectives and results of the study of the discipline and its development.

3. The course of the course, the main sections.

Main literature

Bakhtin M.M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. Research of different years / M.M. Bakhtin. - M.: Hood. Literature, 1975. - 504 p.

Volkov I.F. Theory of literature / I.F. Wolves. - M.: Enlightenment, Vlados, 1995. - 256 p.

Gukovsky G.A. Studying the literary work at school: methodological essays on the methodology. - Tula: autograph, 2000. - 224 p.

Glyaev N.A. Theory of literature / N.A. Gulyaev. - M.: Higher Shk., 1975. - 271 p.

Esin ABPrinciples and techniques for analyzing the literary work: tutorial. - M.: Flinta, Science, 1998. - 248 p.

Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary / under the general ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.N. Nikolaev. - M.: Od Encyclopedia, 1987. - 752 p.

Mann Yu.V. Dialectics of artistic image / Yu.V. Mann. - M.: Soviet writer, 1987. - 320 p.

Basics of literary studies: A tutorial for philological faculties ped. Un-Tov / Mescheryakov V.P., Kozlov S.A., Kubareva N.P., Serbul M.N.; Under total. ed. V.P. Meshcheryakova. - M.: Moscow Lyceum, 2000.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of literature. Poetics / B.V. Tomashevsky. - M.: Aspect Press, 2003. - 334 p.

Tynanov Yu.N. Poetics. History of literature. Movies / Yu.N. Tynyanov. - M.: Science, 1977.

Fedotov O.I. Basics of literature theory: Tutorial for university students: in 2 parts. - M.: Vlados, 2003. - Part 1: Literary creativity and literary work. - 272 p.

Khalizhev V.E. Theory of literature. Edition Second. - M.: Higher School, 2000. - P. 294 - 344.

Uspensky B.A. Poetics Composition / B.A. Assumption. - St. Petersburg: Alphabet, 2000.

additional literature

http://ruslang.spbstu.ru/subjects/istoriya_otechestvennoi_literatury

http://slovari.yandex.ru/ ~Knigi/BSE/ltereTurov

http://humanitar.ucoz.ru/load/2-1-0-47

The history of domestic literature as a section of science on literature. Theory of literature, literary process, childbirth and genres, artistic methods

Literary criticism is a science of literature that has basic and auxiliary literary disciplines. Her emergence is related to the beginning of the XIX century, although the literary works of Aristotle appeared during antiquity, and he was the first one who tried to systematize them in his book, the first gave the theory of genres and the theory of childbirth literature (Epos, Drama, Lyrics). He also belongs the theory catharsisaand mimesisisisa (Find definitions). Plato created a story about ideas (idea\u003e material world\u003e art). The history of the development of literary studies from the XVII to the XIX century looks like this:

Literary criticism studies fiction of various nations In order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and expressing their forms. The subject of literary studies is not only fictionBut all the artistic literature of the world is written and oral. Modern literary criticism It is a very complex and movable discipline system.

There are three main branches of literary studies: theory of literature, the history of literature and literary criticism.

The most important part of the literature is the poetics - science on the structure of works and their complexes: creativity of writers in general, literary direction, literary epoch, etc. Poetics Related with the main branches of literary studies: in the plane theory of literature It gives a general poetic, that is, science on the structure of any work; In the plane history of literature There is historical poetics, exploring the development of whole artistic structures and their individual elements (genres, plots, stylistic images, etc.); It is possible to apply the principles of poetics in criticism.

In many respects, the stylistics of artistic speech occupies a similar position in the literature: it can enter the theory of literature, in general poetics (in this case, it is a study of one of the levels of structure, namely, a stylistic and speech level), in the history of literature (for example, language and style this flow and directions), as well as in literary criticism (stylistic studios of modern works, almost at all times were one of the favorite functions of criticism).

For literature as a system of disciplines, not only the close interdependence of all its industries is characterized (so, criticism relies on the history and theory of literature, and the latter take into account and comprehend the experience of criticism), but also the occurrence of the disciplines of the second row. There are theory of criticism, the history of criticism, the history of poetics (should be distinguished from historical poetics), the theory of stylistics of artistic speech, etc. It is also characteristic of the movement of disciplines from one row to another: so, criticism over time becomes the material of the history of literature, historical poetics, etc. . science Along with the above-mentioned basic disciplines of literature, there are many auxiliary: literary archival studies, bibliography, artistic and literary criticism literature, heuristics, paleography, textology, commenting on text, theory and practice of seasonally, etc. In the middle of the 20th century. The role of mathematical methods, especially statistics, in literary criticism, mainly in the vital, stylistics, textology, folklore, was intensified, where commensurate elementary segments of the structure are easier.

Textology - The philology industry, which studies works by writing, literature and folklore in order to critical verification, establishing and organizing their texts for further research, interpretation and publication. Examines text as such: manuscripts, publications, editions, writing time, author, place, translation and comments.

Poetics- one of the disciplines of literary studies, including: the study of common stable elements, from the relationship of which artistic literature, literary genera and genres, a separate work of verbal art; Description and classification of historically sustainable literary and artistic forms and formations; He studies the composition and structure of the literary work.

Paleography - Special historical and philological discipline that studies the history of the letter, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, ancient carriers of the text (only manuscripts), as well as monuments ancient writing In order to read them, define the author, time and place of creation.

Literary aesthetics He studies literature as a type of art.

Bibliography - auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on this or that subject

Library science - Science of funds, storage facilities not only artistic, but also scientific literature, consolidated catalogs.

Auxiliary disciplines - the necessary base base; At the same time, in the process of development and complications, they can identify independent scientific tasks and acquire independent cultural functions.

The diverse links of literature with other humanities, one of which serve its methodological base (philosophy, aesthetics), others are close to it on the tasks and subject of research (folklorism, general artistic), the third common humanitarian orientation (history, psychology, sociology). Multifaceted literature literature with linguistics based not only on material community (language as a means of communication and how construction material literature), but also on some contact of the gnoseological functions of the word and the image and some similarity of their structures. The fusion of literature with other humanitarian disciplines was recorded before the concept of philology as a synthetic science studying spiritual culture in all its linguistic written, including literary manifestations (in the middle of the 20th century. This concept is usually transmitted by the community of two sciences - literature and linguistics; in narrow The same sense it refers to textology and criticism of the text).

Literary process

Literary development has its regularities, which are reflected in the system of concepts that are grouping around the main concept - "literary process".

Literary process -the historical existence, functioning and evolution of literature both in a certain era and throughout the history of the nation, country, region, peace.

The shifts in the field of artistic consciousness occur, as a rule, when changing socio-economic formations or during the periods of revolutionary shocks. The main milestones of the history of European art - antiquity, Middle Ages, Revival (Renaissance), Baroque, classicism, enlightenment, romanticism, realism. Economic and social structure affects the literary process through the ideology.

The literary process in each historical era includes socially, ideologically and aesthetically inhomogeneous (disseminated) literary and artistic works - from high samples to epigonian, boulevard or mass literature. In addition, it includes the forms of public existence of works of art of the word: publications, publications, literary criticism, epistolary literature and memoirs.

The most important pattern of the literary process is the emergence of new aesthetic ideas, new artistic criteria, which indicate an approval in the history of a new class with its special aesthetic needs and ideals. However, art does not die together with his spent class, since it contains universal.

Artistic (creative) method -idean-aesthetic community peculiar to a series of writers and expressing in their work.

Artists of different eras can be close to each other by world, the ideological orientation of creativity and the principles of the image of life.

The method determines both the content and form in art. It gets an embodiment of both ideological works and in the principle of building an image, plot, composition, language. The method is an understanding and reproduction by the artist of reality in accordance with the peculiarities of his artistic thinking and aesthetic ideal.

The method is determined by three factors: reality, worldview of a writer, artistic thinking of a writer.

Being analogous structure of the art itself, the structure of the creative method has four corresponding faces: cognition of life, its assessment, transformation of vitality in a figurative fabric of art, building its figurative language.

The socio-historical conditionality of art generates a substantial community of the main creative attitudes of large groups of artists of one era, one social and economic formation, and the historical continuity of these installations. The creative method acts as a system of principles forming certain directions (currents) in art, artistic styles.

Concepts "Literary Directions" and "Currents" The set of fundamental spiritual and mean and aesthetic principles characteristic of the creativity of many writers, a number of groups and schools, as well as caused by these essential principles of coincidence and compliance of program-creative installations, subjects, genres and style. The struggle and change of trends and flows is the most important pattern of the literary process.

The concept of " direction »Characterize the following signs: community of deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations artistic contentdue to the unity of cultural and artistic traditions; Simplicity of world-up-minding writers and facing them life problems; similarity of an epocal social and cultural and historical situation.

At the same time, the world viewing of artists of one direction, their attitude to the problems set, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe paths and methods of their permission, ideological and artistic concepts, ideals may be different.

Literary flows, Groupingensure the immediate ideological and artistic proximity and the program-aesthetic unity of their participants: for example, "leukeists" in English romanticism; "Philosophical", "psychological", "civil" currents in Russian romanticism; "Psychological" and "sociological" flow in Russian realism; Group "Parnas" in France, Cubaturism in Russia, etc.

The literary flow in which the nearest creative followers of a prominent writer are called, called literary school ; eg, " natural School"In Russian literature, which united supporters of the realistic direction that developed the traditions of Gogol and fought for the critical orientation of the literature, its democratization, the image of a person in unity with the social environment.

Stylein the literature - a steady community figurative system, artistic expressiveness, characterizing the originality of the writer's creativity, a separate work, literary direction, national Literature.

The subject of literary studies is only such a literature that relates to the field of art, artistic creativity. Studying artistic literature, literary studitions becomes a number of art historical sciences, such as art history, music studies, theaters, etc. It cannot develop out of connection with other sciences on art, without taking into account their observations and generalizations about artistic work.

There is a third meaning of the word "genesis", for literary criticism the most significant. This is a totality factors (incentives) writing activitywhich occur both in the field of artistic literature and other types of art and beyond their limits (individual-biographical and socio-cultural spheres, as well as the world of anthropological universal). This aspect of the literary life we \u200b\u200bdenote by the phrase genesis of literary creativity. The study of the incentives of writers' activity is important as to clarify the essence of individual works, and for understanding the literary process - the patterns of the development of verbal art.

The development of the genesis of literary creativity in the science of literature is secondary in relation to the study of the works themselves. "Any genetic consideration of the object," said A.P. Spa, - must be preceded by the comprehension of its internal constitutional meaning. " However, in the history of literary criticism, genetic stages were preceded by the study of the literary works themselves in their multifacetedness and integrity. They almost prevailed in science on literature until the 1910-1920s.

Each of the literary schools focused on some kind of group of factors of literary creativity. Turn in this regard to cultural and historical school (Second half of the XIX century). Here, the condition of writing activity by extremistrative phenomena, primarily a public psychology. "The work of literature," wrote the leader of this school French scientist Hippolit Ten, - not just a game of imagination, a self-adherent whiming of the soul, but a snapshot with the surrounding morals and evidence of the famous state of mind<…> According to literary monuments, it is possible to judge how many centuries ago felt and thought. " And further: the study of literature "allows you to create the history of moral development and approach the knowledge of the psychological laws that manage events." Ten emphasized that the morals, thoughts and feelings in the literature depend on the national, socio-group and epochal features of people. These three factors of writing creativity he called race, Wednesday and historical moment. The literary work was realized more as a cultural and historical testimony, rather than aesthetic phenomenon.

Genetic advantage and aimed at extregnified facts was also sociological literary studies 1910-1920, which was the experience of applying the provisions of Marxism to the literature. The literary work, claimed V.F. Pereverzev, arises not from the writer's designs, but from being (which is understood as psychoideology Public group), and therefore a scientist must first of all understand the "social field" of the literary fact. The works were characterized by "as a product of a certain social group", as the "aesthetic embodiment of the life of some social cell." (In other cases, the term "social layer".) Literary criticism of sociologists of the beginning of the XX century. widely relied on the concept classity of literatureUnderstanding it as an expression of interests and sentiment ("psychoidology") of narrow social groups to which writers belonged to the origin and conditions of education.

In the following decades, the socio-historical genesis of literary creativity began to be understood by Marxist scientists more widely: the works were considered as an embodiment ideological position The author, his views, his worldviews, which have been realized as mainly due to (or even exclusively) the socio-political contradictions of this era in a given country. In this regard, the social and class beginning of literary creativity was identified differently than in 1910-1920, in accordance with the judgments of V.I. Lenin about the thickness: not as an expression in the works of psychology and interests of narrow social groups, but as the refraction of the views and sentiment of the widest seats of society (oppressed or dominant classes). At the same time, in the literary studies of the 1930-1950s (and often later), the class beginning in the literature was obilaterally focused on universal: the socio-political aspects of writers were put forward to the center and pushed their philosophical, moral, religious views, so that The writer was aware of primarily as a participant in the modern public struggle. As a result, the literary creativity is straightforward and designerously output From ideological confrontations of his era.

Desterived literary referral areas studied mainly historical and at the same time overseasy Genesis of literary creativity. But in the history of science there were other: nomination on the fore intracreate incentives The activities of writers, or, speaking otherwise, immanent began literary development. That was comparative direction In literary criticism halves XIX. in. Decisive importance by scientists of this orientation (T. Benfe in Germany; in Russia - Alexey N. Veselovsky, partly F.I. Buslaev and Alexander N. Veselovsky) was attached to influences and borrowings; The "stray" plots migrating (wandering) from the same regions and countries to others were carefully studied. The fact of dating writer with some earlier literary facts was considered an essential stimulus of literary creativity.

Of this kind of experiments of the immanent consideration of the literature were undertaken formal school In the 1920s. As a dominant incentive, the activities of the words were considered by their controversy with predecessors, repulsion from previously used, automated techniques, in particular - the desire to parody extinguishing literary forms. About the participation of writers in literary struggle As the most important factor of creativity persistently spoke Yu.N. Tynyanov. According to him, "every literary continuity is first of all the struggle," in which "there is no guilty, but there are defeated."

Literary creativity, further, was repeatedly studied as stimulated by universal, universal (transistoric) beginnings of human being and consciousness. This aspect of the genesis of literature was accentuated. mythological school, whose origins are the work of J. Grimma "German Mythology" (1835), where the creative spirit of peoples is aware as the eternal basis of artistic images, embodying himself in myths and legends, which constantly stay in history. "The laws of logic and psychology are common to humanity," the head of the Russian mythological school, the general phenomena in everyday life of family and practical life, finally, the general ways to develop culture, naturally, were to affect the same ways to understand the phenomena of life and express them equally Myth, fairy tale, ledge, parable or proverb. " The positions of mythological school, note, apply to a greater extent to the folklore and historically early artistic literature than to the literature of the new time. However, the art of the XX century. refers to the myth and other kinds of universals of consciousness and being ("archetypes", "eternal symbols") is very persistent and actively, which stimulates the scientific study of such universals (such, in particular, psychoanalytic Art history and literary studies based on the teachings of Freud and Jung on the unconscious).

Each of the concepts reviewed fixes a certain line of genesis of writers and has incredit scientific significance. But to the extent that representatives of these scientific schools were absolished by the stimulus of literary creativity studied by them, considering it the only important and invariably dominant, they showed a tendency to dogmatism and methodological narrow.

The experiments of a genetic consideration of literature that were discussed mainly to clarify the general, nadudividual incentives of writing creativity related to the cultural and historical process and anthropological universals. From such approaches differed biographical method in criticism and literary criticism (S. Saint-Bev and his followers) and to some extent psychological schoolrepresented by the works of D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky. Here, artworks are put in direct dependence on the author's inner world, from his individual destiny and personal features.

The appearance of supporters of the biographical method were presented to the hermeneutic teachings of F. Schleiermah (about hermeneutics, see p. 106-112), who argued that ideas and values, including artistic, cannot be understood without in-depth analysis of their genesis, and therefore - without Appeals to the facts of the life of a particular person. This kind of judgment had a place later. According to aphoristical words of A.N. Veselovsky, "The artist is brought up on the basis of man." P.M. Bicilli, one of the bright humanities of the post-revolutionary Russian abroad, wrote: "A genuine genetic study of the artwork can be only the one who intends to reduce it to the internal experiences of the artist."

This kind of presentation was justified in Article A.P. Spa, published in Saratov scientific periodical (1923) and for a number of decades remaining unnoticed. The scientist argued that the consideration of the genesis when the author of the author was inadvertently reduced to the mechanical statement of the facts of purely external: "The picture of the general must increase from the study of the private". "The factors acting on the process of creativity, he wrote," much, and the effectiveness of their unequal, they all subordinate to the individual's individuality.<…> The ratio of life (cultural and historical and socio-psychological. - VK.) And the works of art should not be installed directly, but through the identity of the author. Life is fluttered and peeled in the artwork<…> Quality (consciously or subconsciously) artist. " Literary criticism, considers scaffties, "opens the doors to recognize the need for general cultural, public and literary impacts, which touched the personality of the artist." The scientist justified sequentially undervalued and, one might say, actually a humanitarian approach to the genesis of literary creativity.

Studying artistic creations as stimulated primarily The features of the author's personality is particularly pressing when referring to the literature of the XIX-XX centuries, resolutely freed from genre canons. At the same time, the personal consideration of genesis does not cancel, and complements those directed concepts that emphasize the extitity of the determination of writing activities. After all, the author, with all that his personality is unique and self-reliable, thinks and feels, acts and speaks from the face of certain human communities, sometimes very wide (the course of public thought, estate and class, nation, denomination, etc.). This (in our opinion, with irresistible persuasive) said I.F. Annensky in the article "Lekont De Lill and his" Erinnia "": "<…> The laws of history do not change in the sake of the most passionate will (poet. - VK.). No one from us is given to get away from those ideas that, as another leg and debt before the past, are part of our soul with the most entry into our conscious life. And the more like a man's mind, the one who is relatively given to something common and necessary, although he seems to him that he is free and self Chose his task. "

The genetic consideration of the literature, actively taking into account the properties of the author's personality, allows the broader to perceive and deeper to its works themselves: to see in an artistic creation, as Vyach expressed. I. Ivanov, not only art, but also the soul of the poet. "Our approach to the art of modernity, - wrote G.P. Fedotov, formulating one of the most important principles of the religious and philosophical aesthetics started our century, - not as the sphere of purely aesthetic, but as a certificate of the intention or poverty of a person, about his life and death. " Such thoughts were expressed significantly earlier, in the era of romanticism. F. Schlegel wrote: "For me, it is not important for me some separate work Goethe, and he himself in all its favors."

Calculation of the ties of artistic creations with the personality of the author is in the most close relationship with interpretive activity, it is organically connected to it. For the "perfect understanding" of the text, noted G.G. Sail, pressingly uniting his "immanent" interpretation and genetic correlation with the identity of the author.

Summing up the rich experience of genetic consideration of literature, we conclude heterogeneity and multiplicity of factors Writing activities. These factors are legitimate in a certain way to group. First, straight lines are undeniable important incentivesMoving to the writer, what is primarily a creative-aesthetic impulse. This impulse accompanies the need for the author to translate its spiritual (and sometimes psychological and life-biographical and biographical) experience and thereby influence the consciousness and behavior of readers. According to TS Elista, a real poet "Together with the need to tell another experience." Secondly, in the composition of the genesis of literary creativity, the combination of phenomena and factors acting on the author from outside, that is, stimulating context artistic activities.

At the same time (contrary to the often proclaimed scientists from different schools) None of the factors of literary creativity are its tough determination: the artistic and creative act of its very nature is free and initiative, and therefore is not intended in advance. The literary work is not a "snapshot" and "blind" from one or another external author of the phenomenon. It never acts as a "product" or "mirror" of any particular circle of facts. "Components" of the stimulating context can hardly be built into a certain universal scheme, hierarchically ordered: the genesis of literary creativity is historically and individually, and any of its theoretical regulation is inevitably wrapped with dogmatic one-sidedness.

The stimulating context of creativity at the same time does not have complete certainty. Its volume and boundaries are not amenable to accurate characteristics. The Mayakovsky's answer is significant for a question, whether Nekrasov influenced him: "Unknown." "We will not succumb to the temptation of a small vanity - to resort to formulas, a priorinely establishing the genesis of creativity," wrote a French scientist of the 19th-XX centuries., Pauluming with a cultural and historical school. - We never know<…> All elements included in the genius. "

However, the consideration of genesis is free from dogmatism literary facts It is of great importance for their understanding. Knowledge of roots and origins of the work not only sheds the light on his aesthetic, actually artistic properties, but also helps to understand how the traits of the author's personality embodied in it, and also encourages the work as a certain cultural and historical certificate.

As part of a context that stimulates literary creativity, a responsible role belongs to an intermediate link between anthropological universals (archetypes and mythopoetics, on which literary criticism is currently focused) and intoleral concrete (the modernity of the writer with its contradictions, which with exorbitant perseverance was highlighted at the forefront decades). This midline of the context of writing activity is mastered by theoretical literature is not enough, so we will focus on it in more detail by contacting the senses that are denoted by the terms "continuity", "tradition", "cultural memory", "heritage", "great historical time".

The article "The answer to the question of the editorial office of the New World" (1970) M.M. Bakhtin, challenging officially proclaimed and generally accepted since the 1920s of the installation, used the phrases "Small Historical Time" and "Big Historical Time", Reasoning Under the First Modernity of the Writer, under the second - the experience of previous epochs. "Modernity," he wrote, "retains his huge and in many ways crucial. Scientific analysis can come only from it and<…> All the time should be checked with it. " But, continued Bakhtin, "to climb him (literary work. - VK.) In this era, it is impossible: it is fully revealed only in big time" The last phrase becomes in the judgments of the scientist about the genesis of literary creativity supporting, stem: "... the product goes its roots in the distant past. The great works of literature are prepared by centuries, only the mature fruits of a long and complex ripening process are removed in the era of their creation. Ultimately, the activities of the writer, according to Bakhtin, determine the existing existing, "the powerful flow of culture (especially the lower, folk)".

Legitimately distinguish between the two meanings of the word "tradition" (from lat. Traditio - transmission, legend). First, it is a support for past experience in the form of its repetition and variation (the words "traditional" and "traditionalism" are usually used here. Such a tradition is strictly regulated and have the form of rites, etiquette, ceremonial, strictly observed. Traditionalismit was influencing in literary creativity for many centuries, until the middle of the XVIII century, which was particularly brightly affected by the predominance of canonical genre forms (see p. 333-337). He later lost his role and began to be perceived as a hindrance and brake for activities in the field of art: entered the use of judgments about the "nest of traditions", about tradition as an "automated reception", and so on.

In the changed cultural and historical situation, when the ritual-regulatory began noticeably fastened both in public and in private life people gained relevance (this is especially clear in the XX century.) Another meaning of the term "tradition", under which they began to intell initiative and creative(actively selective and enriching) inheritance Cultural (and, in particular, verbal-artistic) experience, which implies the comraise of values \u200b\u200bthat make up the property of society, people, humanity.

The subject of inheritance is both the outstanding cultural monuments (philosophy and science, art and literature) and a small "tissue of life", saturated with "creative influences", maintained and enriched from generation to generation. This is the scope of beliefs, moral installations, forms of behavior and consciousness, style of communication (not least in-family), everyday psychology, labor skills and ways to fill leisure, contacts with nature, speech culture, domestic habits.

Organically learned tradition (namely, in such a form, it applies to exist) it becomes for individuals and their groups of a kind of guideline, one can say, a lighthouse, a certain spiritual and practical strategy. The tradition of tradition is manifested not only in the form of a clearly conscious orientation on a certain kind of value, but also in the forms of spontaneous, intuitive, unintentional. The world of tradition is similar to air, which people breathe, most often without thinking about what is invaluable blessing they have. According to the thoughts of the Russian philosopher of the beginning of the XX century V.F. Erna, humanity exists due to the free consequences of tradition: " FREE TRADITION <…> There is nothing but internal metaphysical unity of humanity" Later in the same spirit, I. Haseing spoke: " Healthy Spirit It is not afraid to take a weighty load of the values \u200b\u200bof the past on the road. "

For literature of the XIX-XX centuries. The traditions are indisputable (naturally, primarily in the second meaning of the word) as folk culture, mostly domestic (as in Germany, I. Gerder and Heidelbergian romance and culture of the educated minority (more internationally) were persistently. The era of romanticism carried out the synthesis of these cultural traditions; It happened, according to V.F. Odoevsky, "Merge of Nationality with General Education." And this shift has predetermined a lot in the later literature, including modern.

About the huge meaning of traditions (cultural memory) as an incentive of any creativity, our scientists speak very persistently. They argue that cultural equipment comes primarily in the inheritance of past values, that "the creative follow of tradition involves the search for a living in the old one, its continuation, and not mechanical imitation<…> Excessive "that the active role of cultural memory in the regeneration of the new thing is a milestone in the scientific knowledge of the historical and artistic process - the stage that followed the domination of hegels and positivism.

Cultural past, one way or another "coming" into the works of the writer, diverse. This, firstly, verbal-artistic agents that have been used before, as well as fragments of previous texts (in the form of reminiscence); secondly, the worldview, concepts) ideas that are already growing both in an extraordinary reality and in the literature; And finally, thirdly, the forms of extremely sophisticated culture, which in many respects stimulate and predetermine the forms of literary creativity (generic and genre; objective and visual, compositional, actually speech). Thus, the narrative form of epic works are generated extensive in real life of people with a tell about the earlier; The exchange of replicas between heroes and chorus in the ancient drama genetically correlated with the public interests of the life of the ancient Greeks; The Plutovskaya Roman is a receipt and artistic refraction of adventureness as a special kind of life behavior; The flourishing of psychologism in the literature of the last one and a half or two centuries is due to the activation of reflection as a phenomenon of human consciousness, and the like. About this kind of compliance between forms of artistic and extremities (life) F. Schleyermahter said the following: "Even the inventor of the new image form is not completely free to implement its intentions. Although it depends on his will, it will become or not the other life form of the artistic form of his own works, it is in the creation of a new one in the art in the face of the authorities of his analogues that are already inequalized. " Writers, thus, regardless of their conscious installations are "doomed" to rely on certain forms of life, which have become a cultural tradition. Special great importance In literature, the genre traditions have traditions (see p. 337-339).

So, the concept of tradition in the genetic consideration of the literature (both in its formal-structural side and in the depth of meaningful aspects) plays a very responsible role. However, in the literature XX century. (mostly avant-garde-oriented) is widely and other, the opposite idea of \u200b\u200bthe tradition, continuity, cultural memory - as inevitably associated with epigiance and not having a rid of genuine, high literature. According to Yu.N. Tynyanova, the tradition is "the basic concept of the old history of literature", which "turns out to be illegal abstraction": " it is necessary to talk about continuity only at the phenomenon of the school, epigalism, but not at the phenomena of the literary evolution, the principle of which is the struggle and shift».

And this sometimes is sometimes expressed by the idea that literary criticism does not need this concept. "It should be noted," writes M.O. Chudakova - that one of the undoubted, most obvious consequences of the work of Tynyanov and his like-minded people was discrediting the indefinite concept of "tradition", which after their critical assessment was in the air and then found a refuge in the texts lying outside of science. In exchange, she was "quotation" (reminiscence) and "literary subtext" (mainly for poetic texts)» .

Such a kind of mistrust to the word "tradition" and the deep meanings that stand behind him and are expressed in it, goes back to the desired "antitradiumism" F. Nietzsche and his followers. Recall the requirements that the hero of the poem-myth's poem "So spoke Zarathustra": "Break<…> old talked "; "I ordered them (people. - V.Kh.) laugh at their<…> holy and poets. " Military antitradeival voices are distributed and now. Here, not so long ago, the phrase interpreting 3. Freud in the Nietzshean spirit: "You can only express myself with the striking of the strongest and close to the spirit of the predecessors - killing my father, as challenges (italies Moy.-v.h.). Determining antitradiumism in the XX century. Compiled a kind of tradition, in his own paradoxical. B. Grois, who believes that "Nietzsche now remains an unsurpassed landmark for modern thoughts," says: "<…> The gap with tradition is to follow it in a different level, for the gap with the samples has its own tradition. " With the last phrase it is difficult to disagree.

The concept of tradition is now the arena of serious discrepancies and ideological confrontations that have the most direct relation to literary criticism.

This term, firstly, is indicated literary life A certain country and era (in the entire totality of its phenomena and facts) and, secondly, the centuries-old development of literature globally, a global scale. The literary process in the second sense of the word (it is about him that it will be discussed) is the subject comparative historical literary studies.

The fact that literary creativity is subject to change as history moves, self-evident. There is less attention to the fact that the literary evolution is performed on a certain sustainable, stable basis. As part of the culture (art and literature - in particular), distinguishable phenomena are individualized and dynamic - on the one hand, on the other hand - universal structures, long, static, often referred to topic (from dr. - gr. Topos - place, space). The topic in the ancients was one of the concepts of logic (theory of evidence) and rhetoric (the study of "general places" in public speeches). In the epochs close to us, this concept came into literary studies. According to A.M. Panchenko, culture (including verbally artistic) "has a margin of sustainable forms that are relevant throughout its length", and therefore is legitimate and pressing "A look at art as an evolving topic".

Topic is heterogeneous. Invariably present in the literary creativity types of emotional matters (sublime, tragic, laughter, etc.), moral and philosophical problems (good and evil, truth and beauty), " eternal themes", Conjugate with mythopoietic meanings, and finally, arsenal of artistic forms that find themselves use always and everywhere. Constant designated by us world Literature, i.e. topos (they are also called common places - from lat. Loci Communes) make up the limitation foundationwithout which the literary process would be impossible. The Foundation of the Literary continuity goes its roots to the stray archaic and from the epoch, the era is replenished. The experience of European novels of the last two or three centuries is indicated about the latter with maximum persuasiveness. Here, new topos, related to the artistic development of the inner world of a person in its multi-faceted relationship with the surrounding reality, were reproached.

The literary critic is rooted and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe presence of moments of community (repeatability) in the development of literatures of different countries and peoples, about its single "progressive" movement in a large historical time. The article "The Future of Literature as a subject of study" D.S. Likhachev talks about the steady increase in the personal start in literary creativity) on the strengthening of his humanistic nature, about the growing of realistic trends and all greater freedom selection of forms writers, as well as about recess historicism artistic consciousness. "The historicity of consciousness," the scientist says, "requires a person to aware of the historical relativity of his own consciousness. Histority is associated with "self-denial", with the ability of the mind to understand its own limitations. "

The stages of the literary process are familiar to thinking as corresponding to those stages of the history of mankind, which, with the greatest discrimination and completeness, appeared in Western European countries and especially brightly in Romanesque. In this regard, literature ancient, medieval and - literature of the new time with their own stages are distinguished (following the revival - Baroque, classicism, enlightenment with his sentimentalist branch, romanticism, finally, the realism with which in the XX century coexists and successfully competes modernism) .

Scientists mostly understood the stadial differences between the literature of the new time and the writing preceding them. The ancient and medieval literature was characterized by the prevalence of works with extremities (religious and ritual, informative and business, etc.); extensive existence of anonymity; The predominance of oral verbal creativity over writing, which resorted more than the entries of oral legends and previously created texts than to "writing". An important feature of the ancient and medieval literature was also the instability of texts, the presence of bizarre alloys of "their" and "alien", and as a result - "blurring" of the borders between the original and transferable writing. In the new time, the literature is emancipated as a phenomenon of an artistic actor; writing becomes the dominant form of verbal art; An open individual authorship is activated; Literary development acquires much greater dynamism. All this seems indisputable.

It is more difficult to deal with the distinction of the literatures of ancient and medieval. It does not constitute problems in relation to Western Europe (the ancient Greek and ancient Roman antiquity fundamentally different from the medieval culture of more "northern" countries), but there is doubts and disputes when contacting the literature of other, primarily eastern, regions. Yes, and the so-called Old Russian literature was essentially a writing of medieval type.

Discussion key question of the history of the World Literature: What are the geographical boundaries of the Renaissance with his artistic culture and, in particular, verbost? If N.I. Conrad and scholars of his schools consider the revival with global, repeated and varying not only in the West countries, but also in the eastern regions, then other specialists, also authoritative, consider Renaissance as a specific and unique phenomenon of Western European (mainly Italian) culture: "Worldwide The meaning of the Italian Renaissance acquired not because it was the most typical and best among all the happening renaissance, but because there were no other renaissance. This was the only one. "

At the same time, modern scientists depart from the usual apologetic assessment western European Renaissance, detect his duality. On the one hand, Renaissance enriched the culture with the concept of complete freedom and independence of the person, the idea of \u200b\u200bunconditional confidence in the creative possibilities of a person, on the other side - the revived "Fortune philosophy<…> Spirit of adventurism and amoralism. "

Discussion of the problem geographic borders Renaissance found the insufficiency of the traditional scheme of the world literary process, which is focused mainly on Western European cultural and historical experience and is noted limited, which is customary to refer to "Eurocentrism". And scientists for the two to three decades (the palm of the championship here belongs to S.S. Averintsev) put forward and substantiated the concept that complements and to some extent revising the usual ideas about the stages of literary development. Here, more than before, taken into account, firstly, the specifics of verbal art and, secondly, the experience of non-European regions and countries. In the final character of the 1994 collective article "Categories of poetics in shift literary epochs»The three stages of world literature are highlighted and characterized.

The first stage - this is " archaic period"Where the folklore tradition is definitely influential. Mythopoetical artistic consciousness prevails here and there is still no reflection on verbal art, and therefore there are neither literary criticism, nor theoretical studies or artistic and creative programs. All this appears only on second Stage The literary process, the beginning of which laid the literary life of the ancient Greece of the middle of 1 millennia BC. e. And which lasted until the middle of the XVIII century. This very long period is marked by a predominance. traditionalism Artistic consciousness and "poetics of style and genre": Writers were focused on pre-prepared forms of speech that responded with rhetoric requirements (for her, see p. 228-229), and were dependent on genre canons. Within the framework of this second stage, in turn, two stages are distinguished, the frontier between which was rebirth (here, we note, it will be aware of the advantage of European artistic culture). At the second of these stages, which came to the change of Middle Ages, the literary consciousness takes a step from an impersonal beginning to personal (although in traditionalism); Literature is more becoming secular.

And finally, on third StageThe "Individual-Creative Artistic Consciousness" was put forward by the "Individual Creative Artistic Consciousness" on the Advancence of Enlightenment and Romanticism. From now on, the "Poetics of the Author", freed from the All-Russian Rhetoric genre-style prescriptions. Here, the literature, more than ever, "it extremely brings together with the direct and concrete being of a person, penetrates his concerns, thoughts, feelings, is created by his measurement"; the era of individual-copyright styles comes; The literary process is closely conjured "simultaneously with the identity of the writer and the reality surrounding it." All this takes place in romanticism and in realism XIX century, and though in the modernism of our century. We turn to these phenomena of the literary process.

In the XIX century (especially in his first third) the development of literature went under the sign of romanticism, who opposed the classic and educational rationalism. Initially romanticism It was strengthened in Germany, having received a deep theoretical justification, and soon spread over the European continent and beyond. It is this artistic movement that marked the world-consumable shift from traditionalism to the author's poetics.

Romanticism (in particular - German) is very heterogeneous, which is convincingly shown in early works V.M. Zhirmunsky, who had the most serious impact on further study of this artistic system and were rightly recognized as a literary classic. The main thing in the romantic movement early XIX. in. The scientist considered not Dwellemirie and not the experience of the tragic reality (in the spirit of Hoffman and Heine), and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe spirituality of human being, about his "penetration" by the Divine Benefit - the dream "about enlightenment in God of life, and every fee, and every individual. " At the same time, Zhirmunsky noted the limitedness of the early (Iensky) romanticism, inclined to Euphoria, not an alien individualist, which was later overcome in two ways. The first is to appeal to the Christian ascetic type of medieval type ("religious renunciation"), the second is the development of the urgent and good ties of a person with a national historical reality. The scientist positively regarded the movement of aesthetic thought from the Dianda "Personality - humanity (MINIROOR order)", the meaning of which is cosmopolitan, to the inherent in Heidelberg romance to understand the enormous importance of the districts between individual and universal, what are the "national consciousness" and "peculiar forms of collective life of individual peoples." The aspiration of Heidelbergtsev to national cultural unity, their involvement of the historical past of their country was characterized by Zhirmunsky in high poetic tones. Such is the article "The problem of aesthetic culture in the works of Heidelberg Romantics", written in an unusual semi-massasian manner for the author.

After romanticism, inheriting him, and in something challenging, in the XIX century. A new literary and artistic community is strengthened, denoted by the word realismwhich has a number of values, and therefore heavenly as a scientific term. The essence of realism in relation to the literature of the last century (speaking of its best samples, often use the phrase "classic realism") and its place in the literary process are recognized in different ways. During the period of the domination of the Marxist ideology, realism was exorbitated to the detriment of everything else in art and literature. He thought of both the artistic development of social and historical specifics and the embodiment of the ideas of social determination, the tough external conditionality of the consciousness and behavior of people ("Truthful reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances", according to F. Engels).

Nowadays the importance of realism in the literature of the XIX-XX centuries, on the contrary, is often leveled, and even denied at all. This concept is sometimes declared "bad" on the grounds that his nature (as if!) It consists only in "social analysis" and "lifebody". At the same time, the literary period between romanticism and symbolism, which is familiar to the era of the heyday of realism, is artificially included in the sphere of romanticism or is certified as the "Roman Epoch".

The word "realism" from literary work, reducing and discrediting its meaning, there is no reason. There is also a clear one: the purification of this term from primitive and vulgar-proof surveys. Naturally reckon with tradition, according to which the word word (or the phrase "classical realism") is indicated by a rich, multi-faceted and ever-live artistic experience of the XIX century (in Russia - from Pushkin to Chekhov).

The essence of the classical realism of the last century is not in the socio-critical pathos, although he also played a significant role, and above all, in a wide development of living people with his close surroundings: "Microfusion" in its specificity of the national, epoch, estate, purely local and t . Realism (in contrast to romanticism with its powerful "butronically branch") is inclined not to the elevation and idealization of the hero, alienated from reality, who has eased from the world and he is taking off with an appropriately opposing, how much to criticism (and very severe) privacy of his consciousness. Reality was aware of realist writers as powerfully requiring responsible involvement to her.

At the same time, genuine realism ("in the highest sense", as F.M. Dostoevsky expressed) not only does not exclude, but, on the contrary, he implies the interest of writers to "great modernity", the production and discussion of moral and philosophical and religious problems, clarification of human ties With the cultural tradition, the fate of the peoples and all mankind, with the universe and the world order. All this is irrefutable for creativity as world famous Russian writers of the XIX century. And their successors in our century, what are I.A. Bunin, MA Bulgakov, A.A. Akhmatova, M.M. Svienne, Ara. A. Tarkovsky, A.I. Solzhenitsyn, G.N. Vladimov, V.P. Astafiev, V.G. Rasputin. Not only O. De Balzac, Ch. Dickens, G. Flaubert, E. Zola, but also J. Golsuorsi, T. Mann, U. Falkner, are not directly related to the classical realism.

According to V.M. Markovich, domestic classical realism, mastering socio-historical specifics, "hardly with the same force rushes beyond this reality - to the" last "entities of society, history, humanity, the universe," and this is similar to both the preceding romanticism and Subsequent symbolism. The sphere of realism, charging the "energy of spiritual maximalism", approves the scientist, includes supernatural, and revelation, and religious-philosophical utopia, and myth, and mystery, so "throwing human soul Receive<…> Transcendental meaning, "relate to such categories as" Eternity, Higher Justice, Providence Mission of Russia, the end of the world, the kingdom of God on Earth. "

We add to this: realist writers do not lead us to exotic gave on airless mysterial heights, into a world of distraction and abstractions, which were often inclined to romance (remember the dramatic poems of Bairon). Universal beginnings of human reality, they discover in the depths of the "ordinary" life with its life and "prosaic" everyday life, which carries people and harsh tests, and invaluable benefits. So, Ivan Karamazov, unpredictable without his tragic thoughtful and "great inquisitor", completely unthinkable and outside his painfully complex relationship with Katerina Ivanovna, father and brothers.

In the XX century Other, new literary communities coexist and interact with traditional realism. Such, in particular, socialist realism, aggressively implanted political power in the USSR, countries of the socialist camp and spread even beyond their limits. The works of writers who focused on the principles of socialism, as a rule, were not towering over the level of fiction (see p. 132-137). But in line with this method, such bright artists Words like M. Gorky and V.V. Mayakovsky, M.A. Sholokhov and A.T. TWARDOVSKY, and in some extent M. M. Svavin with his filled contradictions "Falling Dear". The literature of socialist realism usually relied on the form of an image of life characteristic of classical realism, but in its being confronted by creative attitudes and the peacefulness of the majority of the Writers of the XIX century. In the 1930s and later persistently repeated and varied by M. Gorky contrasting two stages of the realistic method. This is, first, characteristic of the XIX century. critical realismwhich was believed to rejected the situation with its class antagonisms and, secondly, the socialist realism, which claimed the newly arising in the XX century. Reality, compiled life in its revolutionary development to socialism and communism.

On the advanceness of literature and art in the XX century. advanced modernism, organically grown out of cultural requests for its time. Unlike classical realism, he most brightly showed himself in prose, but in poetry. The features of modernism - the most open and free self-discovery of the authors, their persistent desire to update the art language, focusing more on universal and culturally - historically distant than on close reality. All this modernism is closer to romanticism than the classical realism. At the same time, the beginning of the beginning, the growing experience of the Classic Writers of the XIX century, federately invading the field of modernist literature. Bright examples of this - creativity Vl. Khodasevich (especially his "Postbushkin" white five-colored jambs: "Monkey", "November 2nd", "House", "Music", etc.) and A. Akhmatova with her "requiem" and "the poem without a hero", In which the pre-war literary and artistic environment formed her as a poet is severely critical, as the focus of tragic delusions.

Modernism is extremely heterogeneous. He stated himself in a number of trends and schools, especially numerous at the beginning of the century, among which the first place (not only chronologically, but also on roles played by him in art and culture) by right symbolism, first of all, French and Russian. It is not surprising that literature coming to him is referred to postssimolismwhich now became the subject of close attention of scientists (acmeism, futurism and other literary flows and schools).

As part of modernism, in many respects defining the literature of the XX in "it is legitimate to allocate two trends, closely among themselves contacting, but at the same time multidirectional. Such avant-gardewho survived his "peak" point in Futurism, and (using the term V. I. TYUE) non-votedismism: "The mighty confrontation of these spiritual strength creates that the productive voltage of creative reflection, the field of grave, in which one way or another, there are all over or less significant phenomena of the XX century art. Such tension is often found inside the works themselves, so it is hardly possible to carry out an unambiguous demarcation line between avant-gardes and non-vitality. The essence of the art paradigm of our century, apparently, in disadium and inseparalization of the presentation of the moments. " how bright representatives Officonalism The author calls T. S. Eliota, O.E. Mandelstama, A.A. Akhmatov, B.L. Pasternaka, I.A. Brodsky.

The relatively historical study of the literature of different eras (not excluding modern), as can be seen, with irresistible persuasive detects the features of the similarity of literature of different countries and regions. On the basis of such studies, it was sometimes concluded that "by its nature" literary phenomena of different peoples and countries "one". However, the unity of the World Literary Process does not march it at one-quality, especially - identity identities of different regions and countries. In the World Literature, not only the repeatability of phenomena is deeply significant, but also their regional, state and national unique. We will move to this face of the literary life of humanity.

The deep, essential differences between cultures (and, in particular, literature) countries of the West East, these two great regions, self-evident. Latin American countries, the Middle Eastern region, Far Eastern cultures, as well as the Western and East (most advantage of Slavic) part of Europe have original and original features. The national literature belonging to the Western European region, in turn, differ markedly from each other. So, it is difficult to imagine, say, something similar to "posthumous note of the Pickwick Club" Ch. Dickens, who appeared on German soil, and something akin to the "magic grief" T. Manna - in France.

The culture of mankind, including its artistic side, is not unitary, not one-quality and cosmopolitan, not "unison". She has symphoniccharacter: each national culture with its original features belongs to the role of a specific tool required for the full sound of the orchestra.

To understand the culture of mankind and, in particular, the World Literary Process is urgent nonechanical wholeThe components of which, according to modern oriental, "are not like each other, they are always unique, individual, indispensable and independent." Therefore, cultures (countries, peoples, regions) will always relate to both complementary: "Culture, liken to other, disappears as unnecessary." The same thought in relation to writing creativity was expressed by B. G. Reisov: "National literature lives with a common life just because they are not like one to another."

All this determines the specificity of the evolution of literatures of different peoples, countries, regions. Western Europe Over the past five-six centuries, the dynamism of cultural and artistic life has discovered in the history of mankind; The evolution of other regions is conjugate with much greater stability. But no matter how many paths and the pace of development of individual literatures are diverse, they all move from the era to the era in one direction: these stages we talked about.

The symphonic unity, which was discussed, is ensured by worldwide literature primarily by a single investigativeness foundation (see the topic. 356-357), as well as the generality of development steps (from archaic mythopoethics and rigid traditionalism to the free identification of author's individuality). The beginning of the essential proximity between the literature of different countries and the eras is called typological convergences, or conventions. Along with the latest combining role in the literary process play international literary ties (Contacts: Influences and borrowing).

Influence It is customary to call an impact on the literary work of preceding worldviews, ideas, artistic principles (by the advantage of the ideological influence of Rousseau on L.N. Tolstoy; the refraction of the genre-style features of Byronov's poems in the romantic poems of Pushkin). Borrowing - this is the use of the writer (in some cases - passive and mechanical, in others - creatively initiative) single plots, motifs, text fragments, speech revolutions, etc. borrowing, as a rule, are embodied in the remniscovers that were discussed above (See p. 253-259).

Impact on writers of literary experience of other countries and peoples, as noted by A.N. Veselovsky (Paulumizing with traditional comparative), "suggests not an empty place in perceiving, and counter-flow, similar direction of thinking, similar images of fantasy." Fruit influences and borrowing "from outside" are the creative-creative contact of different, in many ways are not similar to each other literature. According to B. G. Reizov, international literary relations (in the most significant manifestations), "stimulating development<…> Literature<…> Develop their national peculiarity. "

At the same time, on the steep turns of the historical development, the intensive introduction of one or another literature towards an intennoval, Dotlie someone else's experience is sometimes the danger of subordination to foreign influences, the threat of cultural and artistic assimilation. For world artistic culture, wide and multidimensional contacts between literature of different countries and peoples (which spoke about Goethe), but at the same time the "cultural hegemonicism" of literatures that have a reputation world-renowned are not a reputation. Easy "step-off" of national literature through its own cultural experience to someone else, perceived as something higher and universal, is fraught with negative consequences. "At the vertices cultural creativity"According to the philosopher and culturologist N.S. Arsenyev, there is a "compound of spiritual openness with spiritual rooting."

It is hardly a largest phenomenon in the field of international literary ties of the new time - the intensive impact of Western European experience in other regions (Eastern Europe and non-European countries and peoples). This worldwide significant cultural phenomenon, referred to europeanization, or westernization, or modernization, interpreted and estimated in different ways, becoming the subject of endless discussions and disputes.

Modern scientists pay close attention both to the crisis and even negative aspects of Europeanization and its positive significance for "non-impex-European" cultures and literature. In this regard, a very representative article "Some features of the literary process in the East" (1972) G.S. Orange, one of the bright modern cultures. According to the scientist who are familiar to Western European countries in the "non-European soil" are deformed; As a result of copying someone else's experience, "spiritual chaos" arises. The consequence of modernization is "Anclaxity" (the focal) of culture: the "islands" is reproached by a new sample, contrasting with the traditional and sustainable world of the majority, so the nation and the state risk losing integrity. And in connection with all this, there is a split in the field of public thought: there is a confrontation between the Westerners (Westernizers-enlighteners) and ethnofils (romantic kingdoms) - the custodians of domestic traditions, which are forced to defend against the blurring of the national life "colorless cosmopolitanism."

The prospect of overcoming such conflicts GS Pomerance sees in the awareness of the "middle European" values \u200b\u200bof the cultures of the East. And regards the westernization as a deeply positive phenomenon of world culture.

In many ways, similar thoughts significantly earlier (and with a greater point of criticality to europecentrism) were expressed in the book of the famous philologist and the culturologist N.S. Trubetskoy "Europe and humanity" (1920). Giving tribute to the romanian-German culture and noting its worldwide importance, the scientist at the same time emphasized that it is far from the culture of all mankind that the complete acquisition of the whole people to the cultural, created by the other people, is in principle the impossible and that the mixture of cultures is dangerous . Consumer Europeanization goes from top to bottom and affects only a part of the people, and therefore the cultural layers are separated from each other and the class struggle is enhanced. In this regard, the acquisition of peoples to European culture is carried out hastily: the galloping evolution "shelters national forces". And there is a tough conclusion: "One of the most serious consequences of the Europeanization is the destruction of national unity, dismemberment of the national body of the people." Note that another, positive side of the recruitment of a number of regions to Western European culture is also important: perspective organic The compounds began primary, soil - and digested from the outside. He said good about her. Gachev. In history notwestern European literatures, he noted, took place the moments and stages when they were "energetic, sometimes violent pulling to a modern European lifestyle, which at first could not not lead to the well-known denationalization of life and literature." But over time, the culture that has experienced a strong ingenic influence, as a rule, "detects its national content, elasticity, conscious, critical attitude and selection of foreign material".

About this kind of cultural synthesis in relation to Russia XIX century. wrote N.S. Arsenyev: The development of Western European experience went here on increasing, "Hand in hand with an extraordinary climax of national self-consciousness, with a boiling of creative forces rising from depths people's Life <…> The best in Russian cultural and spiritual life was born from here. " The highest result of cultural synthesis Scientist sees in the work of Pushkin and Tyutchev, L.N. Tolstoy and A. K. Tolstoy. Something similar in the XVII-XIX centuries. Observed in other Slavic literature) where, according to A.V. Lipatova, had a "interconnection" and "compound" of elements of literary areas that came from the West with "traditions of local writing and culture", which marked the "awakening of the national identity, revival of the national culture and the creation of a national literature of the modern type."

International relations (cultural and artistic and self-literary), as can be seen, are (along with typological converges) the most important factor The formation and strengthening of the symphonic unity of regional and national literature.

With a relatively historical study of literature, it is very serious and difficult to solve the issues of terminology. Traditionally allocated international literary community (Baroque, classicism, enlightenment, etc.) are called literary trends, then literary directions, then artistic systems. At the same time, the terms "literary flow" and " literary direction»Sometimes filled with a narrower, concrete meaning. So, in the works of G.N. Pospelova literary flows- This is the refraction in the works of writers and poets of certain public views (worldlyozarts, ideologies), and directions-This writer groups arising from the generality of aesthetic views and certain artistic activities (expressed in treatises, manifestations, slogans). The flows and directions in this meaning of words are the facts of individual national literature, but not international community.

International literary communities ( art systems As I called I.F. Wolves) of clear chronological frameworks do not have: often in the same era, various literary and generally educated "directions" coexist, which seriously hampers their systemic, logically ordered consideration. B.G. Reisons wrote: "A large writer of the era of romanticism can be a classic (classicist. - VK.) Or a critical realist, the Writer of the Epoch of Realism can be a romantic or naturalist. " The literary process of this country and this era is also not reduced to the coexistence of literary flows and directions. MM Bakhtin reasonably warned scientists from the "information" of the literature of this or that period "to the surface struggle of literary directions". With a narrowly aimed approach to literature, the scientist notes, the most important aspects, "determining the creativity of writers, remain not disclosed." (Recall that the "main characters" of the literary process Bakhtin considered genres.)

The literary life of the 20th century confirms these considerations: many large writers (M.A. Bulgakov, A.P. Platonov) carried out their creative tasks, while on the side of the modern literary groups. Deserves the close attention of the hypothesis D.S. Likhacheva, according to which the flow rate of the direction of directions in the literature of our century is the "expressive sign of their approaching end." The change of international literary flows (artistic systems), as can be seen, does not exhaust the creatures of the literary process (nor Western European, nor the more world). There was no, strictly speaking, the eras of the Renaissance, Baroque, Enlightenment, etc., but took place in the history of art and literature periods that marked noticeable and sometimes decisive significance began. The complete identity of the literature of a particular chronological strip with some kind of mineoso-artistic tendency, even most of the most preliminarily meaningful at this time, is unthinkable. The terms "literary flow", or "direction", or "artistic system" therefore approves to operate carefully. Judgments about changing flows and directions is not a "latter" to the laws of the literary process, but only a very approximate schematization (even in relation to Western European literature, not to mention the artistic literature of other countries and regions).

In the study of the literary process, scientists are based on other theoretical concepts, in particular - methods and style. Throughout a number of decades (since the 1930s), a term is put forward on the advancement of our literary criticism creative method As a characterization of literature as knowledge (development) of social life. Sweeping each other of the flow and directions were considered as noted by a greater or less measure of the presence in them Realism. So, I.F. Wolves analyzed artistic systems mainly on the part of the creative method underlying them.

The rich tradition has the consideration of the literature and its evolution in the aspect styles, understood very widely, as a sustainable complex of formal-artistic properties (the concept of artistic style was developed by I. Winkelman, Goethe, Hegel; it attracts the attention of scientists and our centuries to himself). International Literary Communion D.S. Likhachev called "Great styles", distinguishing in their composition primary (with simplicity and plausibility) and secondary (more decorative, formalized, conditional). The centuries-old literary process The scientist considers as a kind of oscillatory movement between the primary styles (longer) and secondary (short-term). To the first he refers Romance style, Renaissance, classicism, realism; To the second - gothic, baroque, romanticism.

Over the past years, the study of the literary process on a global scale is increasingly evaluated as a development historical poetics. (On the meaning of the term "poetics" see p. 143-145.) The subject of this scientific disciplineexisting as part of comparative historical literary studies - the evolution of verbal-artistic forms (possessing meaningful), as well as the creative principles of writers: their aesthetic installations and artistic minozersia.

The founder and the creator of historical poetics A.N. Veselovsky identified her subject next words: "The evolution of the poetic consciousness and its forms" of the last decades of their life, the scientist dedicated to the development of this scientific discipline ("Three chapters from historical poetics", articles about epithet, epic repetitions, psychological parallelism, an unfinished study "Pooting of plots"). Subsequently, the patterns of the evolution of literary forms were discussed by representatives of the formal school ("On Literary Evolution" and other articles by Yu.N. Tynyanov). In line with the traditions of Veselovsky worked M.M. Bakhtin [these are his work on Rabl and Chronotope ("forms of time and chronotop in the novel"); The latter has a subtitle "Essays by historical poetics"]. In the 1980s, the development of historical poetics is becoming increasingly active.

Before modern scientists there is a task of creating monumental studies on historical poetics: It is necessary to be constructive (taking into account the rich experience of the XX century., Both art and scientific) continue to work, started century ago A.N. Veselovsky. The final work on the historical poetics is legitimately in the form of the history of world literature, which will not have a chronologically descriptive form (from the era to the epoch, from the country to the country, from the writer to the writer, what is the recently completed eight-year "History of World Literature"). This monumental work is likely to be a study, consistently structured on the basis of the concepts of theoretical poetics and the summing of the centuries-old literary and artistic experience of various peoples, countries, regions.

Notes:

The history of literary criticism as such is not considered any expanded. She is dedicated special work. Cm.: Nikolaev P.A., Kurilov A. S., Grishunin Al. The history of Russian literary studies. M., 1980; Kosikov G.K. Foreign literary criticism and theoretical problems of science on literature // Foreign aesthetics and theory of literature XIX-XX centuries: Treats, articles, essays. M., 1987. The summating coverage of the fate of the domestic theoretical literary criticism of the XX century., I want to hope, will be undertaken in the coming years.

Saparov MA Understanding the artwork and terminology of literary criticism // The interaction of sciences in the study of literature. L., 1981. P. 235.

Belinsky V.G. Poly. Cathedral So.: at 13 t. M., 1953. T. 3. P. 53.

Cm.: Pospelov G.N. Art and aesthetics. M., 1984. P. 81-82.

Cm.: Mikhailov A.V. Character problem in art: painting, sculpture, music // Mikhailov A.V. Cultural languages: studies. Deputy Cultural Science. M., 1997.

Davydov Yu.N.. Culture - Nature - tradition // Tradition in the history of culture. M., 1978. P. 60.

Likhachev D.S.. Past - the future: articles and essays. L., 1985. P. 52, 64-67.

Lotman Yu.M.. Memory in cultural lighting // Wiener Slawistischert Almanach. BD. 16. Wien, 1985.

Schleiermacher F. D. E. Henneneutik und Kritik. Fr. a. M., 1977. S. 184.

Tynanov Yu.N. Poetics. History of literature. Movie. Pp. 272, 258. A similar rapprochement of continuity and epigalism, in our opinion, one-way and vulnerable, for it gives reason to incorrectly enroll in the "imitatives" of such bright and original writers of traditionalists as I.S. Shmelev and B.K. Zaitsev, MA Sholokhov and A.T. Tvardovsky, V.G. Rasputin and V.I. Belov, V.P. Astafiev and E.I. Nose.

Chudakova M.O.. To the concept of genesis // Revue des Etudes Slaves. Fascicule 3, Paris, 1983. P. 410-411.

Likhachev D.S.. Past - the future: articles and essays. P. 175.

Cm.: Konrad N.I. On the Renaissance Epoch // Konrad N.I. West and East: Articles. L., 1972 (end § 1, § 7-8).

Botkin L.M.. Type of culture as historical integrity: Methodological notes in connection with Italian revival // Vopr. philosophy. 1969. No. 9. P. 108.

Lotman Yu.M.. Technical progress As a cultural problem // Scientists / Tartu University. Vol. 831. Tartu, 1988. P. 104. For the same see: Losev A.F.. Aesthetics Renaissance. M., 1978 (" back side titanism "and other sections).

Averintsev S.S., Andreev M.L., Gasparov M.L., Grinzer P.A., Mikhailov A.V. Pharmacy categories in changing literary eras. P. 33.

About romanticism as an international phenomenon, see the corresponding section (author I.A. Teterian) Q: History of World Literature: In 8 tons. M., 1989. T. 6.

Zhirmunsky V.M.. Heine and romanticism // Russian thought. 1914. No. 5. S. 116. CM. also: Zhirmunsky V.M.. German romanticism and modern mysticism. St. Petersburg, 1996 (1st ed.-1914).

Zhirmunsky V.M. Religious renunciation in the history of romanticism: materials for the characteristics of K. Brentano and Heidelberg romantics. M., 1919. P. 25.

Cm.: Zhirmunsky V.M.. From the history of Western European literature. L., 1981. From many later works about romanticism, see: Vanaslov V.V. Aesthetics of romanticism. M., 1966; Berkovsky N.Ya.. Romanticism in Germany. L., 1973; Fedorov F.P.. Romantic Art World: space and time. Riga, 1988; Mann Yu.V.. Dynamics of Russian romanticism. M., 1995.

Cm.: Jacobson P. O.. About art realism // Jacobson P.O. Works on the poetics. P. 387-393.

Marx K., Engels F. Cit. 2nd ed. M., 1965. T. 37. P. 35.

Cm.: Zatonsky D.V.. What should not be the history of literature? // Vopr. Literature. 1998. January - February. P. 6, 28-29.

Markovich V.M.. The question of literary directions and the construction of the history of Russian literature of the XIX century // Izvestia / RAS. Departure Literature and language. 1993. No. 3. P. 28.

See: Getting rid of mirages. Social realism today. M., 1990.

See: Materials of International Scientific Conferences in the Russian State Humanitarian University: Postssimolism as a cultural phenomenon. Vol. 1-2. M., 1995,1998.

Cm.: Tyu V.I.. Polarization of literary consciousness // Liteiatura Rosyjska XX Wieku. NOWE CZASY. NOWE PROBLEMY. Seria "Literatura Na Pograniczach". No. 1. Warszawa, 1992. P. 89; see also: Tyu V.I.. Postssimolism. Theoretical essays of Russian poetry of the 20th century. Samara, 1998.

Konrad N.I. On some issues of the history of world literature // Konrad N.I.. West and East. P. 427.

I use an expression of art historian Yu.d. Kolpinsky. See: The history of the culture of the ancient world. M., 1977. P. 82.

On an inseparable connection creative start In the life of people with their national involvement and rooting, see: Bulgakov S.N.. Nation and humanity (1934) // Bulgakov S.N.. So.: 2 t. M., 1993. T. 2.

Grigorieva T.P.. Tao and Logos (meeting of cultures). M., 1992. P. 39, 27.

Questions of the methodology of literary studies. M.; L., 1966. P. 183. On the essential differences in the ancient literature of the Middle East and Greece, which largely identified the fate of the entire European culture (including artistic) See: Averintsev S.S.. Ancient Greek literature and Middle East literature (confrontation and meeting of two creative principles) // Typology and interrelation of literature ancient Mira. M., 1971 (especially p. 251-252).

Cm.: Zhirmunsky V.M. Literary flows as an international phenomenon // Zhirmunsky V.M. Comparative literary studies. East and West. L "1979. Pp. 137-138.

Veselovsky A.N.. Speakers in the field of Russian spiritual verse. Vol. 5. St. Petersburg., 1889. S. 115.

Repament B.G.. History and theory of literature. L., 1986. P. 284.

Cm.: Goethe I.V.. West East sofa. P. 668-669.

Arsenyev D. S.. From the Russian cultural and creative tradition. FR.A. M., 1959.s. 151. The fact that international cultural contacts are marked by comparison (comparison) of "their" and "foreign" (in optimal versions - with the aware of their equivalence), see: Toporov V.N.. Space of culture and meeting in it / / East - West: Research. Translations. Publications. Vol. 4. M., 1989.

China's literature and culture. M., 1972. P. 296-299, 302. See also: Oranges G.S.

Likhachev D.S.. Past - the future. P. 200.

Cm.: Volkov I.F.. Creative methods and artistic systems, 2nd ed. M., 1989. P. 31-32, 41-42, 64-70.

See: Introduction to literary studies: Reader // Ed. P.A. Nikolaev. M., 1997. P. 267-277.

Cm.: Likhachev D.S.. The development of Russian literature X - XVII centuries: era and styles. M., 1973. P. 172-183.

Cm.: Veselovsky A.N.. From the introduction to historical poetics (1893) // Veselovsky A.N.. Historical poetics. P. 42.

See: Historical poetics: results and prospects for study. M., 1986. We also indicate the book: Mikhailov A.V.. Problems of historical poetics in the history of German culture: essays from the history of philological science. M., 1989.

Literary process. The main aspects of the study of the literary process. Modern concepts of the literary process.

The literary process is first, the literary life of a certain country and the epoch; Secondly, the centuries-old development of literature in the global, global scale.
The literary process in the second sense of the word is the subject of comparative historical literature. The stages of the literary process are familiar to thinking as corresponding to those stages of the history of mankind, which, with the greatest discrimination and completeness, appeared in Western European countries and especially brightly in Romanesque. In this regard, the ancient, medieval and literature of the new time is distinguished with their own stages.
The literary process is the change of literary directions.
Conrad said that all the nations go one literary expensive.
The literary process is a complex concept. The term itself appeared relatively recently, already in the 20th century, and popularity gained even later, just starting from the 50s - 60s. Prior to that, attention was paid to some individual aspects of literary relationships, but in its integrity, the literary process was not comprehended. In the full sense of the word, it is not comprehended today, only the main components of the literary process are identified, possible research methodologies are planned. Summarizing various views, it can be said that the understanding of the literary process involves the solution of several scientific tasks:

1. It is necessary to establish links between the literature and the socio-historical process. Literature, of course, is associated with history, with the life of society, it reflects it to some extent, but is neither a copy or a mirror. At some moments at the level of images and subjects, rapprochement with historical reality, in some, on the contrary, literature is distinguished from it. Understand the logic of this "attraction-repulsion" and find transitional links that bind historical and literary processes - the task is extremely complex and hardly having a final decision. The religious-symbolic forms were considered as such a transitional link "from life to literature", the public stereotypes (or in the terminology of A. A. Shakhov, "public types"), which are formed in society during a certain period and are embodied in art; then the socio-psychological atmosphere in society (in the terminology of Yu. B. Kuzmenko - "Social emotions"); then the structure of aesthetic ideal, reflecting and ideas about a person, and aesthetic traditions (for example, this approach is characteristic of N. A. Hawk), etc. The concepts of the concepts were very much, but the mechanism of the transformation of historical reality into artistic works remains a mystery . At the same time, attempts to find this transitional inquire the appearance interesting research, unexpected and original concepts and in domestic, and in foreign aesthetics. Let's say it is the search for these links, simultaneous-historical and "transistoric" (in the terminology. Burdy), that is, the same type for any moment of history, generates the concept of "new historicism" - one of the most sought-after methodologies in modern Western European science. According to the theory of Pierre Burdieu, the author of this concept is useless to "impose" some stories general lawsbased on today's coordinate system. It is necessary to proceed from the "historicity of the object", that is, whenever you need to enter the historical contextan work. And only by comparing many thus obtained data, including the historicity of the researcher himself, we can notice the elements of generality, to "overcome" history. The concept of P. Bourdieu is popular today, but all questions she, of course, does not take off. The search for adequate methodology continues, and the final answers here are hardly possible.

2. In addition to "external" ties, that is, relations with history, psychology, etc., literature has a system of internal connections, that is, constantly relates itself with his own history. None of the writer no epoch never begins to write "from pure sheet", he always consciously or unconsciously takes into account the experience of its predecessors. He writes a certain genre in which the centuries-old is accumulated literary experience (It is not by chance that M. M. Bakhtin called the genre "Memory of Literature"), he is looking for the closest literature (Epos, Lyrics, Drama) and unwittingly takes into account the laws adopted for this kind. Finally, he absorbs many copyright traditions, correlating his creativity with someone from the predecessors. Of all this, the internal laws of the development of the literary process, which are not directly related to the socio-historical situation. Let's say, the genre of an elegic poem, penetrated by sadness, and sometimes tragedy, can exercise himself in a different socioistoric situation, but will always relate himself to the genre of Elegy - regardless of the desire and will of the author.
Therefore, the concept of "literary process" includes the formation of generic, genre and style traditions.

The need to "keep track" stretched on the century slow development of architectonic forms of literature and generated large-scale historicism of historical poetics. This science has developed the most summarized picture of the literary process and revealed 3 large stages of the development of world literature.
The first stage in the history of Poetics Veselovsky called the epoch of syncretism. According to modern ideas, this tradition lasts from the ancient stone century to 7-6 centuries BC. e. In Greece and the first centuries n. e. in the east.
Veselovsky proceeded from the fact that the most obvious and simple and at the same time, the most fundamental difference between the archaic consciousness from modern is its unreclaimed nature, or syncretism. He permeates all an ancient culture, starting with the immediate sensual perceptions of its carriers to their ideological buildings - myths, religions, art.
In general, the poetics of the era of syncretism - and in this its absolutely special place in the history of art - the time of slow production of the main and primary principles of artistic thinking, subject forms, figurative languages, plot archetypes, childbirth and genres, all that will be given by subsequent stages of the development of literature as ready-made forms, without which everything would be impossible.
The second large stage of the literary process begins in 6-5 centuries. BC e. in Greece and the first centuries n. e. And lasts until the middle - the second half of the 18th century. In Europe and the turn of the 19-20th centuries. in the east. The generally accepted title of this stage was not established, the most common determination is rhetorical (others: the era of reflexive traditionalism, canonical, eidetic).

The literature requires a historical approach. Historical view on the poetics was possible, after the concept world Literature (Entered Gate). 20th. 19th century - the transition of ideas about the literary process from the regulatory to the historical look at the literature - Goethe. He read the sample Greek lithua, because There is a beautiful man.

the end of the 19th century The refusal of orientation to the ideal norm was possible when the idea of \u200b\u200bthe united and continuous evolutionary(linear and progressive) movement of history was allowed by the concepts of stadial development (Veselovsky, Speengler, Taylor, Danilevsky).

10-20 years. 19th century cyclical Concept of history (Danilevsky, Spengler) Refusal to simplified submission of unidirectional and linear progress in history, incl. and lit-ry stories. "Each phenomenon makes a circulation of two opposite phases, a cat. And they give their opposition to the generality of a sequential stroke ... The phenomenon moves from the previous one to the next, is included in the opposite and in this opposite direction to further ". (The extreme form of cyclism is an idea of \u200b\u200bthe closed cultural and historical worlds).

2 floor. 19th century - comparative historical study of literature (comprait) and historical poetics. "The main prerequisite of lit-ry history is. The unity of the process of social. - East. The development of mankind, which, in turn, is due to the unity of the development of literature. The similarity between the ideologies belonging to the same stage of social development, regardless of the presence or absence of contact between them. Point of support is the study of loved ones by nature or one-type lituit. phenomena among different nations. Further - a wide scientific generalization and understanding of the patterns of changing art eras.

Next, Cenets goes about literary criticism, theory and history of literature, because Each aspect is important for understanding the multi-layered and multinationality of the world lith. process. (see the relevant questions)

Historic poeticsthe genesis and development of aesthetic object, the general principles of aesthetic vision and artistic thinking, subject architectonics of works (authors, hero, reader), architectural forms of image and plot, childbirth and genres. East. The poetics revealed 3 large stages of the development of world lithing (the most generalized today. The day of the development of lit-ry):

First stage (syncretic, mythopoietic) - The era of syncretism (remember the folk.). Lasts from the ancient stone century and 7-6 centuries. BC. In Greece and the first centuries, N.E. in the east. Syncretism - "originality of archaic art (lack of authorship, clear boundaries between participants and authors). Syncretism is not a mixture, but the lack of differences. This is the time of slow production of basic and primary principles of artistic thinking, subject forms, figurative languages, plot archetypes, childbirth and genres (ie, these are ready forms for the subsequent development of art).

Second stage (rhetorical, traditionalist) It begins at 6-5 centilities BC in Greece and the first centuries of the NE in the east and lasts until the middle - 2 halves of the 18th century in Europe and the turn of 19-20 centuries in the East, i.e. About 2, 5 thousand years .. External sign of stage - appearance poet and rhetoric, in the cat. Aesthetic thought begins to separate from other forms of ideology and reflect on literature and over the emerging new principles of culture.

"Poetics" Aristotle, antique rhetoric.

This stage is extremely scattered and pedestrian. It is united by a new breeding cultural and aesthetic principle, a cat. Came to shift syncretism. This principle in science is still not defined. But this is not traditionalism, the cat. Like syncretism relies on common places, not canon, because This quality is common to both stages of lit-ry development. A more specific for this stage is reflexiveness and rhetoricity (love for deduction, the predominance of the overall over the private, installation on ready-made forms). But this is only one side.

Logic procedures for thinking and self conceptwere different. The concept is not pure abstraction, it is so-called. eidos - "Idea" of items of the subjects with a specific sensory way, the fighting of figurative-poetic began. Hence the rational and logical beginning. Therefore, the generating principle of this stage (like the first - syncretism) would be nice to be called, Cenets says, eidetic poetic. With such a decline

reflectivity - one of the principles of distinction

canon - border

As the image does not finish. separated from the concept (the same EIDOS) and canon will not finish. separated from reflection. The artist can reflect on an event, but only as a subject involved in him, and not as an outside observer.

Just in case I bring a concept REFLECTION - type of philosophical thinking, aimed at understanding and justifying its own prerequisites, requiring the appeal of consciousness. That is, differently in a broad sense, we can say that this awareness or abstraction.

Third stage (individually author) (middle - 2 floors. 18th century in Europe and at the turn of 19-20 in the east and lasts to today). The new generating principle that came to the change of Eidetic. The image and idea acquired an autonomous status. Artistic image It gains its own meaningfulness, not coordinated to the abstract idea. The artistic word becomes specific (in relation to other types of speech - household, mythological). It gets modal status, i.e. Expresses a completely special reality - artistic. Artistic reality is an opportunity, probability. Art from the game, the Rules of the cat. Before it began (canon) turns into the game, the Rules of the cat. fold along the way. Poetics of artistic modality As an uncanoronic stage in the development of art. The process of decanonization of genres.

Now pro literary directions.

The stadium development of the literature fixes only the most deep, structural changes, shifts in the artistic consciousness. A more detailed, specific lithing perception, in accordance with the raid periodization of NAC, regional, world Lee-P, one way or another is always correlated with historical periodization.

One of the most important concepts associated with the literary process is the concept literary direction . His most important features:

specifically historically Har-R - Communication with a certain period in the development of national, regional, world lith-p,

formation based on a certain artistic (creative) method

software, indicating the high level of the artistic self-consciousness of writers, is clearly manifested in the creation of aesthetic manifestos that make up a certain platform for un. writers.

Pospelov: Differentiation of the concepts "Current" and "Direction": the current M.B. spontaneous, and can "go"; Outside the flows, the literature cannot develop, while Sophocl, Bokcchcho and Rabl, Cervantes and Shakespeare were created outside of directions. The appearance of directions is a sign of maturity of literature. They arise when "a group of writers of one or another strange and epoch is combined on the basis of a creative program and creates its works, focusing on its provisions.

Main lit. directions.

Baroque (from the 16th century +17 century)

reflected ideas about the complexity, diversity, variability of the world. Baroque peculiarity of the contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, desire for greatness and pomp, to combining reality and illusion

disappointment in the humanistic pathos of art of the Renaissance, the appearance of tragic sentiment.

the desire for a diversity, to the summation of knowledge about the world, comprehension, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns around for chaotic and collecting curiosities, the desire for the study of existence in its contrasts

Bright Representative - Calderon (Spain)

In Russia - Polotsk, Medvedev, Istomin. The main genres are Potor, tragicomedy, burlesque.

16th century - Pleiad(I remember the pleiad, I will not reprint). With the creation of Pleiades, one of the most important signs characteristic of the future of Lit. direction - Creating manifesto. (Protection and glorification of French). Pleiad was the first, but not very wide lit. Direction, cat. called ourselves school.

Even more clearly of lith. Directions: classicism. Manifesto - "Poetic Art" buoy.

In Russia: Lomonosov, Sumarokov, etc.

Classicism is based on ideas rationalismphilosophy Deskarta. Work of fictionFrom the point of view of classicism, it should be based on strict canons, thereby finding the slightness and logicality of the universe itself. Interest for classicism represents only the eternal, unchanged - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only significant, typological features, discarding random individual signs. Aesthetics of classicism gives the enormous importance of the public-educational function of art. Many rules and canons Classicism takes from ancient art ( Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres that are divided into high ( oh yeah, tragedy, epic) and low ( comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined signs, which is not allowed.

sentimentalism (predomantism (prevromantism))

Dominant "Human Nature" sentimentalism declared a feeling, not the mind that distinguished him from classicism. Without glowing S. Enlightenment, Sentimentalism remained faithful to the ideal of a regulatory personality, but the condition of its implementation was not "reasonable" to reorganize the world, but the release and improvement of the "natural" feelings. Hero educational literature In Sentimentalism, it is more individualized, its inner world is enriched with the ability to empathize, to respond sensitively to what is happening around. By origin (or by convictions), the sentimentalist hero - Democrat; The rich spiritual world of commoner is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.

The most prominent representatives of sentimentalism - James Thomson, Eduard Jung, Thomas Gray, Laurence Stern. (England), Jean Jacques Rousseau (France), Nikolay Karamzin (Russia).

Romanticism (first third of the 19th century) - reaction to Education

Approval of the intrinsicness of the spiritual and creative life of the personality, the image of strong passions, spiritualized and healing nature.

Romanticism first appeared in Germany, in the circle of writers and philosophers ian school (V. G. Vakkenroder, Ludwig Tik, Novais, Brothers F. and A. Fleplei)

It is believed that romanticism in England Largely due to German influence. In England, his first representatives are poets "Lajor School"

Russia - Zhukovsky, Ryleev, Pushkin ...

flows (in another value than Pospelov): civil romanticism (Byron, Ryleev, Pushkin), religious-ethical romanticism (Shatubin, Zhukovsky)

true reproduction of typical characters in typical circumstances.

Belinsky said about a genuine school, the cat's father. He considered Gogol.

realism of the 19th century - critical (image of the prospects for the development of the OB, the elements of the utopism)

how the direction is based on a realistic method, the program cat. was developed by Belinsky.

It existed as a direction until the end of the 19th century, although the method itself continued to live.

End of the 19th century - symbolism (start of modernism).It is called the direction and school. - one of the largest directions in art (in literature, music and painting) arising in France In the 1870-80s. and reached the greatest development at the turn XIX. and XX centuries, above all in the most France, Belgium and Russia. Symbols radically changed not only various types of art, but also the attitude towards him. Their experimental character, the desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and an extensive range of influences became a model for most modern art directions. Mysticism, symbolism, expanding artistial impressionability.

IMAZHINISM, AKMISIS, Futurism, Expressionism and Nek. Others

Socialist realism- artistic method literature and artbuilt by socialist Concepts of peace and man. Artist It was supposed to serve his works of the construction of a socialist society. Consequently, he must portray life in the light of the ideals of socialism. The concept of "realism" is a literary, and the concept of "socialist" - ideological. They themselves are contradictory, but in this theory of art they merge. As a result, norms and criteria dictated by the Communist Party were created, and the artist should have been created in accordance with them.

The literature of socialist realism was a tool for party ideology. Writer was " engineer»Man's souls. His talent he influenced the reader as propagandist. He brought up the reader in the spirit of the party and at the same time supported it in the fight for the victory communism. Subjective actions and aspirations of individuals were to meet the objective course of history. True, in the sense of socialist realism, this is not what follows from the artist's own experience, and the fact that the party considers a typical and decent description. Therefore, in the center of the work, it was necessary to stand a positive hero:

In the center of the work, it was necessary to stand a positive hero.

Representatives: Alexander Fadeev , Alexander Serafimovich Nikolai Ostrovsky Konstantin Fedin, Dmitry Furmanov, Maksim Gorky

Postmodernismprerequisites for occurrence - deny. attitude to rational explanation Mira, full disappointment in humanistic values, generally accepted authorities, rejection of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe integrity of the world. The perception of the world as chaos. The invention of the unconscious, random

Russian post-holders in one way or another are writers Dmitry Aleksandrovich Prigi, Victor Pelevin, Vladimir Sorokin

1. In this lecture, Stepanov also included psychology, she will be in a ticket just in case.

2Termin this was first introduced and substantiated on the soil of the theory of Einstein's relativity.

3rd paragraph - quote from the article: Bakhtin M.M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel.

4G.E. Lessing.

5Wall, the cliff symbol is much wider, but I led the most obvious meanings.

6 Mach, which is given by compacted font - from Bakhtin. Maybe it is not necessary, but I thought it was worth knowing.

The term "literary process" can introduce unfamiliar with his definition of a person in a stupor. Because it is not clear what kind of process is what caused, with which the linked and for what laws exists. In this article we will analyze this concept in detail. Special attention will be paid to the literary process of 19 and 20 centuries.

What is a literary process?

This concept is:

• creative life in the entire combination of facts and phenomena of a particular country in a certain era;
• literary development in the global sense, including all centuries, culture and country.

When using the term in the second sense, the phrase "historical and literary process" often uses.

In general, the concept describes the historical changes in world and national literature, which, developing, inevitably interact with each other.

In the course of studying this process, researchers solve many complex tasks, among which the main one is the transition of some poetic forms, ideas, trends and directions to others.

Influence of writers

The writers who are their new ones are included in the literary process. art techniques And the experiments with the language and form change the approach to the description of the world and man. However, the authors do their discoveries far from scratch, as they necessarily rely on the experience of their predecessors who lived both in his country and beyond. That is, the writer enjoys almost all artistic experience of mankind. From this you can conclude that there is a struggle of new and old artistic ideas, and every new literary direction puts forward creative principleswho, based on tradition, nevertheless challenge them.

Evolution of directions and genres

The literary process, thus, includes the evolution of genres and directions. So, in the 17th century, French writers proclaimed instead of Baroque, welcoming the peculiarities of poets and playwrights, classic principles that assumed the observance of tough rules. However, in the 19th century, romanticism appeared, rejected all the rules and proclaimed the freedom of the artist. Then there was a realism, which expelled subjective romanticism and nominated his requirements for works. And the change of these areas is also part of the literary process, as well as the reasons for which they have occurred, and writers who worked in their framework.

Do not forget about the genres. So, the novel, the largest and most popular genre, survived not one change of artistic trends and directions. And in each era, he modified. For example, a vivid example of the Renament Age of the Renaissance - "Don Quixote" - absolutely not similar to "Robinson Cruzo", written during the Education times, and both of them are unhappy with the works of O. De Balzak, V. Hugo, Ch. Dickens.

Russian references of the 19th century

The literary process is 19 V. It is a rather complicated picture. At this time, evolution and representatives of this direction are N. V. Gogol, A. S. Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, F. M. Dostoevsky and A. P. Chekhov. As you can see, the creativity of these writers varies greatly, however, they all relate to one flow. At the same time, literary studies in this respect speaks not only about the artistic individuality of writers, but also about changes in the very realism and method of knowledge of peace and man.

At the beginning of the 19th century, a "Natural School" came to the change of romanticism, which in the middle of the century began to be perceived as something preventing further literary development. F. Dostoevsky with L. Tolstoy begin to attach an increasing importance to psychologism in their works. This has become a new stage in the development of realism in Russia, and the "Natural School" is outdated. However, this does not mean that the receptions of the previous flow stop using. On the contrary, the new one picks up the old, partially leaving it in the same form, partially modified. However, do not forget about the influence of foreign literature on Russian, as well as the domestic literature on foreign.

Western literature of the 19th century

The 19th century literary process in Europe includes two main directions - romanticism and realism. Both of them become reflection historical events of this era. Recall that at this time the plants are opened, built railways etc. At the same time, the great french revolutionwhich entailed rebellion and throughout Europe. These events, of course, are reflected in the literature, while completely from different positions: romanticism seeks to escape from reality and create their own ideal world; Realism - to analyze what is happening and try to change reality.

Romanticism, which arose at the end of the 18th century, gradually makes himself up by about the mid-19th century. But realism, which only arises in the early 19th century, by the end of the century is gaining momentum. The realistic direction comes out of realism and declares itself at about 30-40 years.

The popularity of realism is explained by his social orientation, which was in demand by the society of that time.

Literature of Russia 20th century

The literary process is 20 V. Very complicated, intense and ambiguous, especially for Russia. This is due, first of all, with emigrant literature. Writers who were expelled from their homeland after the 1917 revolution continued to write abroad by continuing the literary traditions of the past. But what happens in Russia? Here the motley variety of directions and flows, called the silver age, is violently narrows to the so-called social realism. And all the attempts of writers move severely from him. Nevertheless, the works were created, but not published. Among such writers - Akhmatova, Zoshchenko, from later authors-antagonists - Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Venedic Erofeev, etc. Each of these writers was the successor of the literary traditions of the beginning of the 20th century, before the arrival of socialism. The most interesting in this regard is the work of "Moscow - Petushki", written by V. Erofeev in 1970 and published in the West. This poem is one of the first examples of postmodern literature.

Until the end of the existence of the USSR, the works not related to socialism are practically not printed. However, after the collapse of Power, the dawn of publishers begins. All that was written in the 20th century was published, but it was forbidden. New writers appear, continuing the traditions of the literature of the Silver Age, forbidden and overseas.

Western literature 20th century

The western literary process of the 20th century is characterized by a close relationship with historical events, in particular, with the first and second world wars. These events greatly shocked Europe.

In the literature of the 20th century, two major directions are allocated - modernism and postmodernism (there are 70s). The first treats such trends as existentialism, expressionism, surrealism. With the most bright and intensively developing in the first half of the 20th century, then gradually passing postmodernism positions.

Conclusion

Thus, the literary process is a combination of works of writers and historical events in their development. Such a praise of literature makes it possible to understand what laws it exists and what affects its evolution. The beginning of the literary process can be called the first work created by mankind, and its ending will come only when we stop existing.