Features of poetics. The main features of the poetics of mass literature

A new huge historical event, the need for images, tested and developed the possibilities of Twardowski's poetics of previous periods. In particular, the possibilities of combining the plot of a lyric poem and its psychological wealth were confirmed; prosaization and lofty heroic pathos, brevity and thoroughness of "priceless details." The main differences from the poetics of the previous period were determined by the abrupt expansion of the "platform of reality" and the intensification of its conflict, the tension of all situations, destinies and the concentration of all this around the main theme - the conflict, theme and pathos of the battle for life on earth between man and non-humans. Hence the increase in the variety of all artistic means and, at the same time, an even greater concentration in the pivotal direction.

Hence, accordingly, an even more daring combination of one author's statement, sometimes even a separate stanza, a line of very different and even contrasting facts, experiences, lexical layers, intonational movements, but still within certain frameworks of a clear general direction, without playing with detachments, without grotesque, although with an even wider use of conventional and symbolic techniques, an even more daring combination of concreteness and generalization. Unprecedented sharpness of transitions, combinations of far and near, large and small, eventfulness and psychological analysis. The poet moves in the main rapture of a stream, life, event, in the thickest of it; and at the same time keeps on the go, in a hurry, but at the same time with meticulous care, the diaries of the era and himself, a notebook. And the immediacy of the diary develops into a grandiose generalization, up to huge historical symbols. And thus, a new symbolic concreteness of verse and prose is born.

One of the external signs of the expansion of the "platform of reality" and the space of poetry was the increase in genre diversity. "I wrote essays, poems, feuilletons, slogans, leaflets, songs, articles, notes - everything." Naturally, both poems were added to this list. In contrast, the role of the largest narrative forms has increased, to which, in addition to poems, it is necessary to include a number of large narrative poems ranging in size from more than one hundred to almost three hundred lines, and the shortest poems, 6-8 lines each, as if fragmentary, fragmentary records. All genres of Tvardovsky's work of previous periods have survived and new ones have appeared. For example, a kind of essays-correspondence in verse, sometimes directly growing out of a newspaper article or a prose essay or parallel to them - mainly descriptions of individual heroic deeds, exploits of specific war heroes. A number of poems with a predominance of oratorical intonation, most closely related to the traditional genre of "ode"; these military "odes" included the experience of song and spoken genres. There are many verses - "messages" and "letters". There are poems that combined the signs of "ode", "messages" and sharply expressed song elements - such is the strong poem "To the Partisans of Smolensk" - the best example of oratorical, although with elements of colloquial and melodious intonations, Tvardovsky's lyrics. Often the "ode" was combined with signs of a "meditative elegy" ("Retribution"). And the genre of "poems from a notebook" developed further.

From the point of view of the degree of direct activity of the author's "I", narrative-plot verses still occupy a large place, but mixed lyric-narrative and narrative-lyric (with elements of dramatization) are much more developed than in previous periods. "The lyrics of another person" is represented by a smaller number of specially dedicated poems, but it is widely developed as lyrical manifestations of the characters of poems and poems. Among the narrative poems themselves, the genre now stands out, which the poet himself designated the term "ballad". This is, in essence, an analogue of stories in verses of the 30s of a similar or slightly greater dimension (for example, "Ballad of Renunciation" - 152 lines, "Ballad of Moscow" - 192 lines, "Ballad of a Comrade" - 232 lines), but with a more dramatic, sometimes pathetic and tragic content. In addition, there are poems, as well as designated as a story in verse, for example, "The Old Man's Tale", "The Tankist's Tale". Such narrative verses, sometimes having the character of military correspondence, an essay about a particular event, feat, incident, in essence differ little from Tvardovsky's "ballads" of this time, but have elements of narrative or are even more saturated with everyday details. And among the poems with the most active manifestation of lyricism, a new genre also arises - short reflections in verse, almost aphoristic, for example, the famous six-line poem "War, there is no worse word" (1944), a genre closely related to the genre of "poems from a notebook" ...

All authors of works about Tvardovsky emphasize the strengthening of the activity of the author's "I", the lyrical principle in the work of wartime poets - including Tvardovsky. One can agree with this, but with the reservation made above that, at the same time, the epic beginning also intensified, and the intensification of Tvardovsky's lyrical activity did not mean that it only now arose in him. Moreover. In the most direct author's statement, the statement prevails not directly about oneself, but about oneself in connection with something or someone else. Everything biographical and autobiographical in poetry and prose, on the one hand, is more directly manifested, and on the other hand, and this is somewhat paradoxical, it is even more pushed aside, because the "diary" is subordinated to the colossal diary of a collective participant in the war.

In poems, the author's direct statement comes to the fore, but the author everywhere limits the role of his personality to the position of a commentator, witness and companion. Only in the prose of this period does the author appear as a participant in the described event, but not as an actor, unlike, for example, Simonov's prose.

The main difference between the author's “I” of this period from the “I” of the previous stages of Tvardovsky's path is the very expansion of subjectivity, the horizons of the personal principle, his polyphony, the emergence of new thematic motives, experiences directly related to the war and with the strengthening of the sense of responsibility of the individual in the face of the enemy ... In this regard, the structure of the lyric utterance also changes somewhat. It is now addressed to a more specific interlocutor or listener; often "I" directly converses with their characters, sometimes even addresses specific addressees. The author himself appears among these interlocutors, a conversation with himself arises, although he prefers to talk about himself from the outside. In general, in each poem and in both poems, some kind of dialogue takes place explicitly or covertly - "I" and "you", or "I" and "you" (these "you" often have more specific definitions - for example, "friends", etc.). and sometimes “we” and “you”, “we” and “you”. And this "you" is often a character - individual or collective - associated with the author's "I" and some kind of feedback. This relationship, which was rare in Twardowski's poems of previous periods, is now becoming the most common. The partnership becomes the principle of the image. And hence, in the vocabulary itself, the use of personal and possessive pronouns is many times more frequent, in comparison with all previous creativity, although within the specified framework, with the specified objectivity of subjectivity itself.

The further development of intonational polyphony is associated with this diversity and the unity of different “I”, “you”, “we”, “you”, “they”. As before, in verses of almost all genres natural colloquial speech prevails, even in oratory, odic. But in this conversation, the direct pathos of the address, passionate expression, love and anger, sometimes a real oratorical emphasis, and uplift, sharply intensified. Quite often, this emphasis turns into simple rhetoric. But in the best poems - and throughout Vasily Terkin - oratorical pathos and passionate speech grow out of a relaxed, without any external elation, conversation about the most important, exciting with live interlocutors, on equal terms. And in this colloquiality, elements of melodiousness are usually preserved, that continuous melodic-colloquial intonation continues, which Tvardovsky developed with such brilliance and depth in the poems of the previous period and in the "Land of Ant". There are also poems with a new utmost colloquiality, without any melodiousness, with a certain, as it were, confused, difficult speech, but even in these verses ultraprosaization does not return; a certain melodic beginning of a truly poetic conversation is preserved.

Poetics is the science of the system of means of expression in literary works, one of the oldest disciplines of literary criticism. In the expanded sense of the word, poetics coincides with the theory of literature, in the narrowed sense - with one of the areas of theoretical poetics. As a field of literary theory, poetics studies the specifics of literary genres and genres, trends and trends, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal communication and the relationship of various levels of the artistic whole. Depending on what aspect (and the scope of the concept) is put forward in the center of the study, they say, for example, about the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of the novel, the poetics of the work of a writer as a whole or of a single work. Since all means of expression in literature are ultimately reduced to language, poetics can also be defined as the science of the artistic use of language means (see). The verbal (that is, linguistic) text of a work is the only material form of existence of its content; according to it, the consciousness of readers and researchers reconstructs the content of the work, striving either to recreate its place in the culture of his time ("what was Hamlet for Shakespeare?"), or to fit it into the culture of changing eras ("what does Hamlet mean to us?"); but both approaches are ultimately based on the verbal text explored by poetics. Hence the importance of poetics in the system of branches of literary criticism.

The purpose of poetics is to highlight and organize the elements of the text. participating in the formation of the aesthetic impression of the work. Ultimately, all elements of artistic speech are involved in this, but to varying degrees: for example, in lyric poetry, plot elements play a small role and rhythm and phonics play a large role, and vice versa in narrative prose. Every culture has its own set of means that distinguish literary works against the background of non-literary ones: restrictions are imposed on rhythm (verse), vocabulary and syntax ("poetic language"), themes (favorite types of heroes and events). Against the background of this system of means, its violations are no less strong aesthetic stimulant: "proseism" in poetry, the introduction of new, non-traditional themes in prose, etc. A researcher belonging to the same culture as the work under study feels these poetic interruptions better. and the background takes them for granted; a researcher of a foreign culture, on the contrary, first of all feels the general system of methods (mainly in its differences from the usual one) and less - the system of its violations. The study of the poetic system “from within” a given culture leads to the construction of normative poetics (more conscious, as in the era of classicism, or less conscious, as in European literature of the 19th century), research “from the outside” - to the construction of descriptive poetics. Until the 19th century, while regional literatures were closed and traditionalistic, the normative type of poetics prevailed; the formation of world literature (starting with the era of romanticism) brings to the fore the task of creating descriptive poetics. Usually distinguish between general poetics (theoretical or systematic - "macropoetics"), private (or actually descriptive - "micropoetics") and historical.

General poetics

General poetics is divided into three areas studying the sound, verbal and figurative structure of the text, respectively; the goal of general poetics is to compose a complete systematized repertoire of devices (aesthetically effective elements) covering all three areas. In the sound structure of a work, phonics and rhythm are studied, and in relation to verse, also metrics and stanza. Since the primary material for study here is given by poetic texts, this area is often called (too narrowly) poetry. In the verbal structure, the features of the vocabulary, morphology and syntax of the work are studied; the corresponding area is called stylistics (there is no consensus to what extent stylistics as a literary and as a linguistic discipline coincide). Features of vocabulary ("word selection") and syntax ("word combination") have long been studied by poetics and rhetoric, where they were taken into account as stylistic figures and tropes; features of morphology ("poetry of grammar") have become the subject of consideration in poetics only very recently. In the figurative structure of the work, images (characters and objects), motives (actions and deeds), plots (coherent sets of actions) are studied; this area is called "topic" (traditional name), "topic" (BV Tomashevsky) or "poetics" in the narrow sense of the word (B. Yarho). If poetry and stylistics were developed into poetics from ancient times, then the topic, on the contrary, was developed little, as it seemed that the artistic world of the work was no different from the real world; therefore, even a generally accepted classification of the material has not yet been worked out.

Private poetics

Private poetics deals with the description of a literary work in all of the above aspects, which allows you to create a "model" - an individual system of aesthetically effective properties of the work. The main problem of private poetics is composition, that is, the mutual correlation of all aesthetically significant elements of a work (phonic, metric, stylistic, figurative, plot and general composition that unites them) in their functional reciprocity with the artistic whole. Here the difference between small and large literary forms is essential: in a small (for example, in a proverb) the number of connections between elements, although large, is not inexhaustible, and the role of each in the system of the whole can be shown comprehensively; in a large form, this is impossible, and, therefore, some of the internal connections remain unaccounted for as aesthetically imperceptible (for example, the connection between phonics and plot). At the same time, it should be remembered that some connections are relevant when reading the text first (when the reader's expectations are not yet oriented) and are discarded when reading, others are the other way around. The final concepts to which all means of expression can be raised in the analysis are the "image of the world" (with its main characteristics, artistic time and artistic space) and the "image of the author", the interaction of which gives a "point of view" that determines all the main things in the structure works. These three concepts were put forward in poetics on the experience of studying literature of the 12-20 centuries; before that, European poetics was content with a simplified distinction between three literary genders: drama (giving the image of the world), lyrics (giving the image of the author) and an epic in between them (as in Aristotle). The basis of private poetics ("micropoetics") are descriptions of an individual work, but more generalized descriptions of groups of works (one cycle, one author, genre, literary trend, historical era) are also possible. Such descriptions can be formalized to a list of the initial elements of the model and a list of rules for their connection; As a result of the consistent application of these rules, it is as if the process of gradual creation of a work is imitated from the thematic and ideological concept to the final verbal design (the so-called generative poetics).

Historical poetics

Historical poetics studies the evolution of individual poetic techniques and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, identifying the common features of the poetic systems of different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to a common source, or (typologically) to the universal laws of human consciousness. The roots of literary literature go back to oral literature, which is the main material of historical poetics, which sometimes makes it possible to reconstruct the course of development of individual images, stylistic figures and poetic dimensions to deep (for example, common Indo-European) antiquity. The main problem of historical poetics is genre in the broadest sense of the word, from literary literature in general to such varieties as “European love elegy”, “classicistic tragedy”, “secular story”, “psychological novel”, etc. there is a historically formed set of poetic elements of various kinds, not derived from each other, but associated with each other as a result of long coexistence. Both the boundaries separating literature from non-literature and the boundaries separating genre from genre are changeable, and the epochs of relative stability of these poetic systems alternate with epochs of decanonization and form-creation; these changes are studied by historical poetics. Here the difference between close and historically (or geographically) distant poetic systems is significant: the latter are usually presented as more canonical and impersonal, and the former are more diverse and peculiar, but usually this is an illusion. In traditional normative poetics, genres were viewed by general poetics as a universally significant, by nature established system.

European poetics

With the accumulation of experience, almost every national literature (folklore) in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages created its own poetics - a set of poetry “rules” traditional for it, a “catalog” of favorite images, metaphors, genres, poetic forms, ways of developing a theme, etc. Such "poetics" (a kind of "memory" of national literature, consolidating artistic experience, instruction to descendants) guided the reader to follow stable poetic norms, consecrated by a centuries-old tradition - poetic canons. The beginning of the theoretical understanding of poetry in Europe dates back to the 5-4 centuries BC. - in the teachings of the sophists, the aesthetics of Plato and Aristotle, who were the first to substantiate the division into literary genders: epic, lyric, drama; the ancient poetics was brought into a coherent system by the "grammarians" of the Alexandrian time (3-1 century BC). Poetics as the art of "imitation" of reality (see) was clearly separated from rhetoric as the art of persuasion. The distinction between "what to imitate" and "how to imitate" led to a distinction between the concepts of content and form. Content was defined as "imitation of true or fictional events"; in accordance with this, “history” (a story about actual events, as in a historical poem), “myth” (material of traditional legends, as in epics and tragedy) and “fiction” (original plots developed in comedy) were distinguished. Tragedy and comedy were referred to as "purely imitative" genres and genres; to "mixed" - epic and lyrics (elegy, iambic and song; sometimes later genres, satire and bucolic were also mentioned); Only the didactic epic was considered “purely narrative”. The poetics of individual genres and genres has been little described; a classic example of such a description was given by Aristotle for a tragedy ("On the Art of Poetry", 4th century BC), highlighting in it "characters" and "legend" (that is, a mythological plot), and in the latter - a plot, a denouement and between them "break" ("twists and turns"), a particular case of which is "recognition". Form was defined as “speech enclosed in size”. The study of "speech" has usually been relegated to rhetoric; here "word selection", "word combination" and "word decoration" (paths and figures with a detailed classification) were distinguished, and various combinations of these techniques were first reduced to a system of styles (high, medium and low, or "strong", "flowery" and “simple”), and then into a system of qualities (“dignity”, “severity”, “brilliance”, “liveliness”, “sweetness”, etc.). The study of "sizes" (the structure of a syllable, a foot, a combination of feet, a verse, a stanza) constituted a special branch of poetics - a metric that fluctuated between purely linguistic and musical criteria of analysis. The ultimate goal of poetry was defined as "to delight" (Epicureans), "to teach" (Stoics), "to delight and teach" (school eclecticism); respectively, in poetry and poet, "fantasy" and "knowledge" of reality were valued.

On the whole, antique poetics, in contrast to rhetoric, was not normative and taught not so much to create in advance as to describe (at least at the school level) works of poetry. The situation changed in the Middle Ages, when the composition of Latin poetry itself became the property of the school. Here poetics takes the form of rules and includes separate points from rhetoric, for example, on the choice of material, on distribution and reduction, on descriptions and speeches (Matvey Vendomsky, John Garlandsky, etc.). In this form, it reached the Renaissance and here it was enriched by the study of the surviving monuments of ancient poetics: (a) rhetoric (Cicero, Quintilian), (b) Horace's “Science of Poetry”, (c) Aristotle's “Poetics” and other works of Aristotle and Plato ... The same problems were discussed as in antiquity, the goal was to bring together and unify the disparate elements of the tradition; Y. Ts. Skaliger came closest to this goal in his "Poetics" (1561). Finally, poetics took shape in a hierarchical system of rules and regulations in the era of classicism; the programmatic work of classicism - "Poetic Art" by N. Bouileau (1674) - is not accidentally written in the form of a poem imitating Horace's "Science of Poetry", the most normative of the ancient poetics.

Until the 18th century, poetics was mainly poetic, and, moreover, "high" genres. From prose genres, the genres of solemn, oratorical speech were smoothly drawn, for the study of which there was a rhetoric that accumulated rich material for the classification and description of the phenomena of the literary language, but at the same time had a normative and dogmatic character. Attempts at a theoretical analysis of the nature of fictional genres (for example, the novel) arise initially outside the realm of special, "pure" poetics. Only the enlighteners (G.E. Lessing, D. Diderot), in their struggle against classicism, deal the first blow to the dogmatism of the old poetics.

Even more significant was the penetration into the poetics of historical ideas associated in the West with the names of J. Vico and J. G. Gerder, who approved the idea of ​​the relationship between the laws of the development of language, folklore and literature and their historical variability in the course of the development of human society, the evolution of its material and spiritual culture. Herder, I.V. Goethe, and then the romantics included the study of folklore and prose genres in the field of poetics (see), laying the foundation for a broad understanding of poetics as a philosophical doctrine of the universal forms of development and evolution of poetry (literature), which, on the basis of idealistic dialectics, was systematized by Hegel in the 3rd volume of his Lectures on Aesthetics (1838).

The oldest surviving treatise on poetics, known in Ancient Russia, is "On the Image" by the Byzantine writer George Hiroboska (6-7 centuries) in the handwritten Izbornik by Svyatoslav (1073). In the late 17th and early 18th centuries in Russia and Ukraine, a number of school "poetics" appeared to teach poetry and eloquence (for example, "De arte poetica" by Feofan Prokopovich, 1705, published in 1786 in Latin). M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky played a significant role in the development of scientific poetics in Russia, and at the beginning of the 19th century. - A.Kh. Vostokov. Of great value for poetics are judgments about the literature of A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov and others, theoretical ideas of N . I. Nadezhdin, V. G. Belinsky ("Division of poetry into genera and types", 1841), N. A. Dobrolyubov. They paved the way for the emergence of poetics in Russia in the second half of the 19th century as a special scientific discipline, represented by the works of A.A. Potebnya and the founder of historical poetics, A.N. Veeelovsky.

Veselovsky, who put forward a historical approach and the very program of historical poetics, contrasted the speculative and a priorism of classical aesthetics with "inductive" poetics based solely on the facts of the historical movement of literary forms, which he placed in dependence on social, cultural-historical and other extra-aesthetic factors (see) ... At the same time, Veselovsky substantiates a very important for poetics thesis about the relative autonomy of the poetic style from the content, about its own laws of the development of literary forms, no less stable than the formulas of everyday language. The movement of literary forms is considered by him as the development of objective, external to the concrete consciousness of the given.

In contrast to this approach, the psychological school viewed art as a process taking place in the consciousness of the creative and perceiving subject. The theory of the founder of the psychological school in Russia, Potebnya, was based on W. Humboldt's idea of ​​language as an activity. The word (and works of art) not only reinforces the thought, does not "form" an already known idea, but builds and shapes it. The merit of Potebnya was the opposition of prose and poetry as fundamentally different ways of expression, which (through the modification of this idea in the formal school) had a great influence on the modern theory of poetics. At the center of Potebnya's linguistic poetics is the concept of the internal form of the word, which is the source of the imagery of the poetic language and the literary work as a whole, the structure of which is similar to the structure of an individual word. The goal of the scientific study of a literary text, according to Potebne, is not an explanation of the content (this is a matter of literary criticism), but an analysis of the image, the unity, the stable givenness of the work, with all the endless variability of the content that it evokes. Appealing to consciousness, Potebnya, however, strove to study the structural elements of the text itself. The followers of the scientist (A.G. Gornfeld, V.I. Khartsiev, etc.) did not go in this direction, they turned primarily to the poet's "personal mental makeup", "psychological diagnosis" (D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky), expanding Potebnian's theory of the origin and perception of the word to the shaky limits of the "psychology of creativity."

The antipsychological (and more broadly - antiphilosophical) and specifying pathos of 20th century poetics is associated with trends in European art history (since the 1880s), which viewed art as an independent, isolated sphere of human activity, the study of which should be carried out by a special discipline delimited from aesthetics with its psychological, ethical, etc. categories (H. von Mare). “Art can be cognized only on its own paths” (K. Fiedler). One of the most important categories proclaims a vision that is different in each era, which explains the differences in the art of these eras. G. Wölflin in his book "Basic Concepts of the History of Art" (1915) formulated the basic principles of typological analysis of artistic styles, proposing a simple scheme of binary oppositions (contrasting the Renaissance and Baroque styles as artistically equal phenomena). Wölflin's (and also G. Simmel's) typological oppositions were transferred to literature by O. Walzel, who considered the history of literary forms impersonally, suggesting “for the sake of creation to forget about the creator himself”. On the contrary, the theories associated with the names of K. Fossler (influenced by B. Croce), L. Spitzer, in the historical movement of literature and language itself, assigned a decisive role to the individual initiative of the poet-legislator, then only consolidated in the artistic and linguistic usus of the era.

The most active demand to consider a work of art as such, in its own specific patterns (separated from all non-literary factors) was put forward by the Russian formal school (the first speech was VB Shklovsky's book "Resurrection of the Word" (1914); later the school was called OPOYAZ).

Already in the first speeches (partly under the influence of Potebnya and the aesthetics of futurism), the opposition between practical and poetic language was proclaimed, in which the communicative function is reduced to a minimum and “in the bright field of consciousness” there is a word with an attitude to expression, a “valuable” word where language phenomena that are neutral in ordinary speech (phonetic elements, rhythm melodies, etc.). Hence the school's orientation not towards philosophy and aesthetics, but towards linguistics. Later, problems of the semantics of poetic speech were also involved in the field of research (Yu.N. Tynyanov. "The Problem of Poetic Language", 1924); Tynyanov's idea of ​​the deep influence of verbal construction on meaning influenced subsequent research.

The central category of the "formal method" is the deduction of a phenomenon from the automatism of everyday perception, defamiliarisation (Shklovsky). Not only the phenomena of poetic language are associated with it; this situation common to all art is also manifested at the level of the plot. This is how the idea of ​​isomorphism of the levels of the artistic system was expressed. Rejecting the traditional understanding of form, the formalists introduced the category of material. Material is what exists outside of a work of art and what can be described without resorting to art, told "in your own words." Form, however, is the “law of constructing an object,” that is, the real arrangement of the material in the works, its construction, composition. True, at the same time it was proclaimed that works of art "are not material, but the ratio of materials." The consistent development of this point of view leads to the conclusion that the material (“content”) in the work is insignificant: “the opposition of the world to the world or the cat to the stone are equal to each other” (Shklovsky). As you know, in the later works of the school, there has already been an overcoming of this approach, which was most clearly manifested in the late Tynyanov (the ratio of the social and literary ranks, the concept of function). The concept of the development of literature was built in accordance with the theory of automation-de-automation. In the understanding of the formalists, it is not a traditional continuity, but above all a struggle, the driving force of which is the requirement of constant novelty inherent in art. At the first stage of literary evolution, the erased, old principle is replaced by a new one, then it spreads, then it is automated, and the movement is repeated on a new round (Tynyanov). Evolution does not take place in the form of "planned" development, but moves in explosions, leaps and bounds - either by advancing the "younger line", or by fixing random deviations from the modern artistic norm (the concept arose not without the influence of biology with its method of trial and error and mutations). Later, Tynyanov ("On Literary Evolution", 1927) complicated this concept with the idea of ​​consistency: any innovation, "loss" occurs only in the context of the entire literature system, i.e. primarily systems of literary genres.

While claiming universality, the theory of the formal school based on the material of modern literature is, however, inapplicable to folklore and medieval art, in the same way as some general constructions of Veselovsky, based, on the contrary, on the "impersonal" material of archaic periods of art, are not justified in modern literature ... The formal school existed in an atmosphere of continuous controversy; VV Vinogradov, BV Tomashevsky and VM Zhirmunsky, who at the same time held close positions on a number of issues, also actively argued with her - mainly on issues of literary evolution. M.M. Bakhtin criticized the school from a philosophical and general aesthetic point of view. At the center of Bakhtin's own concept, his "aesthetics of verbal creativity" is the idea of ​​dialogue, understood in a very broad, philosophically universal sense (see Polyphony; in accordance with the general evaluative nature of the monological and dialogical types of world perception - which are hierarchical in Bakhtin's mind - the latter is recognized by him higher). All other topics of his scientific work are connected with it: the theory of the novel, the word in various literary and speech genres, the theory of the chronotope, carnivalization. A special position was taken by G.A. Gukovsky, as well as A.P. Skaftymov, who, back in the 1920s, raised the question of the separation of the genetic (historical) and synchronous-holistic approach. approach to the folklore text as a set of definite and quantifiable functions of the fairytale hero).

Vinogradov created his own direction in poetics, which he later called the science of the language of fiction. Focusing on Russian and European linguistics (not only on F. de Saussure, but also on Vossler, Spitzer), however, from the very beginning he emphasized the difference between the tasks and categories of linguistics and poetics (see). With a clear distinction between synchronic and diachronic approaches, it is characterized by their mutual correction and mutual continuation. The requirement of historicism (the main line of Vinogradov's criticism of the formal school), as well as the fullest possible consideration of poetic phenomena (including critical and literary responses of his contemporaries) becomes the main one in Vinogradov's theory and his own research practice. According to Vinogradov, "the language of literary works" is broader than the concept of "poetic speech" and includes it. The central category in which the semantic, emotional and cultural-ideological intentions of a literary text are crossed, Vinogradov considered the image of the author.

The creation of the theory of skaz and narration in general in the works of B.M. Eikhenbaum, Vinogradov, Bakhtin is associated with the works of Russian scientists of the 1920s. For the development of poetics in recent years, the works of D.S. Likhachev, dedicated to the poetics of Old Russian literature, and Yu.M. Lotman, who use structural-semiotic methods of analysis, are of great importance.

The word poetics comes from Greek poietike techne, which means creative art.

Composition

Brodsky's poetry “On the death of Zhukov” is a periphery of Derzhavin’s verse “Bullfinch”, written on the death of another great Russian commander, Suvorov. In "New Stanzas to Augusta" the thematic parallel with the stanzas to Augusta by Byron is obvious. "The Song of Innocence, or Experience" echoes Blake's two famous poetry collections "Songs of Innocence" and "Songs of Experience", and Brodsky's poetry for the death of TS Eliot is built in the style of "Memory of the Face" by Auden. The list of such interactions with someone else's text goes on and on. The main thing is that the poet makes the remark of the American professor of Russian studies Mikhail Krepe, “using other people's colors, nevertheless, he always remains himself, that is, in poetry "based on" the hero is the same as in the poetry of his palette. It is also natural that Brodsky chooses the works of such poets who are close to him either in spirit, or in mood, or in the composition of poetic talent. "

A specific feature of Brodsky's poetics is also self-citation. So, in the work of the 90s, there are many quotes from his own poetry of the early period, especially the 70s. For example, rhymes ("faith" - "stratosphere") and images ("fern of pagodas", "marble for the poor", "new yorks and kremlins from bottles") are repeated. Having studied similar self-quotations of Brodsky, A. Rastorguev compares them with self-quotations of Mandelstam: “In Mandelstam, repetitions, variants of the same one lead to similar, then to dissimilar results, just as in different versions of the myth the hero acts differently, up to that his end or his posthumous fate will be different ”.

For Brodsky, “the repeated moves of the language create a different impression: the hero of his style suddenly at some point carries out the same act that he performed long ago or recently, but under different circumstances. And the landscape was different, and the time of day, nevertheless, there is some place where one should only look - and suddenly it becomes clear that all this has already happened ... Coincidence with oneself ... narrows the circle of being, returns any imaginative impression back to to myself ... ”. This is the difference between the individual creative manners of the modernist Mandelstam and the postmodernist Brodsky, as well as the difference between the “great styles” that they represent, respectively - modernism and postmodernism. Common sense in Brodsky's lyrics is often intertwined with irony and self-irony. This allows, on the one hand, to relieve intellectual and emotional stress, and on the other, to conduct a dialogue with culture at different levels. Occurs in Brodsky's poetry and postmodern pastiche. A striking example is the sixth sonnet from the cycle “Twenty Sonnets to Mary Stuart”, in which the text of Pushkin’s masterpiece “I loved you ...” is dramatically transformed to express his harsh and ruthless view of man, the world, and love:

* I loved you. Love is still (perhaps
that just pain) drills my brains
Everything was blown to hell, to pieces.
I tried to shoot myself, but it's difficult
with weapon. And further, whiskey:
which one to hit? It was not a shiver that spoiled it, but
thoughtfulness. Heck! everything is not human!

* I loved you so much, hopelessly,
as God forbid others, but will not give!
He, being a lot,
will not do - according to Parmenides - twice
this heat in the chest, wide-boned crunch,
so that the fillings in the mouth melt with thirst
touch - "bust" I cross out - mouth!

As the famous Russian researcher A. Zholkovsky comments on this revision of Pushkin's poetry, “Unhappy love coarsens to physical pain and is exaggerated to a suicide attempt, the refusal of which is ironically motivated by purely technical complexity (weapon, choice of temple) and considerations of prestige (“ everything is not human ”). Behind Pushkin's “other” there is an infinite number of lovers, and a hint of the poet's uniqueness of love is developed into a playful philosophical treatise with references to the original source. God from the half-erased component of the idiom ("God bless you") returned to his post as the creator of all things, but with an indication that it is only allowed to create (not) according to Parmenides.

Bashful tenderness turns into physiology and seals that melt from the “heat” swollen from Pushkin’s “not quite extinguished”. And the romantic sublimation of feeling comes to the maximum (the encroachment on the beloved's chest is redirected to the lips) and further to the absurd (the object of passion is not a woman, but a sculpture, but a subject - not even a man with melted fillings in his mouth, but exclusively literary - such that he writes and crosses out - "I"). Pushkin's dictionary is being modernized and vulgarized. Instead of “maybe” Brodsky puts “perhaps”, instead of “soul” - “brains”, instead of “so sincerely” - the rustic “so strong”. There are colloquial “devil”, “everything is scattered to pieces”, “not in a human way”, clerical “and further” and frankly simple-language “will hit”. “Damn” and “everything” are even repeated, which is an emphatically simplistic imitation of Pushkin’s exquisite parallelisms ”.

From the postmodernist consciousness, Brodsky also has irony and self-irony, a mixture of high and low, tragic and farcical, saturation of poetic texts with images of previous historical and literary eras and cultural realities. All these and other signs of postmodernist lyrics appear, for example, in his work "Speech in Spilled Milk":

* I sit on a chair in a large apartment.
* Niagara gurgles in an empty toilet.
* I feel like a target in the shooting range,
* I shudder at the slightest knock.
* I closed the front door with a bolt, but
* The night heals me with the horns of Aries,
* Like Cupid from an onion, like
* Stalin at the XVII Congress from the Tulka.

However, Brodsky's poetry is by no means a mixture of nontraditional and postmodern artistic techniques. This is, in fact, high poetry, filled with philosophical tension, and subtle lyricism, and a high civic position, and moral questions, and reflections on the place of the poet in the modern world, and the assertion of the high mission of the poetic word. When news of the death of Joseph Brodsky came from the United States, the Russian postmodern poet D. Prigov remarked: “Brodsky was a great poet in an era when great poets were not foreseen.” And it was, in fact, so. After all, to remain a great poet in the era of postmodernism, when, in the words of another Russian postmodernist V. Kuritsyn, "for great poetry ... there are few concepts and words left", when the very ideas about this great poetry have been exhausted is a fate as happy as it is difficult " ...

TWO FEATURES OF POETRY

VLADIMIR VYSOTSKY

Among the features that distinguish Vysotsky's poetics, there are two that hold a special place. Their peculiarity, firstly, is that everything visible to the naked eye: deformation of idioms, puns, poetic masks, violation of linguistic norms, hyperbolicity, changing refrains, deliberate symmetry of speech composition, textbook clarity of allegories, bright rhyme, lyrical tension, plot - follows from these features. Secondly, these features are interesting in that they provide, as it seems, the key to the linguistic philosophy of Vladimir Vysotsky - a poet who, together with his contemporaries, walked the path of all linguistic innovations, but who truly laid his own track on this road. In this article, I will just try to show that Vysotsky punished and blew up idioms, and tried on masks in the same way, but not in the same way as his contemporaries. Having caught the linguistic fashion in his sails, the poet walked, however - and in this we have not yet fully realized - a completely original, unique language course.

It remains to name these features. But here a difficulty arises. If the first can still be designated with a fairly transparent and recognized term duality , then the name of the second - rhetorical thinking - can only cause distrust. Therefore, we will provide this second name with an application: rhetorical thinking, or the maximum filling of positions - and ask the reader not to rush to conclusions.

Duality

The theme of duality and fate. Roll call from the 17th century

Concept duality accumulates a lot in the creative manner of Vladimir Vysotsky and will be considered below in different aspects. The first of them is the theme of fate, which acts as a double of the hero. The image of a twin fate was actively developed in the so-called democratic satire of the 17th century, and the duality taken in this aspect is one of the bridges that connects Vysotsky's work with Russian folk-laughter culture.

According to DS Likhachev, the theme of duality "is extremely important for Russian literature throughout its existence." Academician Likhachev sees the origin of this theme already in Daniel Zatochnik's "Praying" (XIII century), as the milestone is highlighted by the "Word of Hops" (XV century), and then he already examines the works of the XVII century, when the main tendencies of the literary era were associated with duplication - the discovery character, a gradual awareness of the dependence of the fate of an individual on her qualities. In the literature of modern times, we find this theme in the works of Gogol, Dostoevsky, Bulgakov, Bely, Blok, Yesenin ...

In 17th century literature, doubles were personified character traits that appeared either in the form of a demon (The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn), or in the form of a false friend or fairy-tale character (The Tale of Woe and Evil Part) on the hero's life. The double could also appear in the form of a copy of the character, strengthening his features by its false opposite ("The Tale of Thomas and Erem"). In the literature of modern times, the double appeared as a fruit of a painful fantasy, a consequence of a split personality (Dostoevsky's "Double"), less often as a personification of two sides of the human soul (Piskarev and Pirogov in Nevsky Prospect), more often as an internal non-personalized split personality typical of reflective heroes XIX century.

In Vysotsky's poetics, duality plays a special role, turning into a kind of creative principle, which is based on a humane idea - sympathy for the weak while condemning his weaknesses, going back to Christian thought: condemn sin, but forgive the sinner. Do not repulse people as immoral, asocial, alien, etc., but, in solidarity with the human that they have kept in themselves, indicate the path of moral purification - such an opportunity is provided by the conditional division of the soul into two opposing principles - duality. This can be expressed in the words of the hero of Vysotsky's comic poem "Both my tastes and my requests are strange":

And the court is going on, the whole hall is looking at me in the back.
You prosecutor, you citizen judge,
Trust me: I didn't break the shop window,
And my vile second I AM .

Vysotsky's connection with the Russian democratic satire of the 17th century, and especially with the "double" literature of this period, is obvious: this is the theme of fate, and the theme of drunkenness, and the theme of "naked and poor man", and a special laugh directed against the powerful (social injustice) and at the same time against the weaknesses of the "naked and not rich", and the combination of the funny with the terrible, which is characteristic of Russian laughter culture, and parody, associated with a mixture of styles. But we have a unique opportunity to trace where Vysotsky followed the tradition of the 17th century, and where he went against it. Such an opportunity is provided by the poem "Two Fates", directly and directly related to the Old Russian "Tale of Woe and Malice".

In both works, the protagonist, who is not named by name, spends the first part of his life “according to study,” and then he meets his fate, which is the personified vices of the hero - drunkenness and weakness. Ruining the hero, his evil geniuses enter into dialogue with him, and not only tempt him, but also explain to him the reasons for his misfortune, "teach":

Who will throw the rudders and oars,
Those Difficult brings -
it just happens! /1; 428 /
And who does not listen to his parents for good,
those I will learn, Wicked woe ...

In both works, images of a river and a boat appear, symbolizing life and the person in it. In both works, the hero, after stubborn pursuit, manages to escape.

So, evil fate appears in the form of a living creature, and the incarnation, in turn, is bifurcated: in the ancient Russian monument it is Grief and Evil Part, in Vysotsky's - Hard and Curve. As is known, this emphasizes the idea of ​​duality. However, in the story and in the poem, the bifurcation of the double itself is fundamentally different, both at the level of the idea and at the level of pictorial and expressive means.

In Vysotsky's poem Not Easy and Curve are independent characters with a division of roles. These roles are associated with a figure, which we will talk about more than once, - the deformation of the idiom, in particular with the implementation of the direct meaning of idioms: not easy brings and the curve takes out... More precisely, in the poem she promises to take out, but moves in a vicious circle. The difference between the images is significant: the difficult punishes the lazy, "whoever throws the rudders and oars," Woe - the recalcitrant, "who<...>not listening". Grief punishes for rebellion, violation of traditions. Not easy - for conformism: the hero of Vysotsky in the truest sense of the word goes with the flow:

He lived comfortably and with business,
I swam where my eyes were looking -
downstream / 1; 427 /.

Therefore, Not easy naturally entails Curve - a wrong, crazy hope for salvation without effort. The Tale of Woe and Wickedness also contains the theme of false salvation. It is that "naked, barefoot to make a noise of robbery." In a true way, the young man was saved only by being tonsured a monk. But the false salvation of the lazy is that he climbs the hump (in the figurative sense of the word becomes a dependent) of the disgusting old woman - Krivoy.

Becoming a hostage to Crooked and Hard, the hero of the poem loses his I am... This is reflected in the use of the pronoun itself I am, very significant for the theme of duality in Vysotsky:

I scream - I do not hear a scream,
I do not knit a bast for fear,
I see badly.
Shakes me in the wind ...
"Who is there?" I hear - he answers:
"I, Not Easy!"

At the beginning of the stanza I am- this is the hero himself, the pronoun is at the beginning of the verse, the construction is active. Later I am omitted, then inverted, then the construction becomes passive, then I am- this is already a double. Curious and punning rhyme bad i am not easy, where I am as if it dissolves into its double.

The recalcitrant hero of the story escaped in the monastery, the lazy hero of the poem - by "rowing to the point of madness." The hero gains independence, makes his own choice. The topic of independent moral choice is extremely important for Vysotsky. Another "double" poem ("My black man in a gray suit ...") ends with the words:

My path is one, only one, guys -
Fortunately, I am not given a choice / 2; 143 /.

So the circle of duality is closed and the hero gains unity. In the poem "Two Fates" an even more interesting closure of the circle takes place: Not Easy and Curve seem to de-incarnate and return back to the element of language:

And behind me along the snags,
groaning wildly,
Lowered down, howling,
My two destinies - Curve
yes Not easy / 1; 429 /.

Although both words are given in the text with a capital letter, when pronouncing these lines we feel curve and difficult as usual definitions for the word fate(compare: hard fate, crooked fate). The very name "Two Fates" conceals the possibility of such a transformation. Indeed, in the medieval story, Grief and Evil Part are full-fledged nouns capable of denoting completely independent characters; in the text, Grief even speaks of itself in the masculine gender, despite the grammatical neuter gender of this word “grief”. For Vysotsky, these are substantive adjectives that have returned to their function - to serve as a definition for a name. The modern author approaches the theme of fate more rationally. He does not delude himself that the hero becomes her victim. For him fate, double- only a literary device. The poem “My sadness, my anguish” contains the following words: “I whip myself and whip myself, - // So - no contradictions” / 1; 482 /. Vysotsky's hero and double can swap places, as in the poem "Two Fates", where Krivaya and Not Easy drink instead of the hero, or in "Song of Fate" and in the poem "About the Devil", where the hero does not know who seems to whom: double or he double.

In "The Tale of Woe and Malice", the mockery is not directed against Grief, just as in another medieval story - about Savva Grudtsyn - the mockery is not directed against the devil. In Vysotsky's work, the double himself can appear in a ridiculous way, and this is due precisely to the pathos of the personality and its freedom. The double is the bonds of the hero, and these bonds are not only ugly, but also ridiculous.

The mockery of the doppelganger is especially noticeable in The Song-Tale of the Genie. Here the expression "genie from a bottle" is transformed, and from the very beginning the mockery is directed against the genie (compare the medieval "Word of Hops"), personifying the idea of ​​drunkenness with its false sense of power. The hero expects miracles from wine:

“Well, after that - miracles on this occasion:
I want a palace up to heaven - that's why you are a devil! .. "
And he told me: “We are not trained in such matters at all, -
Except for mordobiti - no miracles! " /1; 133 /

Medieval Hops acts as a formidable, invincible force, and the genie is ridiculous even with his speech behavior: from his words it turns out that the massacre is a miracle for him. And in everyday life he is not omnipotent: "he could not do anything against the police."

The theme of duality, fate is very characteristic of the work of Vladimir Vysotsky. Following it, he goes in line with the democratic satire of the 17th century. Behind this theme, as has always been the case in Russian literature, stands the defense of a person who has stumbled, in whom it is already sympathetic that he suffers. But duality as a technique was put at the service of another idea by Vysotsky - the sovereignty of the individual and the freedom of his moral choice. And this entails a different arsenal of linguistic means. Here we come to a new aspect of duality associated with deformation, or splitting of idioms.

Bifurcation of the linguistic personality and the splitting of idioms

In the sixties of our century, researchers noted a "paronymic explosion" - a craving for a play on words, for puns with different meanings, but similar in sound, for "playing around" proverbs and phraseological units. At the same time, the terms "transformation of a phraseological unit", "splitting an idiom", etc. appeared. This process captured the titles of literary works, penetrated the popular science style and lingered in the newspaper headline (for example, "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Turnip"). At one time, they even lamented about this. A special genre of "phrases" was actively developed, which was reduced to playing with stable expressions like "His place in life was a place for disabled people and children." For example, the work of Felix Krivin developed under the sign of a pun. Playing with stable turns is still an integral attribute of humorous and satirical works (compare the insignificant role of such devices in the humorous stories of early Chekhov, in Bulgakov's satire). Gradually, this phenomenon imperceptibly turned into a vogue for intertextuality, allusivity (to the best of the cultural outlook), merged in a literary otkuture with a collage of quotes, intertwined with clip thinking. But then, in the sixties and seventies, it was the splitting of idioms that prevailed, contamination and the realization of the literal meaning predominated above all.

You don't need to be an observant person to notice: almost every line of Vysotsky contains a pun based on the splitting of fixed expressions. Another thing is less noticeable: Vysotsky's puns are always motivated by a linguistic personality. Moreover, these puns reflect the drama of a linguistic personality, not a comedy, but the drama of the collision of this personality, usually culturally and sometimes mentally deprived (spiritually “naked and poor person”) with language and culture.

Vysotsky's sympathies are on the side of the weak here as well. Let us recall the specific weight of imitation of the speech of the mentally ill, who are inclined to understand everything literally, in his work.

So, the heroes of the well-known poem "Letter to the editor of the television program" Obvious - incredible "from a madhouse - from Kanatchikovaya dacha" literally understand the expression eat the dog rethink the set expression amazing nearby, awkwardly bring words together in speech dock and doctor... The same in prose: "Life Without Sleep" is a rare example of how the "stream of consciousness" invented by the gloomy and not very humane twentieth century serves the most Christian ideas of good, and even introduced itself kindly, with a smile.

What unites the linguistic behavior of Vysotsky's mentally and culturally defective heroes? Is it only inferiority? The linguistic personality portrayed by Vysotsky is always distinguished by increased gullibility and simplicity. Both of these features are very Russian, and it is no coincidence that Vysotsky's puns evoked such a hot response, and the mechanical puns of newspaper "phrases" slipped past consciousness.

Here is another "patient" Vysotsky - the hero of a cycle of three poems ("The error came out", "No mistake" and "Case history"). Let us digress from the fact that the entire entourage of the hospital is an allegory of interrogation. The patient sees portraits of famous doctors on the wall (in another plan - other portraits) and tries to soothe himself with this: “It's good that you, luminaries, were all hung on the wall - // I'm behind you, dear ones, like behind a stone wall”:

They told me: "You are sick" -
And I got pounded
But the luminary of the heart
Smiled from the wall / 1; 415 /.

Expression heart light is understood in the sense of "warm, kind person."

Who is to blame for the tragedy of misunderstanding of cultural values ​​deposited in the treasury of idioms: a linguistic personality or culture itself? Here, as in the case of the "naked and poor", the blame falls on both sides. Making fun of newspaper and stationery stamps, Vysotsky portrays their hostility towards the common man. When Korney Chukovsky started talking about the "office" and authoritative linguists supported him, it was about protecting culture, as it were, from an external threat. The same is the satirical position of Zoshchenko or Bulgakov. In a different way, Vysotsky. He showed how clichés live inside a linguistic personality and damage its integrity. This substandard language food is fraught with a threat, like substandard television programs, disorienting, intoxicating the innocent viewer, as shown in "Victimization of Television", where the gullible viewer argues:

If you don't look - well, don't you be a fool,
But, at least, killed by God:
You don't know what talents are looking for
You don't know who is gifted! /1; 314 /.

This hero manipulates the names of the programs like words:

"Come on, girls!" "Come on, n a rnyam! "
Give the award to the O-O-UN!

But the treasury is the treasury. There are not only tares, there is also wheat. The same idioms revive common truths, guide you on the path. In the direct meanings of words, in proverbs, fairy tales there is an eternal meaning, which he himself directly speaks about

We take purity, simplicity from the ancients,
Sagas, fairy tales - dragging from the past, -
Because good remains good -
In the past, future and present! /1; 400 /.

Me and the other: contrast, similarity, contiguity

Accepted in literary criticism of the lyric I am, or the lyrical hero, are closely related to the ideas of German classical philosophy, which developed the categories of the objective and the subjective. The very idea of ​​lyric poetry as a literary genus, formulated by Aristotle in a completely different paradigm, was understood and is still understood in the light of these categories. There is no room for theoretical controversy, but the concept of "lyrical I am"Is becoming less and less adequate in relation to modern lyrics. Much more fruitful is the approach outlined in the work of Mikhail Bakhtin, who introduced the antithesis I am and another ... The philosophical ideas of Martin Buber also lie in this new channel. In fact, the phenomena of artistic speech and speech in general cannot be adequately understood if we proceed from the ideas of only one cognizing subject and the world he knows.

In the lyrics of Vysotsky, oppositions can be distinguished Me and peace and I am and another ... The latter, in turn, bifurcates: I am can be in the frame (in the poem) and behind the scenes, and then between the hero of the poem and the author's I am different relationships arise: contrast, similarity, or contiguity.

Opposition I am and peace, which fits into the traditional idea of ​​a lyrical hero, is very clearly stated in the poem “I don’t love”, where the author's assessments are directly expressed. But in a whole series of poems ("Song of a Friend", "He Didn't Return from Battle" and others), the antithesis is based on I am and another, and in the vast majority of cases I am poem is associated with the author's I am only metaphorical and other associations. These most interesting cases do not fit at all with the traditional idea of ​​the lyrical hero, but are associated with duality. We will pay attention to them. But first about the case when I am and another poems appear in the frame.

He did not let me sleep, he got up at sunrise, -
And yesterday he did not return from the battle.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Everything is now alone, it only seems to me -
It’s me who didn’t return from the battle / 1; 213 /.

But in the comic poem "Zeka Vasilyev and Petrov Zek" the antithesis turns out to be false. Here again there is a parallel with the 12th century, with the story of the famous couple of losers - Thomas and Erem:

Erema was crooked, and Foma with a thorn,
Erema was bald, and Thomas was skinny.

At Vysotsky:

Where did we go - to Moscow or Mongolia, -
He didn’t know, filthy, I - all the more / 1; 38 /.

When I am remains behind the scenes, between him and the character arises not only a relationship of contrast, but also a relationship of similarity. The author usually conveys some of his features to the hero. This is a passive attitude, innocence and a stubborn will to live and truth. It is the passive position that allows the author to put on the most risky masks of the persecuted and rejected - wolves, criminals, degraded personalities, losers, everyone who can say to himself: "Say thank you for being alive." Innocence allows you to communicate to the speech behavior of the characters those traits that we talked about above and which multiply sympathy for him. The stubborn will to live makes his poetry optimistic. All this taken together gives value to the allegorical mask. The mask begins to be perceived as a living person and evokes sympathy.

In The Hunt for Wolves, the similarities between the hero and the author are obvious. The whole poem is a detailed and transparent metaphor of persecution ("they overlaid me, they overlaid me"), prohibition (red flags), unequal struggle ("they play not on equal terms with wolves ...") and the will to live ("the will to live is stronger") ...

So, a metaphorical relationship is established between the author's world and the world of characters. The hero is like the author, and the world of the hero, be it hunting, sports, war, circus or crime, is allegorically likened to the world of the author. Of course, the worlds in which the action unfolds are unequal in terms of aesthetic and ethical significance, and where it is not about conventional color, the similarity of the author with the hero allows psychologically reliable posing of the problems "man in war", "man in the mountains", etc. e. Let us, however, draw attention to the fact that, along with the relations of similarity between the author's world and the world of the hero, contiguity relations sometimes arise. The worlds of the author and the hero touch. And this turns the parable allegory, typical, it would seem, for Vysotsky's poems, into something more complex.

In the poem "Masquerade Ball" acts a double of the author, typical of Vysotsky's work. He is at odds with language and culture, awkward, but not angry, trusting, open and simple-minded. Masks here are the theme of the poem itself. The hero-mask himself receives a mask - an alcoholic, and then the logic of life-masquerade forces him to act according to the nature of the mask, which was awarded to him by "our mass worker Kolka". His wife is just as simple-minded - they are similar in language behavior. She talks about the drunkard's mask:

«<...>And I will spend, even if I crack,
Sunday hours
Though with your drunken face, but in a dress! " /1; 64 /

He also calls it brutal to put on animal masks.

The space of allegory, by the very nature of the path, should not be permeable, this, in fact, the parabola (parable) differs from the paradigm (example from life). The fabulist himself cannot act in a fable; he is assigned a special extra-plot place - morality. The narrator cannot act in a parable; he also has a special place - antapodosis (commentary). But Vysotsky's allegory turns out to be permeable to life. This journey of the author into the world of his own satire, and often grotesque, is an interesting phenomenon. It is impossible to imagine, say, Shchedrin among the "toy business of little people." At best, a parallel is possible between the manufacturer of the "little people" and the author. But in the democratic satire of the 17th century, such a situation can be imagined.

Sometimes, in irritation, such an author's position is called foolishness, without realizing that they are returning this word to its original meaning. For Christ's sake, the holy fools were called people who live in the world, but are not protected from the world. The author, who descended from the pedestal of author's inaccessibility into the world of satirical characters, can be called foolish for the sake of truth.

Me and super-me. The source of allegoricality

A "dual" theme does not usually involve positive counterparts. The hero's double personifies his vices. But in the work of Vysotsky there is another twist of the theme: the hero's double is the highest principle in him, calling him to sacrifice, to heroism.

In The Song of a Fighter Plane, such a double is introduced by the periphrasis the one that sits in me... This descriptive expression is emphasized not only by its length and repetitions in the text, but also by the fact that that not named. The narration itself is conducted from the perspective of a fighter plane, which is likened to a person. But within himself, this person feels a double, the one that sits in him, and with annoyance states that this double requires more and more efforts from him, more and more victims:

I'll leave - I'm tired of wounds! ..
But the one that sits in me
I see, I decided - to ram! /1; 179 /

This restless doppelganger "thinks he is a fighter." Here is the word fighter rethought. The hero's double acts as a destroyer, a destroyer of himself, but not a senseless destroyer, like Crooked and Hard, but a higher principle that requires constant sacrifice.

The poem is striking in the independent significance of the literal plan. Indeed, in the parable, this plan is purely conditional; here in front of us in colors, and most importantly in sounds, there is a picture of air combat. In alliterations and assonances one can hear the howl and vibration of motors, the sound of a falling and exploding bomb, the sound of a diving plane:

From the bomber, the bomb carries
Death to the airfield, -
And it seems - the stabilizer sings:
"Peace to your home!"

Thanks to duality, we also feel the psychological environment of the battle. We see not a pictorial feat of a vigorous cardboard hero, but a real feat worth great mental effort. We trace the dynamics of achievement, its dialectics. One half of the soul is fighting to survive in unbearable conditions, which also cannot be called egoism, while the other sets new, unthinkable tasks for it that go beyond its capabilities: "Gasoline, my blood, is at zero." And yet this is not only a song about war, it is a poem about sacrifice in general, including about a poet who sacrifices himself ("Shining to others, I burn myself"). And the refrain is not at all accidental. This is not just accurate sound writing: the plane crashed and exploded with a howl. The death of the hero brings peace to our home. So in the poem about black pea coats "our rough work" (sacrifice) gives the survivors the opportunity to "see the dawn duty free". So the poet, burning himself, brings peace to the souls of people.

Couple airplane and pilot can be understood as an allegory of body and soul. The same allegory in the poem "Choosy Horses": here again the drama of a man who drives himself, as they drive horses. Life, however, is portrayed as driving "over an abyss, along the very edge." The image of a sleigh is an ancient image of death, used even in the "Teaching" by Vladimir Monomakh. The theme of the funeral is also transparently hinted at by the following words: “We have made it, there are no delays to visit God”, “I will disappear, the hurricane will sweep me away like a fluff”. It is therefore understandable why the rider conjures the horses "not to listen to the whip tight". But he continues to drive them with the same whip. I AM the hero is bifurcated. This is why the pronoun I am so desperately sounds in the anaphora of refrain:

I'll water the horses
I'll finish the verse / 1; 299 /.

If in such poems as "Two Fates" or "I was struck with chills again", we are faced with opposition I am and it , if we use Freud's terminology, then in the poems "Song of the Fighter Plane" and "Finicky Horses" we see the opposition I am - super-me .

The duality in "Monument" is refracted in a very peculiar way. Higher beginning, super-me, remains to live in the legacy of the poet, continuing the same struggle of spirit and flesh, life and death, which was waged by the twins during the poet's life. The poem is tragic. The poet died, "the death mask was removed from him," the "Asian cheekbones" were removed from the plaster, just in case. The legacy is canonized. "Modern means of science" turned the "voice torn off by despair" into a "pleasant falsetto". The statue is likened to Achilles, who died, wounded in the heel. The poet is wounded by posthumous glory. The Achilles' heel is what ties him to the pedestal:

Don't shake off my granite meat
And do not pull it out of the pedestal
Achilles this heel,
And the iron ribs of the frame
Trapped dead in a layer of cement, -
Only convulsions along the ridge / 1; 346 /.

So, the poet, who loves life, was "subjected to constriction" after death. "Mayakovsky" motives of the poem, mixed with personal ones, intensify the contrast between youth, protest, breadth of nature and "grave boredom."

All the accents seemed to be set. All in the past. Where does dynamism come from - here? But here's a new twist in the plot - the steps of the commander. The statue, in spite of everything, comes to life:

And the crowds dashed into the alleys,
When I pulled out my leg with a groan
And stones fell from me.

And again the appearance of the higher principle is destructive: the statue collapses like a fighter plane dies. But this is destruction in the name of higher creation. An unexpected recognition occurs. When the monument collapses to the ground, the voice from the trumpet wheezes (broke through the "pleasant falsetto"): "Alive!"

Thus, the lyrical I am in the poetry of Vladimir Vysotsky is three-layer: this is the highest I am, finding an allegorical embodiment, I am the author himself and the hero-mask, who is with the author in relation to similarity and contrast, as well as contiguity. The latter makes Vysotsky's poems especially democratic and open.

Rhetorical thinking,

or the maximum load of positions

Exhaustion of the thought field and its consequences

Following the romantics, we are used to treating rhetorical thinking as dry, deductive and theoretical (schematic). In his article "Rhetoric as an Approach to the Generalization of Reality" Academician S. S. Averintsev interprets rhetorical thinking as diametrically opposite to romantic thinking and gives very interesting examples of the latter. Thus, the regulars of one literary cafe called everyone who did not belong to their circle "pharmacists." Romantic thinking does not seek differentiation, especially what it considers alien. In contrast to this, rhetorical thinking always tends to enumerate the possibilities, which is also very vividly illustrated in the named article ...

We are used to thinking that rhetorical allegory is dry, while forgetting about the modeling role of this allegory. Life is more colorful than a rhetorical scheme, but it presents one outcome of events, and rhetoric unfolds before us a whole paradigm of possibilities. By its very nature, rhetoric, at least the entire Aristotelian tradition, is associated with the category of the possible. Anyone who inclines the audience in favor of an act must think of all the consequences of both this act and the opposite. The orator's task is to unfold the possibilities, to deduce the consequences from the causes, to turn the phenomenon in different facets, if you like, to calculate these facets, sort them out. Therefore, rhetorical constructions are often symmetrical, and this can give the impression of artificiality, rationality. But this symmetry is usually accompanied by depth of thought and emotional tension.

Vysotsky is a rare and vivid example of a poet endowed with rhetorical thinking. Of the great names of the last century, here, perhaps, only one can be named, but the greatest. True, the graduate of the Lyceum, who synthesized the classical and romantic traditions, showed rhetorical thinking more in large forms - poems, stories, dramatic scenes, and the rhetorical development of lyric poems ("Signs", "Traffic complaints", "Kalmychka", especially "I remember wonderful moment ") is not striking. Vysotsky's closest teacher willingly assumed the functions of an agitator and even a popularizer, but the path of rhetoric for Mayakovsky was closed by the egocentrism of the poet himself, and his school, and his era. Something similar can be said about the poetry of Lermontov, in which Academician V.V. Vinogradov rightly saw the features of the "oratorical" style, however, taking this word in quotation marks. The speech of a poet-tribune or poet-prophet is associated with the active use of rhetorical figures, but not necessarily explained by rhetorical thinking.

Here is Vysotsky's poem "Who is running after what" ("At a distance - four of the first ..."). The four runners represent four positions in life and, by the way, four classic temperaments. The author does not treat these positions dispassionately. There is also an obligatory companion of Vysotsky's lyrics - humor. For example:

And rival Pele
in hardened,
And set an example of purpose
aspirations! /1; 367 /

And yet, if you look closely, the poem is striking in its frank rhetoric (just some miniature edition of Theophrastus' Characters!):

At a distance - four of the first,
Evil and kind, disinterested and avaricious.
Which of them professes what, who whose? /1; 302 /.

Four positions are revealed, four biographies are fluently named, but the poet-humanist himself is also present here. He sympathizes with everything that is worthy of sympathy, he laughs at everything that is worthy of laughter, before us is rhetoric, but at the same time - lyrics.

Vysotsky's rhetoric is not only the unfolding of different destinies, consideration of different cases. Its formula is the maximum exhaustion of the mental field: thinking out, feeling more deeply, negotiating.

Consider in this respect the not very well-known poem "Song of the White Elephant". Already in the title we see a repulsion from the idiom megillah... In the poem itself, literally all oppositions are realized, in which the image of the "white elephant" is involved:

Among his fellow gray - a white elephant
Was, of course, a black sheep / 1; 302 /.

White elephant synonymous white crow and antonymic gray elephants... Works in poem and opposition elephant - elephant... In addition, the living elephant is contrasted with a decorative elephant made of white ivory. In connection with the theme of the elephant, not only ivory is mentioned, but also what is generally associated with the elephant: India, size, the Ganges, seven elephants as a symbol of happiness, an elephant's curtsy, riding an elephant - and all this in ten quatrains.

Symmetry of plot and verbal repetitions

In most cases, Vysotsky's poems are ballads, they have a plot. If there is no plot, then there is always what is usually called movement of lyrical motives : something happens either to the characters or to the feeling of the hero. The latter can grow, change to the opposite, rotate in a closed circle and suddenly break out of this circle. In the composition of the poem, rhetorical thinking is manifested both at the plot level and at the level of verbal figures that form the so-called advance schemes .

"The song about the scapegoat" is written, it would seem, according to the laws of a fable: it is based on an allegory - typical fable animals are likened to people. But the real fable, despite the rationality and interest in it on the part of the classicists, is an archaic, pre-ritual genre. In it there is no desire to develop the theme, to rhetorical analysis, it contains only some simple observation of life, cast into an ingenious plot. Vysotsky repels the idiom scapegoat... Reviving this idiom, he fills the linguistic associations associated with it with socio-psychological content. Goat primarily opposed Wolf as a prey to a predator. We all know the song about the gray goat, and the original title had the words gray goat, in the text - "he, grayish, did not resist violence with evil." But the opposition is not limited to the "wolf and lamb" theme. The goat "even lived with wolves - he did not howl like a wolf." Another idiom reveals another nuance: the goat did not strive for predators, for the mighty of the world, “did not invade other people's possessions,” was a modest one. Here one more facet is actualized, and also based on linguistic associations: “It was of no use to him, however, as from a goat of milk, // But there was no harm, however, either.” Word goat has a negative connotation in the language. This string sounds already in the first verse: "I bleated all the goat songs." Nevertheless, the "humble goat" was chosen as the scapegoat: he is punished for the sins of others, for the sins of the strong - wolves and bears. Gradually, however, the Goat begins to understand the advantage of his "passive" position and begins to play pranks: "Once he tied his beard in a knot - // From the bushes he called the Wolf a bastard." Tie beard in a knot- another idiom, the image of a goat is associated with a beard (again an idiom - goat beard). And now, when not a fable, but a rather complex portrait of the Goat has been drawn, a new plot twist follows:

While the predators fought among themselves,
The opinion grew stronger in the reserve,
What is dearer than all bears and foxes -
Dear Scapegoat!
The Goat heard - and he became like this:
“Hey you brown, - shouts, - hey you piebald!
I will take the diet of wolves from you
And bearish privileges! "

Turnover scapegoat is now revealed from the other side:

“To forgive someone's sins - it's up to me to decide:
This is me - the Scapegoat! " /1; 353 /

In the first version, published in the collection "Nerve", the expression goat kids("And the little kids-kids // rolled up their sleeves - // And let's go to wool the little wolves in fluff and shreds!" / 1; 520 /). So, before us, firstly, a plot with twists and turns, secondly, a rather complex image of the main character, match Dostoevsky's “little people” like Foma Fomich, and thirdly, a rather delicate topic of speculation on suffering. All this does not fit into the fable scheme, but does not fit in any way with the romantic idea of ​​the lyrics. A poem is a rhetorical deployment of a theme in the conceptual sphere of the Russian language. Introduced into circulation by Academician Likhachev, the concept concept spheres very important both for the interpretation of Vysotsky's work, and for understanding the reasons for his unprecedented popularity in the widest circles. All the connections through which the topic was developed are well known to all those who speak and think in Russian, as well as the psychological nuance of the topic is well known to all Russians. Here, the unfolding of idioms is not motivated by the linguistic personality of the twin hero. This is not necessary, because these are not newspaper, television or stationery stamps, but the golden fund of the native language. Linguistic connections, associations come to life and, like recipes, teach us an understanding of life. But Vysotsky's didactics, but Vysotsky's common truths are not trivial, as in the fable, where “at the exit” we usually have what we already knew “at the entrance”. On the contrary, Vysotsky's songs always enrich. This is because his didactics have been thought out, the recipes have been completed.

The unfolding of the plot at the word level corresponds to rhetorical figures, the concentration of which in Vysotsky's texts is extremely high. Repetition figures usually form protrusion schemes: symmetrically located repetitions highlight the words and images that are significant for the meaning of the whole word. A frequent pull-out pattern is the pattern disappointed expectations ... When the expectation is disappointed, repetitions, for example, in a refrain, form a certain reader's expectation, and then suddenly this expectation is violated, for example, in the alternating refrain: "I did not return from the battle" instead of "he did not return from the battle."

In the poem "Song of the Stars" the word star repeated in every quatrain. Here's a rhetorical unfolding again: star falls, with star tie their lives star- luck, star- reward. All these values ​​are realized. The main theme is the fall stars as a symbol of the hero's fate: to whom what lot will fall. Death falls to the hero of the poem, but: "The second star has rolled - // for your shoulder straps." At the end, the falling stars suddenly stop. The hero was killed, and the reward he deserved remained in heaven:

A star hangs in the sky, disappears -
Nowhere to fall / 1; 62 /.

But in another poem with a military theme - "We rotate the Earth" - repetitions, as is often the case with Vysotsky, are combined with gradation. First time in the refrain:

We do not measure the Earth with steps,
In vain, pulling flowers, -
We push her with our boots -
From myself, from myself!

The second time already:

And push the Earth with our knees -
From myself, from myself! /1; 331 /

Then: "I rotate the globe with my elbows." And finally: "We pull the earth by the stalks with our teeth." Thus, the epiphora (repeat at the end of the stanza) From myself, from myself! accompanied by semantic gradation. Gradation is also a peculiar way of unfolding, exhausting thoughts and images. This exhaustion is usually accompanied by emotional intensity and hyperbole.

Emotional exhaustion. Hyperbola and hyperbolization

If at the logical and figurative level the rhetorical unfolding realizes the principles of "thinking out" and "watching", then at the emotional level the principle of "feeling out" prevails. Feeling, as a rule, is brought to its logical end - it is exaggerated. Actually, hyperbole in the most ancient meaning of the term, preserved in etymology ("throwing") and attested in ancient definitions, means crossing a certain limit. For example, Aphrodite was considered the highest bearer of female beauty, her beauty was thought of as ultimate. Therefore, “to be more beautiful than Aphrodite” or “to be like her” is a hyperbole. In the phenomenon of hyperbole, even today one can feel not only “deliberate exaggeration”, as it is said in modern definitions, but also a certain “overlap”, a certain transcendence, violation of boundaries. “My finish line is the horizon,” the poet says, and this is hyperbole in the classical sense of the word, for it is impossible to reach the horizon, let alone go beyond it.

Vysotsky's hyperbole in the composition of the poem is akin to a disappointed expectation. The poet first gives a sense of the limit, and then crosses it against all the laws of the psyche and physics. This limit of tension is always felt in the author's performance of Vysotsky's songs. "The wolf cannot break traditions," but he still breaks them. Today is not the same as yesterday, - this is the principle of hyperbole. Observers watch from a distance how the waves "break arched necks." They are out of reach of the waves, they only "sympathize with the slightly lost, but from afar." And although they're out of reach

But in the twilight of the seabed -
In the depths of the secret, sperm whale -
One will be born and rise
Incredible wave, -
She will rush to the shore -
And the observers will be swallowed up / 1; comm. S. 521 /.

The hyperbole of Vysotsky is more psychological and national than the hyperbole of Mayakovsky, whose work in many ways served as a model for Vysotsky. For Mayakovsky, hyperbole is primarily a demonstration of strength. The feeling of the planetary rightness of the idea resonates with the cosmic loneliness and egocentrism of the author's I am, and in this resonance, in this word "about time and about myself" Mayakovsky's hyperbole is born (it is curious that he can begin a poem with a hyperbole, without building any preliminary gradation). Vysotsky's hyperbole is either a frenzy of courage, or a gesture of despair, or the insane, stubborn hope of a maximalist that it is still possible to get out of a hopeless situation. In all cases, it is psychologically recognizable, if one can put it so paradoxically, realistic. This is the world of feelings of the Russian people, where there is "gypsy", and "dostoevism", and Avvakum's zeal.

An example of hyperbole-courage is found in the poem "Oh, where I was yesterday":

It all started here -
You cannot describe in words, -
And where did it come from
So much strength in your hands! -
I'm like a wounded beast
Finally, he was a freak:
Knocked out the windows and the door
And dropped the balcony / 1; 141 /.

The feeling of unbridled revelry, courage is brought to its logical conclusion, and this creates grotesque images like I dropped the balcony... From all this breathes with the adventures of Vasinka Buslaev. The hyperbole of despair, even weakness, can be found in the poem "It's not over yet": "Some with a colt, some with a dagger, some in tears - // We left the sinking ship" / 1; 183 /. it who is in tears- a wonderful example of how weakness turns into strength, because in a poem they go on boarding in tears! More often than not, hyperbole is behind the frantic will to live, to freedom. This is the mood when the counter-offensive begins from an unthinkable position, when the battle flares up already on the edge of the abyss. And this purely Russian state of mind could not but be recognized by millions of listeners.

Exhaustion of language means:

subject areas, tropes, grammar, rhyme, sound writing

In relation to the linguistic means themselves in the poetics of Vladimir Vysotsky, the same rhetorical principle operates - the exhaustion of potential possibilities, the unfolding of paradigms. This, by the way, does not automatically follow from the rhetorical attitude, but is due to the fact that in Vysotsky, like in many contemporary poets, the language itself turns from an instrument into an object of study and the same attitude is applied to this object as to others. The fact that the fate of language is in the lens of Vysotsky's author's attention is obscured by vivid realistic pictures, psychologism and lyrical intensity. Nevertheless, it is so. To make language the hero of your poem, you do not have to be a cold intellectual who does not know life. This also does not require the notorious "dehumanization of art" and an oath of loyalty to postmodern ideals. To do this, you just need to have a good feel for our time, when interest in language as an object is growing exponentially. Let us recall the unprecedented and permanent vocabulary boom of the second half of the twentieth century. We are so accustomed to the phrase "experiment with a word" that we somehow do not realize what is the subject of the experiment: the search for the best form of expression (innovation), reader's patience (shocking) or, finally, the word itself?

Vysotsky manifests a rhetorical approach to linguistic phenomena at all levels of the language. At the lexical level, this is a craving for exhaustion of vocabulary and phraseology of the subject area for which he undertakes. If this is chess, there will be debut, and old Indian defense, and gambit, and fork, and the names of the figures (despite the fact that both poems on this topic are comic, and their hero is an amateur who "confuses kings with aces"). If this is a highway, there will be valve, and liners, and ditch, and starter... And this is not just two or three professionalism to create the appropriate color. At the semantic level, this is almost obligatory playing with the semantic transfer, the so-called realization trail : "I see he's aiming a fork - // He wants to eat, - and I would eat the queen ... // Under such a snack - yes a bottle!" /1; 306 /.

At the grammar level, this is, firstly, the disclosure of derivational potentials (a whole poem built on morphemic repetition under-: undershot, missed a ride, disliked, underappreciated, missed); secondly, polyptotes (the use of one word in different cases) and other cases of "overturning" the paradigm into the text ( track, track, track); third, the obligatory game on deviations from the norm: contamination, the formation of irregular shapes. Wherever a mistake is possible, the author reproduces it with rhetorical constancy. Gaping is not peculiar to the Russian language, and the word "UN" sounds unusual to the Russian ear. And here the hero of Vysotsky (a typical manifestation of hyper-urbanism) says: "O-O-UN."

The same is the attitude towards rhyme. Like Mayakovsky, Vysotsky often has a pun rhyme ( man i - primitive), pantorim is used ( Blown up, laid, chipped// Black reliable gold/1; 253 / - each word rhymes), the inner rhyme is varied, including a shadow rhyme, in which the rhyming words are brought together to the limit: they say that earlier a yogi could... Vysotsky's sound writing is extremely rich: there is onomatopoeia, sound symbolism, and verbal instrumentation.

The poet treats the word in the same way as to thought, feeling, image: he seeks to reach the limit and even, as it were, go beyond the limit, to exhaust its possibilities. But this is not a spontaneous and inevitably one-sided rush of romance. This is a stubborn and harmonious rhetorical worldview with inescapable didactics in content and inevitable symmetry in form. For a hundred years now, both have been revered in literature as retrograde. However, Vysotsky, the brightest bearer of rhetorical thinking, who was not at odds with reason and was not shy about morality, gathered an unprecedentedly large and unusually diverse audience. Note that this audience gathered not to savor cruelty and tickle the sense of smell with the miasma of nightmares, but in the name of an extremely unfashionable thing - the love of life.

In a short article, it is impossible even to glance at the work of such a brilliant poet as Vladimir Vysotsky. The purpose of the article is different. It seems to me that in connection with the features discussed above, two lines of investigation of this creativity can be identified. The first is associated with folk (and grassroots literary), and the second - with the book sources of Vysotsky's poetry. The first is, first of all, the study of duality, in particular in connection with the folk culture of laughter and the traditions of ancient Russian democratic satire. (In the same vein, the transformation of the genre of cruel romance and thieves' song in the lyrics of Vysotsky should be investigated; this topic was not raised in the article.) The second is, first of all, the study of Vysotsky's rhetoric, which, apparently, was also learned through the inheritance of Mayakovsky's oratorical traditions, and through work in the theater, for a dramatic text intended for performance stimulates both reflection and dialogism, that is, it is rhetorical thinking.

Notes (edit)

Likhachev D.S. Human life as imagined by an unknown author of the 17th century // The Tale of Woe-Evil Part. L., 1985.S. 98.

Cit. by ed .: Vysotsky V. Works: In 2 volumes. Yekaterinburg, 1997. T. 1. P. 211. Further, the works of Vysotsky cit. on this ed. with indication of volume and page numbers in the text. The options shown in the collection "Nerve", op. according to the notes of the same edition.

For this feature of medieval laughter, see: Likhachev D.S. Laughter as a worldview // Historical poetics of Russian literature. SPb., 1997.S. 343.

History of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries. M., 1980.S. 419.

Adrianova-Peretz V.P. To the origins of Russian satire // Russian democratic satire of the 17th century. M., 1977.S. 136-138.

Grigoriev V.P. Paronymic attraction in Russian poetry of the XX century. // Reports and messages of the linguistic society. Issue 5. Kalinin, 1975.

Okun Ya. Replica to your own address // Journalist. 1982. No. 1.

The category of the linguistic personality is being actively developed at the school of Yu. N. Karaulov. See for example: Yu.N. Karaulov Russian language and linguistic personality. M., 1987. It seems that this category is extremely productive for the study of modern role-playing lyrics.

Cm.: Chukovsky K. Alive as life: A conversation about Russian. lang. M., 1962. Ch. 6. K. Paustovsky also complained about the clogging of the tongue with clerical stamps. See also: Vinogradov V.V. Problems of speech culture and some tasks of Russian linguistics // Vinogradov V.V. Problems of Russian stylistics. M., 1981.

Buber M. Me and You: Human Problem. M., 1993.

S. S. Averintsev Rhetoric and origins of the European literary tradition. M., 1996.S. 168.

On the influence of the poetry of Vladimir Mayakovsky on the personality and work of Vysotsky, see: Novikov Vl. AND. Vysotsky Vladimir Semenovich // Novikov Vl. AND. Leap. M., 1997.S. 149-161.

Vinogradov V.V. Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th-19th centuries. M., 1982.S. 306-309.

Likhachev D.S. The concept of the Russian language // Izv. RAS OLYA. 1993. No. 1.

PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES

UDC 821.512.157

A. A. Burtsev

POETRY FEATURES OF DALAN'S HISTORICAL NOVELS

The study of the poetics of Dalan's historical novels made it possible to draw a conclusion about the innovative nature of his creative method. This is evidenced by the revealed features of the plot-compositional structure of the writer's works, artistic anthropology, the system of poetic means and techniques, as well as the national character of his poetic speech.

Key words: historical novel, “local color”, dialogue of cultures, plot, “centrifugal” composition, epitaph, artistic anthropology, parapersonalism, portraiture, figurative animalism, suggestive poetics, national color.

Poetics of Dalan "s Historical Novels

The study of the poetics of Dalan "s historical novels revealed the novelty of his creative method. This is proved by the found peculiarities of the plot-composition structure of the author" s works, the artistic anthropology, the system of poetic means and devices , as well as the ethnic nature of his poetic speech.

Key words: historical novel, local color, dialogue of cultures, plotting, center-oriented composition, epitaph, artistic anthropology, para-character, portraying, image animalistics, suggestive poetics, ethnic color.

Introduction

V. S. Yakovlev - Dalan is one of the most talented, original Yakut writers. A historian by education, an artist-thinker by talent, he is rightfully considered the founder of the genre of the historical novel in national literature.

The historical genre itself in world literature dates back to European antiquity - from the "History" of Herodotus, the works of Plutarch and Tacitus, as well as ancient oriental chronicles. As for the historical novel itself, according to the general opinion of historians and literary theorists, its first classical examples were created at the beginning of the 19th century by W. Scott. He also laid the foundations of the theory of the genre. In Essay on the Novel (1824), Scott identified two main varieties of the novel: a romantic novel (romance) with an element of fiction and a moralist novel.

BURTSEV Anatoly Alekseevich - Doctor of Philology. D., prof. Department of Russian and Foreign Literature, FLF NEFU named after M.K. Ammosov.

with a modern theme (novel). In the romantic novel, he was especially interested in the problem of the relationship between historical facts and fiction. At the same time, fiction in his understanding is a conscious method that does not contradict plausibility, corresponding to the logic of events and characters. A special role belongs to the detail of presentation, details and trifles necessary for the convincing depiction of characters and surroundings. The historical novelist, according to Scott, must "master both the great and the small in the field of history and mores that he seeks to capture."

Apparently, Dalan was familiar with the historical works of romantics, in particular F. Cooper's cycle of novels about Leather Stocking (Natty Bumpo) and the novels of W. Scott. This is evidenced by some typological parallels and similarities in his novels with the works of the classics of the genre. By

BURTSEV Anatoly Alekseevich - Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor of the Department of Russian and Foreign Literature, the Philology Faculty, the North-Eastern Federal University.

at least his Dagancha, "the last hosuun of the tumats," and his grandfather Bakamda from the novel "Deaf Vilyui" are very reminiscent of the "last of the Mohicans" Uncas and his father Chingachguk, the heroes of the second novel of Cooper's pentalogy. And the images of warlike tumats in red robes and "shit-faced" jirikineans with their faces painted with blue paint are in many ways akin to the descriptions of North American Indians - Hurons, Iroquois and representatives of other tribes in Cooper's novels. The free booturs from Dalan's novels, perhaps, go back to the Saxon free yeomen, and the competition of the Yakut heroes for the right to marry Tygyn's beloved daughter, the beauty Aryly Kuo Aitaly, bears some resemblance to the description of the knightly tournament in V. Scott's novel Ivanhoe, the winner of which received the right to declare Lady Rowena the first beauty and subsequently become her husband.

In his novels "Deaf Vilyui" (1983) and "Tygyn Darkhan" (1993), based on a deep study and comprehension of historical, ethnographic, folklore materials, the writer reliably and convincingly recreated the atmosphere of the 16th-early 17th centuries in artistic terms. The first novel reflects the complex historical fates of the Tumats, Tong Bis, Uranhaev-Sakha and other tribes who then inhabited the territory of Yakutia. Thus, the modern concept that Yakutia was originally formed as a country of dialogues, contacts and symbiosis of cultures, languages, peoples was confirmed. In the second novel, the author's attention was drawn to the era of the famous historical personality Tygyn Darkhan, one of the most famous descendants of the legendary Elley. He lived at the end of the 16th-first half of the 17th centuries, that is, during the period of the completion of ethnogenesis and the formation of the traditional culture of the Sakha people on the middle Lena.

The creator of the historical novel needed to combine the analytical mind of the scientist and the creative imagination of the writer. The credibility of the "Falstaffian background" had to be combined with the maximum concreteness of the descriptions. Therefore, the most important feature of the historical novel is the so-called “local color” (couleur local). As BG Reizov wrote, “everyday life, tools, clothing, dwellings, customs, depending on the circumstances of life and traditions dating back to ancient times, the consciousness of the people, their beliefs, traditions and songs, composed by them, - all this constitutes a problem "Local flavor".

Our separate article is devoted to the poetics of local color. And in this work, we consider poetics itself, that is, an integral system of artistic means (figurative structure, composition, plot, features of poetic

speech), characteristic of Dalan's historical novels.

From the point of view of ideological content and plot-compositional structure, Dalan's novels represent a single historical and artistic dilogy. According to the author's concept, the terrible and tragic events and episodes of the past are directly related to the modern era. Dalan's novels are imbued with a philosophical idea that is timeless and in Yakut literature, expressed by A. Kulakovsky - "a curse echoes like an echo with blood, a blessing echoes with love."

Both novels are equipped with a complex plot, in which the factor of chance plays a significant role, but at the same time, the system of events that underlies it has a causal relationship. The plot of the action in the novel "Deaf Vilyui" is the murder of the knight of the Tong Bis tribe by Magan Mekche the Khosuun, the leader of the Tumats, Yuren. The only son of Yuren Daganch, who is raised by his grandfather Bakamda, must continue his paternal family and take revenge on his enemies. A parallel plot line of the novel is associated with Magan's daughter Mekche Nyurbachaan, who after difficult trials falls into the Sakha's "golden fold". In the novel "Tygyn Darkhan" the action takes place in central Yakutia. Tygyn managed, at the cost of great efforts, convincing "the obedient in word, obstinate - by force", to become the ruler of the majority of Yakut clans, the owner of the fertile Tuymaada valley, which has become the focus of social and cultural life of the newly formed Sakha people. The main conflict of the novel is based on Tygyn's confrontation with the head of the Borogon clan, Toyon Lekey, who is not satisfied with the role of the vassal of the ruler of Tuymaada.

Nyurbachan would not have ended up in Tuymaad if the tumats had not killed her relatives, the tong biis. Fate itself intended her for Keremes, Tygyn's eldest son, but she was forced to become the wife of his grandfather Munnyan Darkhan. In turn, this would not have happened if the tong biis had not kidnapped Kunney, the first and beloved wife of Munnyan Darkhan, the mother of Keremes and Tesani. Then, most likely, the tragic lot would not have fallen to the lot of Keremes and the fate of Tesani would have been different.

As for the similarity of the compositional structure, the author's inspiration in the novel "Deaf Vilyui" is sustained in an epic style, an analogy is drawn with a folk singer who tunes his "sonorous, hot lips" "To tell about the" past troubling times ", about the" civil strife and wars of the days that disappeared without a trace in the darkness. " The novel "Tygyn Darkhan" also opens with colorful

description in the olonkho language of “three-rounded, blessed and generous Uluu Ebya - the Great Nurse of the Lena-river Babushka” and “three fertile valleys” - Erkeni, Anseli and Tuymaada.

The finale of "Deaf Vilyuy" is an epitaph for the warlike tumats who "never lived like other northern peoples", did not bother themselves with peaceful pursuits, but "shed blood and plundered other people's wealth." Thus, they violated the law of Great Nature, according to which "nothing remains without retribution: he who sows the wind reaps the storm," as a result, "from the numerous, like swirling mists, there was nothing left that would remind people of their stay on earth - no monuments, no dwellings, no graves ... ". The symbolic finale of the novel "Tygyn Darkhan" is very reminiscent of the concluding part of A. Kulakovsky's poem. Shaman Odunu, like his brother from The Shaman's Dream, casts his inner eye on the “boundless breadth of future times” and also creates a gloomy futurological picture of the future: “In Mrs. Tuymaad there are no birds, no running creatures, no fish with silver scales. Over Mount Chochur-Myran, belching fire and smoke, iron birds roar by. Iron beasts with steel innards prowl the smooth plain of Tuymaada. Stirring up the waters of the Great Nurse, iron ships sail. " ... But, as in the poem by A. Kulakovsky, the sacred "tuerekh" predicts success and prosperity. Odunu encourages the sick, fallen in spirit Tygyn, and blesses him to continue the struggle for the unification of the Sakha people.

Through the heroes also contribute to the artistic unity of Dalan's novels. This, in particular, is Tygyn Darkhan himself, who visited Vilyui for tribute to his former subjects and during one of the campaigns took little Nyurbachan with him to Tuymaada. It is she who becomes one of the main characters in the second novel, and in her memoirs her brother Eregechei, her old saviors Mohsoho and Khattyana, childhood friends Nichcha, Bogduu and Neku, who acted in Deaf Vilyue ". On the contrary, in this novel, the eldest daughter of Tygyn, the udagan Tesani, already appears in symbolic terms, in the form of a bone pupa carved by Yeregechey. The character of the first novel, Tuoga Baatyr, is mentioned more than once in the second part of the dilogy.

The composition of the novel "Deaf Vilyui" is "centrifugal" in nature, since the action is built consistently, smoothly and unfolds around the fate of the main characters - Daganchi and Nyurbachan. In "Tygyn Darkhan" the composition is rather

“Centripetal”, because in the course of the action not the whole story of the hero is revealed, but it is centered around his main goal - the unification of the Uranhai “Uus” (clans) into the Great Il. It is no coincidence that the novel begins with a picture of the Ysyakh of White Abundance, organized by Tygyn Darkhan, to which “all the royal army” - the heads of clans with a large retinue - gathers.

If in "Deaf Vilyue" a rather limited circle of characters is presented, then "Tygyn Darkhan" is distinguished by an extensive artistic anthropology. But in both cases, the characters are individualized. To achieve this goal, the author uses a whole system of techniques and tools.

The English writer S. Maugham in his book "Summing Up" wrote: "The physical appearance of a person is reflected in his character, and, on the other hand, character, at least in the most general outline, is manifested in appearance." Indeed, in Dalan's novels, the description of the characters' appearance plays a significant role in revealing the character. This is precisely the function that the portrait of young Dagancha performs in The Deaf Vilyue: “From his father Dagancha inherited high growth and a slender, resilient physique — the real Tumat! From his mother he received the agility and dexterity of movements inherent in Jirikinei. On his swarthy cheekbones ... his face gleamed menacingly narrow, under heavy eyelids, the wide wings of the nose swelled, the dark tendrils that had just begun to break through turned black over his full bright lips, giving his whole appearance a courageous and at the same time childishly well-behaved look. Before us is not a neutral portrait, on the contrary, it is not devoid of an evaluative moment: the author not only emphasized the masculinity of the future hosuun-daring with Three Marks, but also his naturalness, natural inexperience.

Another version of portraiture, dating back to oral folk poetry, is presented in the novel Tygyn Darkhan: “Accompanied by two maidservants, the famous Aryly Ko Aytaly left her father's urasa with her eyes downcast and, smoothly stepping, made a circle in front of the guests. Indeed, the glorious Aryly Ko Aytaly was beautiful, for, speaking the language of the ancients, the higher deities ai, creating such a face, for eight thousand years chose magnificent features among eighty tribes; creating such a camp, for many centuries, in the meanders of many rivers, they looked out for chiseled lines; and breathing the soul into it, hundreds of centuries have selected excellent qualities among hundreds of peoples. " ... In about the same way as the beauty of Elena the Beautiful in Homer's Iliad is conveyed through the perception of the gray-haired elders, the image of the appearance of the Yakut beauty is functional

national character: "Seeing this incomparable miracle, the insides of the whole host of gallant men and stately young men who had come to the holiday quivered." The same way of creating a portrait in Yakut literature was applied by A. Kulakovsky in the poem "The Beautiful Girl".

To create portraits of his heroes, Dalan made extensive use of figurative animalism. For example, Toyon Lekey, who was distinguished by his lovingness, was called by his relatives "atyr, that is, a stallion" behind his back. He, "large and burly", is likened to the "nine-year-old elk-stag", then to the "moose-bull." Old man Bakhsygyr "had a wide back, as if unable to withstand the weight of his large forehead head, was bent over, which made him look like an old bull." Elsewhere, this not only "cunning and far-sighted", but also the greedy leader of the Bayagantai is compared with the "old wolf."

Figurative animal painting often performed a characterological function. Thus, the tong biis, who killed Hosuun Yuren, "trumpeted over the channel of the Great Kellaeme, like male elks, roared like crank bears." The formidable name of Tygyn Darkhan "thundered along all the paths-roads, like the loud roar of a porcine bull," his "loud glory reached the distant mountain passes, like the sonorous neigh of a horse stallion." The subjects of the ruler Tuymaada from his oppression "scatter like cows bitten by gadflies." Curious youngsters, Toyuk and his friends, "quickly, like chipmunks, crept up to the outskirts of the alas and began to look with all their eyes" at the test of the boats.

Animalistic analogies were used by the writer in pictures of nature. The beauty of the Tuymaada valley is described by him in the following way: “... from the southern end it is supported by its huge stone rim - neither give nor take a hardened connecting rod bear guarding its peace; on the northern side it is crowned by a majestic mountain range, about which it begs to say: the moose-elf froze, spellbound by its charm. "

Along with images and comparisons from the animal world, Dalan's novels also contain the so-called “bird” symbolism, which gives the narrative a solemn and colorful character. According to the traditional custom of the Sakha people, “eight young beauties - tender, like cranes, in snow-white outfits and high headdresses with sultans”, “nine daring guys - slender like cranes, in yellow suede clothes and hats with eagle feathers” participate in the opening of the Ysyakh ". During the rite of the groom chasing after the bride of Aryla Ko Aytaly, “easily, like a white partridge, flew around.

big hill. and flew like a white butterfly. towards the northern mountain Ytyk-Khaya ". In the novel Tygyn Darkhan, the shaman Odunu, having completed the final ritual, “threw a three-eyed sacred tuorekh the size of a young capercaillie. To everyone's jubilation. tuorekh sank downside down ”.

In the novel "Deaf Vilyui" a raven is often mentioned. In one case, the “evil spirit” of the tumats is embodied in the image of a “black and gray raven”, and when the raven croaks, blood is shed. But in another case, according to the custom of tong biis, the hunters ask forgiveness from the spirit of the bear they killed and lay the "blame" on the crow, the patron saint of tumats. The falcon served as the totem of the tong biis themselves, when the tumats defeated them, "the crow's caw drowned out the falcon's screech."

As A. N. Veselovsky wrote in Historical Poetics, psychological parallelism in folklore works was based on the comparison of natural phenomena with human life, and not only animals and birds, but also plants were used as objects of comparison. In this regard, it should be noted that phytomorphs perform an essential function in Dalan's novels. For example, Tygyn Darkhan demands that his daughter Aryly Ko Aytaly "be dressed up like a heavenly deer, decorated so that the wildflowers fade in front of her beauty." The excitement and embarrassment of Aegey Tulluk from male attention is conveyed through the expression "all turned pink like strawberries." The hapsagai fighters, "powerful as the butt of a tree," compare their arms to "the roots of century-old larch trees", their legs to "the trunks of century-old pines cleared of bark."

The artistic world of Dalan's novels is not devoid of a romantic beginning. In this regard, images of nature acquire special significance and, in particular, the river motive running through both novels, which becomes an expanded poetic metaphor of the fate of individual heroes and entire tribes. The hero of the novel "Deaf Vilyuy" by Dagancha, on the advice of his grandfather Bakamda, floats "down the Tyunkatekh river," which flows into the Great Kelleeme, and finds his relatives. But even having earned the title of a daring hosuun with Three Marks and becoming the leader of the tumats, he could not convince them to live in peace with other tribes. In search of new, rich places, they sailed on rafts along an unnamed river to the east towards the great Yakut river Lena and “disappeared into the endless width of the Great White Space, evaporated like dew on the icy, frosty shores of Muus Kudulu Dalai - the Arctic Ocean, scattered forever, like fog. "

The novel "Tygyn Darkhan" begins with a stately

anthem in honor of "the three-rounded, blessed and generous Uluu Eby - the Great Nurse of Lena-river-Babushka", who "imperiously absorbs her obstinate sister Aldan into the turbulent rapids, into whose fast waters, squeezed by sheer cliffs, smoothly flow two plain beauties Amga and , and proud brother Vilyuy, sullenly rolling humpback muddy waves through the thickets and windbreaks of the Rich Black Taiga. " In the middle reaches of this great river in one of the three fertile valleys - the happy Tuymaad - its ruler Tygyn Darkhan arranged the Ysyakh of White Abundance. Throughout the novel, Tygyn rushes between Vilyui, Amga and Tatt, trying to “build Uluu Il,” and in the end, repeating the sad fate of Kudansa the Great, still retains hope for the unification of the Sakha people. Shaman Odunu demands "not to give up on a great goal" and predicts success.

At one time, none other than V. Belinsky reproached V. Scott and F. Cooper for the absence in their novels of the “subjective principle” and “inner man”. This problem does not exist in Dalan's novels. The state of nature contributes to the disclosure of the inner world of the heroes. In one of the initial episodes of the novel "Deaf Vilyui", when tumats attacked the Tong biis camp, "an impenetrable, gloomy night enveloped the earth", "heavy, wet clouds with ragged edges, resembling shreds of wool on the belly of a molting deer," hung low. the surf was rustling on the huge lake. " Little Nyurbachan could not fall asleep that night, “she lay in tordokh ... and tensely listened to the greedy rumble of the waves”, “the ringing silence of the sky, merging with the heavy roar of the waves, for some reason inspired anxiety, and sleep fled away”. The state of another hero of the novel is also transmitted through natural phenomena: at the sight of “Beautiful Nature awakened from hibernation. all the young creature of Daganchi, blossoming in harmony with spring nature, was seized with inspired jubilation. " And later, when he got to the tumats and, not accepting their warlike morality, “yearned” among the “evil two-legged”, “the forest called him to itself,” but the call of his heart and circumstances did not allow him to return to the bosom of nature.

The inner world of a person is revealed by Dalan through the poetics of dreams and memories. In the novel "Deaf Vilyui," dreams often come to Nyurbachan, and they all come true. She appears in a dream, a bone doll that has come to life, carved by Yeregechei: at first she warned of the impending danger, advised her to "swim with the flow of the big river" faster, then predicted that a happy fate awaited her in the "great, endless valley." In the same novel, prophetic dreams are seen

the daring khosuun Tuerecheen - before his death, and the old Khattyana - before the appearance of Tygyn, who took Nyurbachan.

In the novel "Tygyn Darkhan" the bone doll took the form of Tesani, who became a close friend of Nyurbachan. It is she who invites her, for the sake of saving her sons and in search of a better life, to flee to her native Vilyui land. But before that, Nyurbachan again dreams of a bone pupa, which “begins to jump on her lap,” and she perceives this as a sign. In the same novel, prophetic dreams and visions are visited by the ministers of the pagan cult. First, the elder of the Nahar people, the shaman Bekirdian, had an ominous dream about a bloody river. Then Odun had a "significant dream": like his infernal brother from the poem by A. Kulakovsky, turning into a formidable Eagle, soared into the sky and flew around the eastern uluses. And there, on the lands of Borogon and Bayagantai, he saw "streams of hot blood."

But nevertheless, the irrational, esoteric beginning is most connected with the image of the udagan Tesani, who “knows the unknown, understands the unknown, sees the invisible”. Its symbolic and mystical appearance takes place in the novel "Deaf Vilyui" in the form of a bone pupa carved by Eregechey, which repeatedly comes to life in the dreams of Nyurbachans and brings her to the land of Sakha-Uranhais. Tesani herself experiences "attacks of clairvoyance", in her dreams and in reality she imagines "a country of eternal goodness and light", "a country with unfading herbs, with the sun rising in the morning all year round." Once, in the presence of Nyurbachan, by the power of witchcraft Tesani summons the shadow of his deceased brother Keremes, and they learn the tragic story of his love and death. In the last monologue-kamlanie she explains her final moral choice: “I, the White Spirit of good, could not stand the stinking breath of the Black Evil. Like a white bunting, which flew ahead of time with the mighty eagle to the north, like a delicate flower that blossomed in the spring frost, I died out ahead of time. I wanted to multiply goodness and give people beauty, but it didn’t work out - my turn was not ripe yet. I can’t live further in the Middle World. Nothing holds me here, and I fly away to the immaculate world, shining like the dawn sun, and shining like the setting sun, the bright world - to the land of Jabyn. " It is no coincidence that the main means of revealing the image of Tesani is the suggestive poetics of sleep and clairvoyance.

As for the memories of the heroes, they find expression in their inner monologues. Along with Nyurbachan, who often recalls her childhood and her dangerous voyage, Tuoga Baatyr and Toyon Lekey ponder a lot. Tuoga Baatyr, who was the first to pave the

the way to Vilyui, concerned about the problem of settling the clan in a new place, preparing for wintering, establishing good-neighborly relations with local tribes. In addition, Tygyn promised "next year to descend upon him as a grievous guest and a formidable bed-lodger." All this makes him constantly puzzle about the fate of his relatives. Toyon Lekey, who entered into open rivalry with Tygyn Darkhan himself, is also tormented by heavy thoughts. He “did not tolerate the interference of outsiders in his life,” and when the ruler of Tuymaada, stating that “we are disunited, we live only one day, we think only of ourselves, we are afraid of each other, therefore each of us is lonely and helpless”, proposed to unite and create “Uluu Il - Great World”, strongly opposed: “We do not care about anyone. We live by ourselves. Until now, nobody has touched anyone and we want nobody to get involved in our affairs either! " ...

Even Mayagatta, who “knows how to keep his thoughts to himself,” at times was prone to reflection and introspection. He realized that he was between two fires: on the one hand, he was considered the best Borogon Bootur, and Toyon Lekey was counting on him, and on the other, he became the husband of Aryla Ko Aytala and the son-in-law of Tygyn himself. This also forced him to reflect on the relationship with the heads of the two largest paternal families. “The ruler of Tuymaada wants to make him a zealous owner, let him think that he has convinced his son-in-law. But Mayagatta has her own opinion on this matter. He will not trade his freedom for stinking cow dung. Mayagatta will continue to hunt and fish. ”

Against this background, Tygyn Darkhan looks like the most complex and "intellectual" figure. If in "Deaf Vilyue" he is an episodic character and is revealed through his actions, then in "Tygyn Darkhan" he turns into a harmonious hero, who is characterized not only through actions, but also through the internal flow of thoughts and feelings. An internal monologue becomes the main means of creating his character. “The power of thought, knowing no barriers,” carried Tygyn “into the depths of the seas, and into the distance of the steppes, and beyond the ledges of rocky mountains. Breaking away from the paths-roads of the Middle World, he flew around the tiers of the high White Sky and dived to the bottom of the underworld itself ”.

Fulfilling the behest of his father, the ancestor and elder of the Khangalass clan Munnyan Darkhan, Tygyn is trying to unite all the Sakha-Uranhais. In order to convince his eldest daughter Tesani of his innocence, he recalls the legend of the test with bundles of rods dating back to the "Secret Legend of the Mongols". But his problem was that for

to achieve this noble goal, a kind of "national idea", he used violent methods. This is a typical situation of the eternal gap between the ideal and reality, dating back in world literature to the novel by Cervantes "Don Quixote", and in the national tradition - to the legend of Kudangs the Great.

Tygyn's ideological mentor is the shaman Odunu, who inspires the ruler of Tuymaada with the idea that "the great Peace can be established only by force, by making great sacrifices." And Tygyn, after “hard thoughts”, proceeding from “experience gained from forty-four risky campaigns,” agrees with him: “A world without War is unthinkable. Peace and War are as inseparable as day and night, as summer and winter. So Peace emerges from War. This conclusion is the final knot of Tygyn Darkhan's long-term reflections ”. For the sake of the approval of “Uluu Il - the Great Peace”, he “did not spare anything and anyone. To this goal, he sacrificed a son from his beloved wife. He cut his soul in two: he threw the bright and clean half away without regret and kept the dark and cruel side. " ...

However, in the end Tygyn realizes that he failed to “build Uluu Il”, and he sums up the bleak outcome of his life: “I failed. My people did not obey me. " To enhance the artistic effect of this self-diagnosis, the author introduces a symbolic image: “The huge rotten larch seen in Borogon, which he saw in Borogon, came to Tygyn's head. Such is he himself now: with a crippled sick soul and an empty heart. " Tygyn's final reflections are akin to the tragic thoughts of the hero of the story by P. Oyunsky "Alexander the Great", who compares his glory, gained by fire and sword, with "a drop of water that fell into the sand."

This symbolic finale of Dalan's novel is also very reminiscent of the concluding part of A. Kulakovsky's poem. Shaman Odunu, like his brother from The Shaman's Dream, casts his inner eye on the “boundless breadth of future times” and also creates a gloomy futurological picture of the future: “In Mrs. Tuymaad there are no birds, no running creatures, no fish with silver scales. Over Mount Chochur-Myran, belching fire and smoke, iron birds roar by. Iron beasts with steel innards prowl the smooth plain of Tuymaada. Stirring up the waters of the Great Nurse, iron ships sail. " ... But, as in the poem by A. Kulakovsky, the sacred "tuerekh" predicts success and prosperity in the future. Odunu encourages the sick, fallen in spirit Tygyn and blesses him

to continue the struggle for the unification of the Sakha people.

The most important factor in determining

the ethnogenetic essence of any national literature is folklore. Dalan, a subtle connoisseur and collector of oral folk art, the author of the book The Sacred Chalice (1988), organically entered into the text of his novels the legends about Kudangs the Great, the Bull of Winter, Yakut tales of animals and birds.

A whole system of proverbs and sayings serves as a vivid expression of artistic ethno tradition. Here are some of them:

It's good when the water is near, and the relatives are far away;

In the fall, a person lives laughing, in the spring, licking;

The dog has no supplies, and it does not die;

A hare in the forest will not die, a person among friends and relatives will not disappear;

He who sows the wind will reap the storm ("Deaf Vilyui");

As soon as I get up, I will reach the sky;

Cows get to know each other through mooing, and people through conversation;

Kulik is small, and in his nest there is a master;

The hungry one is not hungry, but the well-fed one is itching;

Heaven is merciful, and man is lucky;

The head of a psi will roll off the golden dish ("Tygyn Darkhan").

The national character of the poetics of Dalan's historical novels is reflected, among other things, in his language and style. The writer widely used ethnographic terms and concepts that reveal the peculiarities of life, work and social experience of the peoples of Yakutia. For example: tordoh

The cone-shaped dwelling of the Tumats, Evenks and other peoples of the North, covered with skins; holomo - a dugout covered with sod and bark; sayilyk - summer dwelling; tusulge - a place for holding the Ysyakh; kes is a measure of distance equal to about 10 kilometers; sandals

Low table made of wood or birch bark; torduya is a birch vessel; happakhchy - a side room in a yurt for girls; skis-tuut - light skis-snowshoes lined with the skins of deer paws; torbasa - fur shoes with soft soles; doha - a fur coat with fur inside and out; tune - processed, soft skin; suede leather; tar uere - fermented milk chatter with a Chernobyl.

Dalan's fiction has not lost its national flavor in the Russian translations of L. Libedinskaya ("Deaf Vilyui") and especially A. Shaposhnikova ("Tygyn Darkhan"). They have preserved the specific imagery of the Yakut writer, his original artistic paths (comparisons and metaphors) associated with the author's unique national vision of the world. This is clearly seen from the following system of examples: "a formidable age rode on a red-roan horse"; "Red koumiss

blood "; "The fog covered it like a white hare blanket"; "Lifting it by the collar, like a hare"; "Soften like the liver of a burbot"; “Silence fell like a heavy and soft bearskin”; “His cry recalled the roar of a bear and the howl of a wolf”; "He is the earring of my heart."

Conclusion

Thus, the historical novels of V.S. Yakovlev - Dalan, not only in terms of the depth and richness of their moral and philosophical content, but also in terms of their artistic level, rightfully belong to the summit phenomena of modern Yakut literature.

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