Indo-European civilization. Indo-Europeans and their origin: contemporary condition, problems

The history of all nations leave their roots in deep antiquity. Often, people overcame long distances in search of suitable conditions for their homes. Read more about who are the Indo-Europeans and how they are related to the Slavs, you can learn from this article.

Who is it?

Indo-Europeans are called the carriers of the Indo-European language. Currently to this ethnic group Believe:

• Slavs.
• Hermann.
• Armenians.
• Hindu.
• Celts.
• Greeks.

Why are these peoples called Indo-European? Almost two centuries ago, a huge similarity was discovered between European languages \u200b\u200band Sanskrit - adorption on which the Indians say. The group of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bincludes almost all European languages. The exception is Finnish, Turkic and Basque.

The original habitat of the Indo-Europeans was Europe, but due to the nomadic lifestyle of the majority of peoples, it was extended far for the initial territory. Now representatives of the Indo-European Group can be found on all continents of the world. Historical roots Indo-Europeans go far into the past.

Pranodina and ancestors

You may ask how it happened so that Sanskrit and European languages \u200b\u200bhave a similar sound? There are many theories of those who are such Indo-Europeans. Some scientists suggest that the ancestor of all nations with similar languages \u200b\u200bwas Aryans, who as a result of resettlement and formed various peoples With different adverbs that are similar in the main thing. Opinions are diverged and about the ancestor of Indo-Europeans. According to the Kurgan theory, common in Europe, the homeland of this group of peoples can be considered the territory of the Northern Black Sea region, as well as land between the Volga and Dnipro. Why then the population of different countries differences so so? Everything is determined by the difference in climatic conditions. After mastering the technologies of domestication of horses and the manufacture of bronze, the ancestors of the Indo-Europeans began to actively migrate in different areas. The difference between the territories and explains the differences in the Europeans, which were formed for many years.

Historical roots

• First option - Front Asia or Western Azerbaijan.
• The second option that we have already described above are certain lands of Ukraine and Russia, on which the so-called Kurgan culture was located.
• And the last option is Eastern or Central Europe, and more accurately - the Danube Valley, Balkans or Alps.

Each of these theories has its opponents and adherents. But this question is still not resolved by scientists, although research has been continuing more than 200 years. And since the homeland of Indo-European, the territory of the nucleation is not known slavic culture It is also not possible to determine. After all, this will require accurate data on the ancestor of the main ethnos. Intended tangle of history, which pays more mysteries than answers, can not be unrelated to modern humanity. And the time of the nucleation of the Indo-European language is also covered with darkness: some are called the date in the 8th centuries BC, others - 4.5 V. BC.

Footprints of the former generality

Despite the separation of peoples, traces of community are easily traced from different descendants of Indo-Europeans. What traces of the former community of Indo-Europeans can be given in proof?

• First, this is a language. He is the thread, which still connects people at different ends of the planet. For example, Slavic and there are common concepts as "God", "Hut", "Ax", "Dog" and many others.
• Community can be seen in applied art. Embroidery patterns in many European peoples are strikingly similar to each other.
• To trace the common homeland of Indo-European peoples, and in the "animal" trails. Many of them still have a deer cult, and some countries annually hold holidays in honor of the awakening of the bear in the spring. As you know, these animals are found only in Europe, and not in India or Iran.
• In religion, you can also find confirmation of the theory of community. The Slavs had pagan god Perun, and Lithuanians perkunas. In India, the thumbnail called Padda, the Celts called him perkunia. Yes, and image ancient God very similar to the main deity Ancient Greece - Zeus.

Genetic markers of Indo-Eorderes

The main distinguishing feature of Indo-Europeans is only a language community. Despite some similarity different peoples Indo-European origin is very different from each other. But there are other evidence of their community. Genetic markers, though they do not prove the single origin of these peoples by 100%, but still add more general features.

Most of all among Indo-Europeans are common haplogroup R1. It can be found among the peoples inhabiting the territory of Central and Western Asia, India and Eastern Europe. But in some Indo-Europeans, this gene was not detected. Scientists believe that the language and culture of the Pyranceo-Europeans were transferred from these people not by the help of marriages, but through trade and socio-cultural communications.

Who belongs

Many modern peoples are descendants of Indo-Europeans. These include Indo-Iranian peoples, Slavs, Balts, Romance Peoples, Celts, Armenians, Greeks and German peoples. Each group, in turn, is divided into other, smaller groups. The Slavic branch is divided into several branches:

• Southern;
• Eastern;
• Western.

South, in turn, is divided into such famous peoples, like Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Slovenians. There are among Indo-European and completely extinct groups: Thara and Anatolian peoples. Hittites and Luvians are considered, who appeared in the Middle East in two thousand years before our era. There are among the Indo-European Group and one people who do not own Indo-European language: the Basque language is considered isolated and still not defined, where he originates.

Problems

The term "Indo-European problem" appeared in the 19th century. It is connected with so so far and not clarified by the early ethnogenesis of Indo-Europeans. What was the population of Europe in Eneolita and Bronze era? Scientists have not yet come to a common opinion. The fact is that in Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bthat can be found in Europe, sometimes it is sometimes found elements of not Indo-European origin. Scientists, studying the Pranodine of Indo-Europeans, combine their efforts and involve all possible methods: archaeological, linguistic and anthropological. Indeed, in each of them there is a possible key to the rays of the origin of the Indo-Europeans. But so far, these attempts have not led to anything. More or less studied areas are the territories of the Middle East, Africa and Western Europe. The remaining parts remain a huge white spot on the archaeological map of the world.

Studying the language of Pyranceo-Europeans also can not give scientists a lot of information. Yes, in it you can track the substrate - "traces" of languages \u200b\u200bdisplaced by Indo-European. But he is so weak and chaotic that, to a one-minded opinion about who such Indo-Europeans, scientists did not come.

Settlement

Indo-Europeans were initially settled peoples, and their main occupation was considered fatty agriculture. But with climatic changes and came the cold, they had to start mastering the neighboring lands, which were more favorable for life. Since the beginning of the third millennium BC has become the norm for Indo-Europeans. During the resettlement, they often joined military conflicts with tribes living on the lands. Numerous shocks were reflected in the legends and myths of many European peoples: the Iranians of the Greeks, Indians. After the people who inhabited Europe managed to tame horses and produce bronze products, the resettlement scored even more turns.

How are Indo-Europeans and Slavs related? It is possible to understand this, if you follow the resettlement from the south-east, Eurasia began their distribution, which was then advanced to the southwest. As a result, Indo-Europeans settled all of Europe to the Atlantic. Part of the settlements was located in the territory of the Ugro-Finnish peoples, but did not go further. The Ural Mountains, who were a serious obstacle, stopped the Indo-European settlement. In the south, they advanced significantly further and settled in Iran, Iraq, India and the Caucasus. After the Indo-Europeans settled in Eurasia and again began to lead their community began to decay. Under the influence of climatic conditions, the peoples became more and more disliked on each other. Now we can see what the conditions for the residence of the Indo-Europeans were strongly influenced by the anthropology.

RESULTS

Modern descendants of Indo-Europeans inhabit many countries of the world. They speak different languages, eat different foods, but still have common distant ancestors. Scientists have so far have many questions about the ancestors of Indo-Europeans and their settlement. It remains to hope that over time, there will be comprehensive answers on them. As well as on the main question: "Who are such Indo-Europeans?".

Where did the Slavs and Indo-Europeans come from? The answer gives DNA genealogy. Part 1

Locate more comfortable, dear reader. You are waiting for some shocks. It's not very good to start the story that the author expects the effect of a broken bomb from his study, but what should I do, if so it will be?

And, in fact, why such confidence? Nowadays no longer surprise, isn't it?

Yes, so it is so. But when the question is no less than three hundred years, and gradually the conviction was gradually formed that the question does not have a solution at least "affordable means", and suddenly the decision is - then this is, you will agree, not so frequent phenomenon. And this question - "The origin of the Slavs". Or - "The origin of the original Slavic community." Or, if you please, "the search for Indo-European Pranodina."

Actually, for these three hundred years, which only suggestions on this account were spoken. Probably everything that is possible. The problem is that no one knew which of them are faithful. The question was confused.

Therefore, the author is not surprised if the choir of votes will be heard in response to his conclusions - "So it was known," "I wrote about it." Such is human nature. And ask this chorus now - well, where is the pranodine of Slavs? Where is the pranodine "Indo-Europeans"? Where did they come from? So the choir will not be, but there will be a difference - "the question is complex and tangled, there is no answer."

But for a start - several definitions so that it is clear what we are talking about.

Definitions and explanations. History of the question

Under slavs. In the context of their origin, I will imply praslavan.. And, as will be seen from the subsequent presentation, this context is inextricably linked with the "Indo-Europeans". The last - monstrously clumsy term. The word "Indo-Europeans" - just mockery over common sense.

In fact, there is an "Indo-European group of languages", and the history of this issue is such that two centuries ago a certain similarity between Sanskrit and many European languages \u200b\u200bwere found. This group of languages \u200b\u200bwas called "Indo-European", it includes almost all European languages, except Basque, Thro-Finnish and turkic languages. Then they did not know the reasons for which India and Europe suddenly found themselves in one language conjunction, and now they do not really know. This will also be discussed below, and without Praslavan, it did not cost.

But the absurdity was given the move when the carriers of the "Indo-European languages" began to call "Indo-Europeans". That is, Latvian and Lithuanian - Indo-Europeans, and Estonian - no. And Hungarian is not Indo-European. Russian, living in Finland and talking in Finnish - not Indo-European, and when he goes into Russian, immediately becomes an Indo-European.

In other words, language, linguistic category was transferred to ethnicEven essentially genealogical. Apparently, they believed that there was no better choice. Then maybe it was not. Now there is. Although, strictly speaking, these are terms linguistic, and saying one, ligvists imply another, and confusing thirds.

No less proves confusion when we return to ancient times. Who are they "Indo-Europeans"? These are those who spoke in antiquity on the "Indo-European" languages. And even earlier, who were they? And were they - "Proto Indo-Europeans". This term is even more unsuccessful, and it is akin to the fact that the ancient Anglo-Saxes call "proto-American". They did not see India and in the eyes, and the language was not yet formed, only through the millennium it will be transformed and strengthened into the group of Indo-European, and they are already "proto-indeside-party".

It's like Prince Vladimir to call "Protostetsky". Although "INDO" - it is too linguistic termAnd to India, philologists have direct relationships.

On the other hand, it is possible to understand and empower. Well, there was no other term for "Indo-European". There was no name for people who former times formed cultural communications with india, and expanded this cultural, and in any case language communications to the whole of Europe.

A minute, how was it not? BUT aria.?

But about it a little later.

More about the terms. For some reason, about the ancient Germans or Scandinavians is permissible, but about the ancient Slavs - no. Immediately distribute - no, no, the ancient Slavs was not. Although everyone should be clear that we are talking about praslavyans. What the double standard? Let's agree - speaking of the Slavs, I mean not a modern "ethno-cultural community", but our ancestors who lived millennium Back.

Should they have some name? Not clumsy "Pyranceo-Europeans"? And not "Indoirans", right? Let them be Slavs praslanvyun. AND aria.but about it again later.

Now - what are the Slavs speech? Traditionally, Slavs are divided into three groups - Eastern Slavs, Western and South. Eastern Slavse is Russian, Ukrainians, Belarusians. Western Slavs - Poles, Czechs, Slovaks. South Slavs - It is Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Macedonians, Bulgarians, Slovenians. This is a list of non-exhaustive, you can recall the sorbov (Ludi Slavs), and others, but the idea is clear. Actually, this separation is largely based on linguistic The criteria according to which the Slavic Group of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bconsists of East, Western and South subgroups, approximately with the same division by country.

In such a context, Slavs are "ethno-cultural communities", which includes languages. In this form, it is believed to be formed to 6-7 centuries of our era. And Slavic languages, according to linguists, were divided approximately 1300 years ago, again in about the 7th century. But genealogically The listed Slavs belong to various kinds, and the history of these births is completely different.

Therefore, Western and Eastern Slavs as "ethno-cultural communities" are a few different concepts. Some in the mass of Catholics, others are Orthodox. The language varies noticeably, there are other "ethno-cultural" differences. BUT in the framework of DNA genealogy - this is the same, one race, the same label in the Y-chromosome, the same story of migrations, the same overall ancestor. The same predetergery haplogroup is finally.

So we reached the concept "Alert Haplogroup", or "Gaplogroup of kind". It is determined by labels, or the pattern of mutations in the men's sexual chromosome. Women also have, but in another coordinate system. So here east Slavs - This is a rank R1A1. Them among residents of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus - from 45 to 70%. And in the ancient Russian and Ukrainian cities, towns, villages - up to 80%.

Output - the term "Slavs" depends on the context. In the "Slavs" linguistics - one, in ethnography - the other, in the DNA genealogy - the third. The haplogroup, the genus was formed when nations, nor churches, no modern languages \u200b\u200bwere. In this regard, belonging to the family, to the haplogroup - pervichna.

Since belonging to a haplogroup is determined by completely specific mutations in certain nucleotides of Y-chromosomes, it can be said that each of us wears a certain label in DNA. And this label in the man's offspring is indestructible, it can be exterminated with the offspring itself. Unfortunately, there were plenty of such cases in the past. But this does not mean that this label is an indicator of a certain "breed" of a person.

This the label is not related to genes And there is nothing to do with them, namely the genes and only genes may be connected with the "breed". The haplogroup and haplotypes do not determine the shape of the skull or nose, the color of the hair, physical or mental characteristics of the person. But they forever tie the carrier of the haplotype to a certain human race, at the beginning of which was the Patriarch of the genus, whose offspring survived and lives these days, unlike millions of other structured genealogical lines.

This label in our DNA is invaluable for historians, linguists, anthropologists, because this the label is not "assimilated"How to assimilate native speakers, genes, carriers different cultureswhich "dissolve" in the population. Haplotypes and haplogroup not "dissolve"not assimilated. What kind of religion either changed the descendants during the Millennium, no matter how none gained, whatever cultural and ethnic characteristics change, exactly the same gaplogroup, same haplotype (Unless, with several mutations) stubbornly appear with appropriate testing of certain fragments of Y-chromosome. It doesn't matter whether Muslim is a Christian, Jew, Buddhist, an atheist or pagan.

As will be shown in this study, members of the genus R1A1 In the Balkans, which lived there 12 thousand years ago, after two hundred and more generations, they went to the Eastern European Plain, where 4500 years ago there was a ancestor of modern Russian and Ukrainians of the genus R1A1, including the author of this article. Five hundred years ago, 4000 years ago, they, Praslavyans, went to the South Urals, and after four hundred years they went to India, where they live approximately 100 million their descendants, members of the same kind R1A1. Rod Ariev. Ariyev, because they called themselves so, and it was recorded in the ancient Indian Vedas and Iranian legends. They are the descendants of Praslavan or their closest relatives. No "assimilation" of the haplogroup R1A1 was not and no, and the haplotypes are almost the same, easily detected. Identical Slavic. Another wave of Ariyev, with the same haplotypes, went from Central Asia to East Iran, also in the 3rd millennium BC, and became iranian arias.

Finally, another wave of representatives of the kind R1A1 I went to the south and reached the Arabian Peninsula, the Oman Gulf, where the Qatar, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Testament, having received the results of DNA testing, look at the certificate of testing with a haplotype and a haplogroup R1A1. Aryan, Praslavyanskaya, "Indo-European" - name as you want, but the same. And these certificates determine the boundaries of the range of campaigns of ancient Arya. The calculations presented below show that the times of these trips to Arabia - 4 thousand years ago.

So, saying "Slavs", we will keep in mind in this study eastern Slavs , people from kind R1A1, In terms of DNA genealogy. Until recently, science did not know how to designate them in "scientific terms". What objective, the measured parameter of them combines? Actually, the question was not so much.

According to the huge array of data accumulated by linguistics, comparative analysis Languages \u200b\u200bare some "Indo-Europeans", "Aria", aliens from the north (in India and Iran), they know the snow, cold, they are familiar to Birosis, ash, beech, they are familiar with wolves, bears, a horse is familiar. Now it became known that these are people kind R1A1to which belong to 70% Population modern Russia. And further to the west, to the Atlantic, the share of the Aryan, Slavic genus R1A1 steadily falls, and in residents of the British islands is only 2-4% .

With this question figured out. BUT "Indo-Europeans" - it then who?

From the above inevitably it follows that "Indo-Europeans" is an ancient genus R1A1. Aria.. Then, everything, or in any case, much becomes in its place - and with the arrival of the people of this kind to India and Iran, and the spread of people of the same kind throughout Europe, and from here - and the emergence of the Indo-European language group, as they are actually them, aryan language or his dialects, and the appearance of the "Iranian languages" of the Indo-European group, as it is aryan languages. Moreover, as we will see below, Iranian languages \u200b\u200bhave appeared after the arrival of Ariyev to Iran, and if more precisely, it is not "after", but became the result of the arrival of Ariyev, in the 2nd millennium BC.

And how are modern sciences look at the "Indo-Europeans"?

"Indo-Europeans" they have like oscillations. "Indo-Europeans", in modern linguistics and a little in archeology - this ancient (usually) people who are later (!), Through the millennium (!), They came to India, and somehow did so that Sanskrit, literary Indian language, It turned out to be in one linguistic bundle with major European languages, except Basque and Ugro-Finnish languages. And even besides the Turkic and Semitic, which are not related to Indo-European languages.

As they, Europeans, did it, how and from where they were in India and Iran - linguists and archaeologists do not explain. Moreover, they are credited to the "Indo-Europeans" and those who did not come to India and to Sanskrit did not seem to have a relationship, but, apparently, the language was distributed. Celts, for example. But at the same time they argue who was Indo-European, and who was not. The criteria use the most different, up to the form of dishes and the nature of the patterns on it.

More complication - Since many Iranian languages \u200b\u200balso belong to Indo-European, and also many are incomprehensible, for some reason, instead of the "Indo-European" say "Indoiransky". What is even worse, "Indo-Europeans" is often called "Indoirans". And the monstrous structures appear that, for example, indoorants lived on the Dnieper in ancient times. "

This should mean that those who lived on the Dnieper produced the descendants through the millennium, which came to India and Iran, and somehow did so that the languages \u200b\u200bof India and Iran became a certain extent close to many European languages \u200b\u200b- English, French, Spanish , Russian, Greek, and many others. Therefore, those ancients who lived on the Dnieper for the Millennium before "Indoirans". You can go crazy! Moreover, they spoke "in Iranian languages"! This is despite the fact that the "Indo-European" Ancient Iranian languages \u200b\u200bappeared in the 2nd millennium BC, and those on the Dnieper, lived 4000-5000 years ago. And they spoke in the language, which will appear only in hundreds, or even thousands of years.

They talked on Aryans, dear reader. But it is simply scary among linguists. They do not mention. They are not accepted. Apparently, the teams, the order was not received. And the fear of themselves.

And who are "Proto Indo-Europeans"? And it's kind of protoslonotama. It was those who were the ancestors of those who were ancestors of those who came to India and Iran through the millennium, and did so ... well, and so on.

This is how these linguists represent. There was a certain "Nostratic Language", a long time ago. It is placed from 23 thousand to 8 thousand years ago, who is in India, who is in Central Europe, who is on the Balkans. Not so long ago, in English-language literature it was estimated that in scientific sources offered 14 different "Praodin" "Indo-Europeans" and "Proto Indo-Europeans". V.A. Safronov in the fundamental book "Indo-European Pranodina" counted them 25 - Seven in Asia and 18 in Europe. This "nostratic" language (or languages), which was spoken by "proto-indeside-party", approximately 8-10 thousand years ago, collapsed into "Indo-European" languages, and others, non-Indo-European (Semitic, Thro-Finnish, Turkic). And "Indo-Europeans", began to have their own languages. In India, however, they got through many millennia, but they are still "Indo-Europeans".

With this, too, figured out. Linguists, however, have not yet understood. They note - "Although the origin of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bis studied most intensively, compared to others, it continues to remain the most difficult and sustainable problem of historical linguistics ... Despite the more than a 200 year history of the issue, the specialists could not determine the time and place of Indo-European origin. "

Here again the question about the ancestor. Namely, three Pranodin - the Praodine of "Proto Indo-Europeans", the Praodine "Indo-European, and the Praodine of Slavs. With the pranodina "Proto" is bad, because bad with the praodine "Indo-European". Currently, three or more or less are considered as candidates for the ancestor of "Indo-Europeans" or "proto-indeside and three.

One option - Front Asia, or, more specifically, Turkish Anatoly, or, even more specifically, the area between Lakes Van and Urmia, a little south of the borders of the former USSR, in Western Iran, he is Western Azerbaijan.

Second option - Southern Steppes of Modern Ukraine, Russia, in the places of the so-called " kurgan culture».

Third option - Eastern or Central Europe, or, more specifically, the Danube Valley, or Balkans, or the Northern Alps.

The distribution time of the "Indo-European or Proto-Indo-European" language also remains uncertain, and varies from 4500-6,000 years ago, if they take representatives of the Kurgan culture as its carriers, up to 8000-10000 years ago, if his carriers are the then inhabitants of Anatolia. Or even earlier. Supporters of the Anatolian theory believe that the main argument in her favor is that distribution agriculture In Europe, North Africa and Asia began from Anatolia between 8,000 and 9500 years ago, and reached the British Isles about 5,500 years ago. Supporters of the Balkan theory use the same arguments about the spread of agriculture, however, from the Balkans towards Anatolia.

This question is not solved until today. There are a lot of arguments for and against each of the three options.

The same in relation to prats of Slavs. Since no one has not yet connected the Slavs (Praslavan), Ariyev, and Indo-European, and even more so did not sign the sign of the identity between all three, then Praodin Slavs is a separate, and also not a solved question. This issue is discussed in science more three hundred years, but there is even a minimum, no agreement. It is generally accepted that Slavs go to the historic arena only in the 6th century of our era. But this is already new times. And we are interested in the ancient Slavs, or Praslavyan, say, three thousand years ago and earlier. And with this is generally bad.

Some believe that "Praodina Slavyan" It was located in the area of \u200b\u200bPripyat and Middle Dnieper. Others believe that the "Pranodina Slavs" was the territory from Dnipro to Western Bug, which Slavs occupied two or three thousand years ago. And where the Slavs were before, and whether they were generally - consider the question "unresolved at this stage." Third suggest that the Praodina Slavs, like the "Indo-Europeans", was the steppes of the South of the present Russia and Ukraine, but the fourths will mark it with indignation. The fifth believe that the Pratrodina of "Indo-Europeans" and Praodin Slavyan must still coincide, because Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare very archaic and ancient. Others correct that not "Indo-Europeans", but one of their large groups, thereby hinting that "Indo-Europeans" should be different. What - usually not explained.

From time to time is mentioned "INDO-Iranian community"which for some reason spoke on the "Balto-Slavic Pri-language". From this head begins to spin. Sometimes some appear "Black Sea Indoaria". Why they suddenly "Indo", in the Black Sea, does not explain. Linguists say it is so accepted.

Attract anthropology, and they say that the Slavs in this regard are close to the Priellic zone - modern Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, Northern Italy, South Germany, Northern Balkans, and therefore, Praslav moved from west to east, and not vice versa. But for the time of this movement, anthropologists and archaeologists cannot, because the Slavs usually burned the corpses, and did not harbor them, which deprived the scientists for two and a half millennia.

Some believe that the resettlement of Praslavan in the territory of East Ukraine is associated with the spread of the Kurgan archaeological culture, and therefore from the east to the west. Almost unanimously believe that the population of Andronovsky culture was "Indoiransky" in their language affiliation, which in the South Urals, in Arcaim, lived "Indoaria", and created it again "Indoirans". There are expressions "Indoiran tribes on the path of relocation to India." That is, they were already "indoirans, although they had not moved there yet. That is, anywhere, right up to the absurd, only to the word "aria" do not use.

Finally, the "nearby" literature hits other extreme, and argues that "Slavs-Rus were the progenitors of almost all European and parts of Asian peoples," and "from 60% to 80% of the British, Northern and Eastern Germans, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, Icelanders, 80% of Austrians, Lithuanians - Assymired Slavs, Slavs-Rus. "

The situation is approximately clear. You can move to the essence of my presentation. Moreover, the most "advanced" historical and linguistic scientific articles, recognizing that the question of the place and time of the "Indo-European language" language remains unresolved, urge to go beyond the limits of archeology and linguistics and attract to solve the issue of "independent data" that will make a look On the problem on the other hand, and make a choice between the main theories.

What I do in the study presented here.

DNA genealogy in general, and Slavs in particular

The essence of DNA genealogy and its main provisions I have repeatedly described before (http://www.lebed.com/2006/art4606.htm, http://www.lebed.com/2007/art4914.htm, http: // www . bleed.com / 2007 / art5034.htm). This time I will go straight to the case, reminding only that in DNA of every man, namely in his Y-chromosome, there are certain areasIn which gradually, once a few generations, mutations accumulate over time in nucleotides. It has no relation to genes. And in general, DNA is only 2% of genes, and the men's sexual y-chromosome - and less, there are a negligible percent gene.

Y-chromosome. - The only one of all 46 chromosomes (more precisely, from the 23rds, which carries a spermatozoa), which is transmitted from the Father to the Son, and further to each next son in the chain of time in tens of thousands of years. The son gets Y-chromosomes from his father exactly the same, which he received from his father, plus new mutations, if any, the son of his son was transmitted from the father. And it rarely happens.

And how rare?

Here is an example. This is my 25-marker Slavic haplotype, genus R1A1:

13 24 16 11 11 15 12 12 10 13 11 30 16 9 10 11 11 24 14 20 34 15 15 16 16

Each digit is a certain sequence of nucleotide blocks in the DNA Y-chromosome. It is called allelAnd shows how many times this block is repeated in DNA. Mutations in such a haplotype (that is, a random change in the number of nucleotide blocks) occur at a speed of one mutation at about 22 generations, that is, on average every 550 years. Which allel will change the next one - no one knows, and it is impossible to predict. Statistics. In other words, here you can talk only about probabilities of these changes.

In their earlier stories about DNA genealogy, I led examples on the so-called 6 -Murker haplotypes, small, to simplify. Or also called "Bikini-haplotypes". But for the search for the ancestor of Slavs, the tool needs significantly more accurate. Therefore, in this study we will use 25 -Merker haplotypes. Since any man has 50 million nucleotides in the Y-chromosome, then the haplotype with its numbers in principle can be increased by anything long, the case is only in the technique of determining nucleotide sequences. Haplotypes are determined as long as possible in 67 markers, although no technical limit. But also 25 -Murker haplotypes are a very subtle resolution, such haplotypes do not even consider scientific articles. This is probably the first.

Haplotypes are extremely sensitive to origin, speaking of genealogical childbirth. Take not Slavic R1A1, but, say, threatening genre, N3 In the DNA genealogy system. Typical 25-marker haplotype of this kind looks like this:

14 24 14 11 11 13 11 12 10 14 14 30 17 10 10 11 12 25 14 19 30 12 12 14 14

It has 29 mutations compared to the above Slavic! It corresponds to the difference of more than two thousand generations, that is, Slavic with threats the overall ancestor lived more than 30 thousand years ago.

The same picture is obtained if you compare, for example, with Jews. Typical Middle Eastern Haplotype of Jews (Rod J1.) Such:

12 23 14 10 13 15 11 16 12 13 11 30 17 8 9 11 11 26 14 21 27 12 14 16 17

It has 32 mutations in relation to Slavic. Even further than the threatening Finns. And among themselves, they differ on 35 mutations.

In general, the idea is clear. Haplotypes are very sensitive when compared with representatives of different kinds. They reflect completely different stories of kind, origin, childbirth migration. Why there are threatening Finns or Jews! Take Bulgarians, Bratyshek. Up to half them have variations of this haplotype (genus I2.):

13 24 16 11 14 15 11 13 13 13 11 31 17 8 10 11 11 25 15 20 32 12 14 15 15

It has 21 mutations in relation to the East Slavic Haplotype given above. That is, both of them are Slavic, but the genus is different. Rank I2. It happened from another first position, the migration paths of the genus I2 were completely different than R1A1. This is later, already in our era or at the end of the past, they met and formed the Slavic cultural and ethnic community, and then docked writing, and religion. And the genus is mostly different, although 12% Bulgarian - East Slavic, R1A1 kind.

It is very important that by the number of mutations in the haplotypes, you can count on when the general ancestor of a group of people, the haplotypes of which we consider are. I will not stop here how exactly the calculations are underway, because all this has recently published in a scientific press (link - at the end of the article). The essence is such that, the more mutations in the happotypes of the group of people, the oldest of their overall ancestor. And since mutations occur completely statistically, disordered, with a certain average speed, the lifetime of the general ancestor of a group of people belonging to one clan is quite reliable. Examples will be shown below.

To be clearer, I will give a simple analogy. Tree of haplotypes is a pyramid standing on top. The vertex at thenime is the haplotype of the general ancestor. The base of the pyramid, at the very top - this is us, contemporaries, these are our haplotypes. The amount of mutations in each haplotype is a measure of the distance from the general ancestor, from the top of the pyramid, to us, contemporaries. If the pyramid were perfect - three points, that is, three haplotypes would be enough to calculate the distance to the top. But in reality, three points are small. As experience shows, a dozen 25-marker haplotypes (it means 250 points) It happens enough for a good time estimate to a common ancestor.

25-marker haplotypes of Russian and Ukrainians of the genus R1A1 were obtained from the international database Ysearch. . The carriers of these haplotypes are our contemporaries living from the Far East to Western Ukraine, and from the Northern to South Okrain. And so it was calculated that the overall ancestor of Russian and Ukrainian eastern Slavs, kind R1A1, housing 4500 years ago. This figure is reliable, it is verified by a cross-time calculation of the haplotypes of different lengths. And, as we now make sure this figure is not accidental. I will remind you again that details of calculations, checks and rechecking are given in the article shown at the end. And these calculations were conducted on 25-marker haplotypes. This is the highest pilot of DNA genealogy, if you call things with your own names.

It turned out that the overall Praslansky ancestor, who lived 4500 years ago, had such a haplotype in his DNA:

13 25 16 10 11 14 12 12 10 13 11 30 15 9 10 11 11 24 14 20 32 12 15 15 16

For comparison - here my haplotype:

13 24 16 11 11 15 12 12 10 13 11 30 16 9 10 11 11 24 14 20 34 15 15 16 16

I have, compared to the Praslavyansky ancestor, riding 10 mutations (highlighted in bold). If you remember that mutations happen about 550 years, then it separates me from ancestor 5500 years. But we are talking about statistics, and for all the circle is obtained 4500 years. I came down more mutations, someone else is smaller. In other words, each of us has its own individual mutations, but the ancestor's haplotype for all one. And he, as we will see, keeps so almost across Europe.

So, I will transfer your breath. Our total Praslavyansky ancestor On the territory of modern Russia-Ukraine lived 4500 years ago. Early Bronze Age, or Enenolithic, Transition from the Stone Age to Bronze. To imagine a scale of time, it is much earlier than the exodus of Jews from Egypt, on biblical legends. And they went out if you follow the interpretation of the Torah, 3500-3600 years ago. If you distract from the interpretation of the Torah, which, of course, is not a strict scientific source, it can be noted that the overall ancestor of the Eastern Slavs, in this case, Russians and Ukrainian, lived for a thousand years earlier than the eruption of the Santorin volcanic (Tera), which destroyed the Minoan civilization on the island Crete.

Now we can start building the sequence of events of our ancient history. 4500 years ago praslanvyun Appeared on the Central Russian hill, and not just some prashlyani, namely, the descendants of which live in our time, the number of tens of millions of people. 3800 About years ago, the descendants of those Praslavan (and having an identical ancestral haplotype, as will be shown below), built an arcaim settlement (its present name), syntulatte and "cities country" in the South Urals. 3600 A year ago, Arkim Aria was left, and switched to India. Indeed, according to the archaeologists, the settlement, which was now called Arkim, has existed only 200 years.

Stop! And where did we get it from that these were the descendants of our ancestors, Praslavan?

How from where? BUT R1A1, Is the label of kind? She, this label, accompanies all the haplotypes given above. So, it is possible to determine what kind of those who went to India treated.

By the way, here's another data. In the recent work of German scientists identified nine fossil haplotypes from South Siberia, and it turned out that eight of them belong to the family R1A1, and one - Mongoloid, kind FROM. Dating - between 5500 and 1800 years ago. Haplotypes of the genus R1A1, for example, such:

13 25 16 11 11 14 x Y z 14 11 32

Here, uncapped markers are replaced by letters. Very similar to the Slavic haplotypes, given above, especially if we consider that these ancients are also individual, random mutations.

Currently, the proportion of Slavic-Arye Haplogroup R1A1 In Lithuania, 38%, in Latvia 41%, and Belarus 40%, in Ukraine from 45% to 54%. In Russia, Slavic Ariyev on average 48% , due to the high proportion of threatened Finns in the north of Russia, but in the south and in the center of Russia, the share of Eastern Slavic Ariyev reaches 60-75% and higher.

Hindus haplotypes and the lifetime of their common ancestor

Immediately make a reservation - I am intentionally writing "Hindus", not "Indians", because the Indians are mostly related to the Aboriginal, Dravidam, especially the Indians of the South India. And the Hindus is in their mass just carriers of the haplogroup R1A1. Write "Haplotypes of Indians" would be wrong, since the Indians are generally belong to the most different kinds of DNA genealogy.

In this sense, the expression of the "Hindus haplotypes" is symbolically expressed by the "Haplotypes of Slavs". It has a reflection of the "ethno-cultural" component, but this is one of the signs of the genus.

Unique features of DNA genealogy. Anatoly Clasov

Initial DNA- genealogiesi

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Civilization arose 81 V. Back.

Civilization stopped 30 V. Back.

All nations whose languages \u200b\u200bcome from a single language of Ariev are called Indo-European civilization. Indo-European community begins to form in the era of the new Stone Age, Neolithic (VI - IV thousand BC). It was the community of tribes with related roots and close languages. Indo-European peoples were formed in the area covering the South Caucasus, the upper intercourse and Eastern Anatoly.

After completing migration movements to the south, and the West, due to the displacement of favorable climatic zones For the management of the economy, the civilization Indo-European community ripped into local components, which continued their civilization path already on the basis of symbiosis with preserved local socio effects, waiting for the next burst of migration dynamics.

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Problam Praodina Indo-Europeans are not solved and today. The most convincing is the hypothesis that Indo-European peoples have formed in the area covering the Southern Caucasus, the upper intercourse and East Anatoly. In IV thousand BC. Some of these peoples (including Hetti) advanced to small Asia, while others moved across the Caucasus in the steppe from the Volga region to the Northern Black Sea region.

ABOUTttuda these tribes moved to the Iranian Highlands and (Arena itself) further to India. The small group could separate in the western direction and, apparently, to give the kingdom of the Right Dynasty and the technique of combat chariots. Modern scientists consider the migration of Indo-Europeans not as a total expansion (other than the conquest of India), but as the movement of languages, which had an impact on the local population.

L.ingvists believe that Indo-European language and cultural community has been formed in the region of Front Asia and the Mediterranean, no later than the IV Millennium BC.

ABOUTthe role in the formation of reconstructed Linguistic Linguists is discharged by Anatolian tribes who lived in the territory of Malaya Asia in the era of the Hitttsky kingdom (i.e. before the fall of the Troy). At the same time, they do not deny that the Indo-Europeans could live in other regions.

INowing linguist and ideologist Eurasianism KN. N. Trubetskaya, critically believed to the theory of a single primary, used the concept of "Indo-Europeans" (it was born in the offices of scientists of the XIX century) exclusively in the linguistic sense. Under him, he understood not a certain abstract or historical community of tribes, but people of various times and peoples speaking various languages \u200b\u200bof the so-called "Indo-European family".

IN.BUT. Safronov believes that it is hardly possible to talk about the only source of origin of the White race. Indo-European civilization, in his opinion, developed at the same time, at least in three regions: in Asia Minor, in the Balkans and Central Europe. Relying on archaeological discoveries recent decades, Safronov traces the most ancient migration of Indoariyev, Indoirans, protochtites and protobes, starting with VII thousand BC.

Pthe injuries of Indo-European in Eastern Europe occurred in con. IV - beginning III thousand BC, the allocation of the Slavs itself is unlikely to have previously II thousand BC.: Nothing is known about any contacts of Slavs with Ahase nations. The first reliable information about the Slavs reached us from Tacitis in I B. AD (Attempts to detect the Slavs among the Scythian tribes called the Herodot).

TO Indo-Europeans include many ancient and modern peoples: Armenians, Balts, Germans, Greeks, Illyrians, Indians, Iranians, Italiki, Celts, Slavs, Torharians, Thracians, Frigians, Hitty.

Preal to the Balts include modern Latvians and Lithuanians, as well as the disappeared Prussians and some other ethnic groups, modern German peoples are Austrians, the British, Danes, Dutch, Icelanders, Germans, Norwegians, Friezes, Swedes, Farories, extinct Goths and other disappeared ancient Germanic Tribes.

ANDrange origin has Persians, Mazendrans, Gilants, Kurds, Beluhi, Ossetians, Tajiks, Pamir Tajiks (Yazgullyamsy, Rushans, Bartangtsev, Shugnanta, Saryaglas, Yazgullyamsy, Wahans, Ishkash, Mudjans and Jidgi), Talysh.

TO Italikov belonged to Latinyan (part of which were Romans, from the language of which roman languages \u200b\u200boccur, including Italian, French, Provencal, Romanian, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian languages), Oski and Umbra.

Pthe celts are the plaid, Irish, Bretonians, Welsh, and others.

TO Slavs include modern Belarusians, Bulgarians, Luzhic, Macedonians, Poles, Russians, Serbs, Slovenians, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Croats, Czechs, and currently numb and half-off Poland and Pomeranian Slavs.

Phombmets of Illyrians or Thracians may be modern Albanians.

Pon the theory, which, in particular, was supported by S. Starostin, Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bbelong to the macros of the Nostratic Languages.

M.delined the origin of the Indo-Europeans can be divided into European and Asian. From the European most common among linguists and archaeologists, the Kurgan hypothesis suggests that the Pranodina Indo-Europeans had the territory of the Northern Black Sea region in the Dnieper and Volga interfluve, and they themselves were the semi-human population of the steppe areas of the modern East of Ukraine and the South of Russia, who lived in these places in V-IV thousand . BC e. With the ancestors of Indo-Europeans, the population relating to the Middle Education, Samara and Yaman cultures is usually identified. In the future, in connection with the transition of these tribes to the bronze age and a tear of the horse, intensive migrations of Indo-European tribes began in various directions. At the same time, there was a language assimilation by the Indo-Europeans of the local principal population (see Old Europe), which led to the fact that modern carriers of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bdiffer significantly in the racial anthropological type.

IN The era of the great geographical discoveries and the mass European colonization that followed by the mass European colonization has spread to America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, other districts, and, at the expense of Russian colonization, significantly expanded their range in Asia (in which to this era were presented quite widely).

D.ruga hypothesis are:

Anatolian (Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson),

Armenian (Anatolian version: Vyach. Sun. Ivanov, and T. V. Gamkrelidze),

Balkan (V. A. Safronov),

Indian (supporters of Indian nationalism).

H.owy is currently in the Indo-Europeans are classified as a linguistic sign, 5 thousand years ago, it was a group of genetically related peoples. A marker of Indo-European origin may be a r1a game in the Y-chromosome in men (however there are big doubts about it, since, according to the velocity of mutations, Y-chromosomes, the R1A mutation arose more than 10 thousand years ago, which is much earlier than the resettlement of the proto- Indo-European).

N.the Aibol variability of the R1A marker is found in Eastern Ukraine and in Southern Russia, which may indicate the greatest antiquity of its distribution in this region.

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Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation

University of Moscow

Department of State and Law History

on the topic "Indo-Europeans and their origin: a modern state, problems"

Moscow 2014

Introduction

1. Indo-Europeans

2. Pranodina Indooberopesev

3. The settlement of Indo-Europeans

4. Indo-European problem

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Quite a long time was the conviction that Central Asia was home to the Indo-Europeans. Later, it was believed that this community was formed around its core in the eastern, as well as in the middle and Northern Europe. The fact is that on the extensive territory between the Rhine and Volga in the late Stone Age, groups of people who, as can be considered, were the founders of the Indo-European community: they process fields, engaged in animal husbandry, bred large cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, as well as horses.

The newest information about the emergence of Indo-Europeans, taking into account historically confirmed relations, limit the area of \u200b\u200btheir occurrence either by Central Europe (Krahche, P.The), or Eastern Europe (E. Vale, A.E. Bryusov). There is also an opinion on the "double pranodine" of Indo-European. They could from the center located in the East as a single tribe to move to the West, and from there to be fascinating in the locality where the story now found their traces.

From the point of view of archeology, the period of resettlement of Indo-Europeans is consistent with the period of prevalence of the culture of combat axes (Culture of cord ceramics), i.e. during the neolithic period. These cultures belong caucasoid race 60 and limited to Eastern, Northern and Central Europe (approximately 1800 years BC).

The purpose of the work is the study of the origin and the current state of the Indo-Europeans.

1.Consider the Data on the Pranodine of Indo-European.

2.Explore the development history.

.Consider the current state and problems.

1. Indo-Europeans

The history of the peoples of our country is rooted in deep antiquity. Their birthplace of their distant ancestors was, apparently, Eurasia. During the last great glaciation (so-called Valdai), a single natural zone was formed here. She stretched out Atlantic Ocean to the Ural Range. In the endless plains of Europe, huge herds of mammoths and reindeers grazed - the main sources of food of the human era upper Paleolithic. Throughout the territory, the vegetation was approximately the same, so there were no regular seasonal migrations of animals. He looked freely in search of food. For them, primitive hunters moved so impossible, entering each other into constant contacts. Thus, the peculiar ethnic homogeneity of the Society of Late Palelyolithic people was maintained.

However, 12-10 thousand years ago the situation has changed. The last substantial cooling has come, the consequence of which it became slipping Scandinavian glacial shield. He divided into two parts before Europe in natural relations. At the same time, the directions of the dominant winds changed, the number of precipitation increased. The nature of vegetation has changed. Now, in search of pastures, the animals were forced to perform regular seasonal migrations from the TundRa's arrival tundras (where they left for the summer, fleeing against bloodsowing insects) in the southern forests (winter), and back. Following the animals in the emerging borders of the new natural zones, the tribes were wrapped and the pregnant. At the same time, a single ethnic community turned out to be divided into Western and Eastern part of the Baltic Ice Wedge .

As a result of some climate cooling, coming in the middle of V thousand BC, broad-sighted forests retreated south and in the northern regions there were coniferous trees. In turn, it entailed, on the one hand, the reduction in the number and diversity of herbivores, and on the other - the movement of them in the southern regions. The environmental crisis forced the person to move from the fishery consuming the forms (hunting, fishing, gathering) to producing (farming, cattle breeding). In archeology, such a period is made called the Neolithic Revolution.

In search of favorable conditions for the emerging cattle breeding and agriculture, the tribes mastered all new and new territories, but at the same time gradually moved away from each other. Changed environmental conditions - Increased forests and swamps that have now divided individual groups of people, - made it difficult to communicate between them. Constant, although non-systematic interpretatory communication (exchange of economic skills, cultural values, armed clashes, lexical borrowings) turned out to be disturbed. For changing unified Uklade. The life of the stray or semi-critical hunting tribes came with separate and all the large differentiation of new ethnic communities.

Most full information Our ancient ancestors have been preserved in the very ephemeral generation of a person - tongue. A.A. Reformat wrote:

You can also have a language and you can think about the language, but it is impossible to see a language. It can not be heard in the direct meaning of this word.

In the last century, linguistic scientists pay attention to the fact that vocabulary, phonetics and grammar languages \u200b\u200bof a significant number of peoples inhabiting Eurasia have a lot general damn. Here are just two examples of this kind.

Russian word mother It has parallels not only in Slavic, but also in Lithuanian (Motina), Latvian (Mate), Old Purgussian (Muti), Old Indian (MATA), Avestian (Matar-), Novoperside (MADAR), Armenian (Mair), Greek, Albansky ( Motre - sister), Latin (Mater), Irish (Mathir), High Waternesec (Mouter) and other modern and dead languages.

Not less than single fellow And in the Word search - From the silchorvatsky sought and Lithuanian Ieskoti (search) to the ancient Indian ICCHATI (search, ask) and English to ask (ask).

Based on such coincidences, it was found that all these languages \u200b\u200bhad a general framework. They were applied to the language, which was conditionally (at the place of habitat of ethnic groups who spoke in languages \u200b\u200b- descendants ) Named Pyranceo European, and carriers of this language - Indo-Europeans.

Indian, Iranian, Italian, Celtic, German, Baltic, Slavic, as well as Armenian, Greek, Albanian, and Some Dead (Hetto-Luvian, Torak, Frigisky, Thracian, Illyrian and Venetian) languages \u200b\u200bare among Indo-Europeans.

The existence of the Indo-European community and the territory on which Indo-Europeans lived is restored mainly on the basis of the analysis of the Indo-European language and comparing the results of such a study and archaeological finds. IN lately To solve these issues, paleogeographic, paleoclimatological, paleo-optical and paleozological data are increasingly involved.

The so-called time arguments (i.e., the exponents of the existence of certain phenomena) are words - cultural signs denoting such changes in the technique or economy that can be correlated with already known, dated archaeological materials. Among the most arguments include the coinciding among the peoples that spoken in Indo-European languages, the terms, which were called Plow, Plow, fighting chariots, utensils, and most importantly - the two term of the pan-European nature, ascending, undoubtedly, to the final phase of the Neolithic era: the name of copper ( From Indo-European root * AI - to light fire) and anvil, stone (from Indo-European * AK - sharp). This made it possible to attribute the time of the existence of the Praiado European community to V-IV thousand BC. About 3000 BC. The process of the decay of the Pyranceo European language in the descendant languages \u200b\u200bbegins .

2. Pranodina Indooberopesev

A more difficult was to solve the issue of the ancestor of Indo-Europeans. As arguments of the place (i.e., signs for any geographical realities) were used words that denoted plants, animals, minerals, parts of the landscape, form of economic activity and social organization. The most indicative in spatial attitude should be recognized as the most stable toponyms - hydronic lines (name water objects: rivers, lakes, etc.), as well as the names of such a wood garden, like beech (the so-called beech argument), and such fish, like salmon (the so-called salmon argument). To establish a place where all such objects could be located, the names of which had a single origin in Indo-European languages, it was necessary to attract these paleo-mothers and paleozologies, as well as paleoclimatology and paleogeography. Comparison of all spatial arguments turned out to be an exceptionally complex procedure. It is not surprising that a common, generally accepted point of view about where the carriers of the pyrendo-european language were originally dwell, until there is:

The following localizations were proposed:

baikalo Danube;

south Russian (Dnipro and Don Mezhie, including the Crimean Peninsula;

volzhsko-Yenisei (including the Northern Caspian, Aral and North Balkhash);

east Anatolian;

central European (Basins of River River, Vistula and Dnipro, including the Baltic States)

and some others.

Of these, the most reasonable is the East Anatolian. Its development was devoted to the fundamental monograph T.V. Gamkrelidze and V.VS. Ivanova. A thorough analysis of linguistic materials, the mythology of Pyranceo-Europeans (more precisely traces of the myths, preserved from their descendants) and the comparison of this data with the results of research of Paleobiologists allowed them to determine the territory of modern Eastern Anatolia around Lakes van and urmia as the most likely Pranodina.

There are also hypotheses that unite several Praodin Indo-Europeans at once, and each of them is considered as a region with which a certain stage in the development of the Indo-European Community is associated. An example is the hypothesis of V.A. Saffronovva. In accordance with the linguistics data on the three long stages of the evolution of the Indo-European Praäwn, the author indicates three large habitat of Pyranceo-Europeans who consistently replaced each other in connection with the migration processes. They correspond to archaeological cultures - equivalents of the stages of the evolution of Indo-European practices, genetically related to each other. The first, earlyindo-European, Praodina was located in Malaya Asia with the Archaeological Culture - Equivalent of Chatal-Hyuk (VII-VI thousand BC); The second, Medium-European, Praodina - on the Northern Balkans with the Culture of the Equivalent of Vinch (V-IV thousand BC); And finally, the Third, Lateindo European, Praodina in Central Europe with a culture-equivalent in the form of a block of two cultures - Iceliel (4000-2800 BC) and cultural cultures of the Cultural Cups (3500-2200. BC. )

Each of these hypotheses is another step in the study of the oldest history of our ancestors. At the same time, I remind you while all of them are only hypothetical constructions that need further proof or refutation.

3. The settlement of Indo-Europeans

The main occupation of Indo-Europeans was arable farming. The land was processed using a hardened arable guns (rally, soy). At the same time, he apparently knew gardening. An essential place in the farm of the Indo-European tribes occupied cattle breeding. Cattle was used as the basic force. Livestock provided Indo-European products with milk, meat, as well as raw materials - leather, skins, wool, etc.

At the turn of IV-III thousand BC. The life of Indo-European tribes began to transform. Global began climate change: The temperature dropped, the continentality increased - the hotter than before, the summer months alternated with all the more severe winters. As a result, grain crops decreased, agriculture ceased to give guaranteed funds to ensure the lives of people during the winter months, as well as additional animal feed. Gradually strengthened the role of cattle breeding. The increase in stades associated with these processes demanded expansion of pastures and search for new territories where people and animals could come to feed. The views of the Indo-Europeans turned to the endless steppes of Eurasia. There was a period of mastering neighboring lands.

From the beginning of the III thousand BC. The discovery and colonization of new territories (which was often accompanied by clashes with the indigenous population) became the norm of the life of the Indo-European tribes. This, in particular, was reflected in the myths, fairy tales and legends of the Indo-European peoples - Iranians, the ancient Indians, the ancient Greeks. Special scales Migration of tribes that are previously constituting the Pyranceo-European community, acquired the invention of the wheel transport, as well as tears and use for horse riding. This allowed cattle products to move from a settled lifestyle to nomadic or semi-bedroom. The consequence of changes in the economic and cultural defendance was the disintegration of Indo-European community for independent ethnic groups.

So, the adaptation to the changed natural-climatic conditions forced Toglaks, Luvians, Hittites, Indoirans, Indoarias and other breeding associations, formed within the framework of the Pyranceo-European tribes, to go in search of new territories that are more appropriate. And the continued crushing of ethnic associations led to the colonization of new lands. These processes occupied all III thousand BC.

4. Indo-European problem

The term "Indo-European languages" was introduced into the scientific turnover at the beginning of the XIX century the founder of the comparative historical Linguistics of the FR. Bopp. Later, German scientists began to use the term "Indo" in the same meaning germanic languages", as well as the terms" Aryan languages \u200b\u200b"(A.A. Pothebni) and" Ario-European Languages \u200b\u200b"(I.A. Bogoen-de-Kurgea, V.A. Bogorodnitsky). Today the term" Aryan "is used in relation to Indoran, And the term "Ario-European" has come out of scientific use. The term "Indo-Hermann Languages" also continues to be used. Despite the fact that neither the time and path of the settlement of Indo-European protosphene neither their place of initial residence remain unknown, researchers who adhere to Indo-European theory belong to this language family The following groups of languages:

· Indian group. Ancient Indian language, which is the language of the Vedic texts. Although Vedic texts are not dated, the period of their occurrence is taken to relate to the II thousand BC. The oldest dated texts belong to the III century BC. and belong to the period and place of the board of Tsar Ashoki, i.e. It is geographically southern and eastern part of India. At the same time, according to some ideas, the initial resettlement of the ancient Aryans in India occurred in the northern and western parts. Such a datization of dating Those who adhere to the views on the deep antiquity of the Vedas are inclined to explain the last time the brahmanist tradition of their oral transmission. The oral transfer of the Vedas was carried out in order to protect their content from the eye "low-balanced" (representatives of non-Arician Varna). Sanskrit is a literary and normalized form of ancient Indian. There are chronological and dialectic differences between the Languages \u200b\u200bof Veda and Sanskrit, i.e. These languages \u200b\u200bgo back to different dialects of ancient Indian speech. Modern languagesattributable to Indian Group - Hindi, Bengali, Urya, Gujarati, Punjabi, Sindhi, Marathi, Singalez, etc.

· Iranian group. The early era was represented by the ancient Persidian (VI-V centuries. BC, Klinox inscriptions of the Ahemedid kings) and again not dated, but considered even more ancient, Avestian. To this group, based on several preserved words and names of their own ( tombing inscriptions) include the language of the Scythians of the Northern Black Sea region. The Old Parsidsky was changed by the so-called languages \u200b\u200bof the Middle Agent (from the III century BC, by the VII-XIII century AD) - Central Apersion, Parfyan, Sughd, Khorezmian and Saki, mainly owned by the peoples of Central Asia. Novoransky include Tajik, Novoperside, Kurdish, Belukh, Talysh, Tatsky, Pushta and some Pamir languages \u200b\u200b- Yagnobsky, Shugnansky, Rushansky, and others. In the Caucasus, the Iranian group belongs to Ossetian.

· Thahor. The overall designation of two mysterious languages \u200b\u200b- Turfan and Kugansky, the texts on which were found at the beginning of the 20th century in Xinjiang. Despite the fact that these languages \u200b\u200bdo not belong to any of the well-known groups, they were included in the number of Indo-European.

· Slavic group. Verse Slavic is best fixed in the monuments of Staroslavlyansky or "Church Slavonic." The introduction of the Gospel and other liturgical texts made by Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century was based on South Solun (Macedonia). Suggest, however, that this dialect was understood by all slavic tribes of that time, since the Old Slavic did not have serious differences. Regarding the Valneslavyansky A. Meiet, claiming his archaic and proximity to the ancient Indo-European, indicates the absence of it big number Such forms that can be identified with the general-European. Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian (Eastern Group), Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbohorvatsky, Slovak (South Group), Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubsky, Luzhitsky (Western Group) are counted to modern Slavic languages. The western group also includes the disappeared language, Germany in the XVIII century, Polan Slavs, who lived at the bottom stream of the Elbe River (Laba).

· Baltic group. Includes modern Lithuanian and Latvian languages. The oldest monuments found to the XVI century AD.

· German group. Ancient monuments Fixed from the III century AD. (Old Horse Runic Inscriptions). There are monuments on the Anglo-Saxon (VII century AD), the Visor Saxon (VIII century AD), the Wallnerenec (VIII century A century) and Gotsky (the translation of the Gospel of the IV century) languages. There are also later handwritten monuments in the Old Screen, Ancadian and Old Arms, although it is assumed that a number of devils recorded in these texts refers to a more archaic period. According to modern Germanic languages \u200b\u200binclude German, English, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Icelandic.

· Celtic group. Certificates of the ancient state of this group are extremely scarce and are represented mainly in the remnants of the Gallic language (brief inscriptions on gravestone monuments) and in Irish Ohamic inscriptions of the IV-VI centuries AD Modern languages \u200b\u200bof the Celtic Group - Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Breton, Mankie.

· Italian group. Ancient - Latin, Osksky, Umbra. The oldest monument of the Latin language is the Preestinian Fibula (dated 600 BC). Most of the monuments in Latin refers to the III-II centuries BC, a minor number of monuments in Osksky and Umbirsky refer to the border period (I century BC. - I century AD). Modern Italian (Romaneskaya) Languages \u200b\u200b- French, Italian, Romanian, Moldavian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Retorombian, etc.

· Ancient Greek. Found monuments of writing starting from the VII century BC. Novogreic is a descendant of general greek (Koine) of the Hellenistic era who has established in the IV century BC

· Albanian. The earliest monuments of writing dated XV century AD. Some researchers suggest that Albanian is the only preserved representative of the ancient group of Illyrian languages. For other opinions, it is a descendant of the ancient-herbal speech.

· Armenian language. Ancient monuments dated V century AD.

· Hittite (Nesii) language. The language of the dominance of the Nature of the Hittt state (II thousand BC).

From the classification, a temporary gap between the preserved written monuments in various groups attributed to the Indo-European language family is clearly visible. Fragment of the existing material is serious problem For linguists and, from our point of view, makes a significant error in research results. The question constantly arises where archaic relationship, and where late layers.

The current state of the problem is approximately such. Three points of view have developed. According to the first, Indo-European Pri-language is a really existing historical language "Individual", characterized by minimal dialectic splitness. According to the second, this is the existing language unity, characterized by significant dialectic differentiation. According to the third - for the built-in -hawic models, there is some group of related languages, which is a certain configuration language family in the past. It should be remembered that in all cases it is only about hypothetical constructions, models, and not about historical facts. It should not be forgotten that in each of the languages \u200b\u200battributable to the Indo-European family, there is a huge language material, which does not allow any generality, but having good reasons to qualify for invalidity. On the contrary, most of the language comparisons, resulting in the proof of language relationship, although they seem related to the root, however, do not reduce to one original

indo-European language Ludi culture

Conclusion

Currently, we can draw conclusions that once the Indo-Europeans were a single tribe, based on the relationship of languages \u200b\u200bin Europe. Archaeological findings of the time testify only to the existence of cultural groups, which are unknown to some respects they were among themselves. Fast spread on the expanses of Europe and Asia they provided the use of horses and combat chariots. About them, written evidence discovered in Mesopotamia and attributed to the 18th century BC In 18 V. BC. The Indo-European Gefitovo tribe shares his kingdom in Anatolia, which at the turn of the 13th century. BC. It was destroyed by other Indo-Europeans - Frigians. A powerful wave of resettlement of the Aryan root of the Indo-European root reaches at the end of the second millennium BC Even India.

It is the name of the Aria (in the modern version - "Aryans") is likely to be the primary name of Indo-Europeans. In ancient Indian language, Arya means a representative of the nobility, which could comply with the public situation of the ancient United Nations conquerors in relation to the indigenous Indian population. The very origin of the word is probably due to agriculture: LAT. Arare, Slane. Orati- "Plow", which simultaneously indicates the agricultural culture of the Aryan tribe.

In the middle of the second millennium BC. On the communal territory of the settlement of Indo-Europeans, two dialect groups were probably formed: Western, so-called Kentum group (Kentum), which is characteristic of the "K" pronouncement in certain positions (currently combines Celtic and German languages), and the SATEM group (SATEM), for which in the same positions is characterized by the appearance of the sound "S" (now she is Unites Indian, Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages).

In the period between 17 and 13th centuries BC. The use of bronze in Central Europe leads to a real, unprecedented flourishing subject culture. In addition, the culture of the burrencies dated 15-13 centuries BC, which swept the various ranges of settlement to the north of the Alps, from the Rhine to Carpathians. It is likely that this culture is already in itself the split of the initial nucleus of Indo-Europeans in Central Europe into language communities and communication groups, such as Illari, Thracians, and probably Germans

Bronze tools and weapons of that time are varied, it is firmly and therefore is highly appreciated and in physical exchange. He belongs to the decisive role in the development of the economy. Peak is achieved by the middle bronze Age, this is the so-called. Luzhitskaya culture that existed in 13-11 centuries. BC, the center of which was a puddle (Lausitz - in German transliteration), from where she then spread from the average course of Oder in the East to Ukraine, and in the north of the mountainous arrays of the Czech Republic and Slovakia to Baltic.

A nudge culture on the territory of the compact residence of its carriers throughout its development distinguishes peculiar ceramics, bronze products and then from iron: knives, spears, sickles, perfectly made axes, etc. The economic base of the carriers of this culture is predominantly making farming: cereals and legumes are cultivated - three types of wheat, millet, rye, beans, peas, alfalfa, etc., in addition, has the spread of cattle breeding, hunting and fishing.

Numerous finds attributable to the Luzitsky culture give us grounds to argue that its carriers had a strong public and military organization. To do this, it was necessary to develop their own corresponding this image Life, language. Through the language of such or other cultural community also shows his nation, it presents itself as an independent tribe. Therefore, in this regard, the question arises, to which people should the nauddetical culture be calculated, or what was their ethnicity?

There are various opinions about various experts. The Ludi culture was once attributed to the Germans, as well as the Thracians, Ducks and Illers. There were attempts to interpret them and as Praslavan (J. Koszhevsky). The theory of the Illirine origin of this culture led to disputes and disagreements (for example, P. Krestser 1943, V. Milaychich 1952, K. Thamanetsky 1963, etc.). J. Poor, one of the first defenders of this theory, after the Second World War, changed his point of view and followed the position that the language of carriers of the later culture of the fields of burial urns, which, in his opinion, were relative to the carriers of the Ludge Culture, are closely connected with Baltic Languages \u200b\u200b(1950-53).

There is no shortage and in arguments, according to which the carriers of the Luzhitsky culture were representatives of the Indo-European tribe, the name of which is unknown to us and which in the history of Europe belongs special role (J. Boat, 1941), or it is argued that this tribe made its historical contribution to the formation of Slavs, Celts, Illirov and other tribes. The point of view, according to which the carriers of the Luzhitsky culture were the basis on which historically well-known Slavs (J. Philipp, 1946) were formed, very close to the theory, arguing that the Ludi culture is identical to the culture of Venetov (P. Bosch Ghimper, 1961). Feline urns as a way of burial ashes of the dead testify to a radical fracture, which is particularly visual in the later culture of the fields of burial urns, in the late Bronze Age, most of Europeans in their ideas about Earth and life in by the Military World.

Burial in the urns although they appear by the end of Neolithic, for example, in the Central-German Schonfeld Group, in the Anatolia of the Late Bronze Age, but in Europe they are characteristic of the Luzitsky culture, and as a result of the resettlement of the tribes that occurred during such burials, they Get distribution in fact and throughout Europe. Fields of funeral urns are especially common in Central Europe, where they can schematically divide into three territories: Luzhitsy, South German and Middle-Danube.

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Traditionally ancient history Start studying with civilizations of ancient Egypt, Sumerov, Babylon. There is no dispute, these civilizations have made a considerable contribution to the development of humanity. But in parallel with the emergence and development of these civilizations in the north, events took place in the territory of modern Russia, and probably even more important for world history. These events were associated with the ancient Indo-Europeans, which we will tell about in this post.

Why Indo-Europeans? Even in the 18th century, Europeans who visited India, noticed the obvious similarity of Sanskrit with European languages. Sanskrit was an ancient language whose position in India resembled Latin's position in Europe, some texts on Sanskrit for more than 3 thousand years. The similarity was found not only in the language, but also in traditions, beliefs, so it became clear - the ancient Indians and the ancient Europeans had common ancestors.

There were more than a hundred years of disputes and searches spent to reliably establish where the ancient Indo-Europeans lived, where their pranodine was. There was a lot of speculation on this topic. The German Nazis, for example, in their time announced that the ancient Indo-Europeans, or ancient arias, lived in the territory of modern Germany and were a special higher race. However, studies have shown a completely different picture.

In ancient times, Indo-Europeans did one people. They lived relatively compact in the Don and Volga basin, in modern Russia. The most ancient archaeological culture for which its Indo-European origin is proved - Samara. It refers to 5 millennia BC. er, and the area of \u200b\u200bits distribution affects the territory of modern Samara, Saratov and Orenburg regions. In the subsequent millennium, Indo-European cultures expand their range, in the east, capturing the Urals and the Kazakh steppes, and in the west reaching the Dnieper. Up to 3-4 millennia BC. e. Indo-Europeans were a single community.

Who were the ancient Indo-Europeans? They were the militant people, but at the same time they had developed mythology and appreciated knowledge. According to the ideas of contemporary scientists, the Society of Ancient Indo-Europeans shared for three main groups - priests, warriors and those who were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. They worshiped different gods, the main of which was the god of thunder and zipper (the one who was known in ancient Russia as Perun, and in ancient Greece as Zeus). Ancient Indo-Europeans believed in the afterlife and the existence of hell and paradise. They also had the cult of heroes, whose expressions were told.

About 5-6 thousand years ago, Indo-Europeans made one of the most important discoveries In the history of mankind - invented the wheel and learned to bargain horses in the wagon. This event turned the story of Eurasia. Soon, militant Indo-Europeans, who by that time already knew how to pay copper and bronze, moved in all directions from their praodine.

The resettlement of Indo-European (in red shows the spread to the middle of the iii thousand to n. E. And orange - to the I thousand BC. Er)

Indo-Europeans were divided. The part of the Indo-European moved to Europe, the entire local population living there was conquered and assimilated (it is believed that the only fragment of the Dointo-European Culture is a small people of Baskov in Spain). Indo-European peoples in Europe created outstanding antique civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome, while living north of "barbarians" - Slavic, German and Celtic tribes were also Indo-Europeans. The part came to Malny Asia (the territory of modern Turkey). The Indo-European people of Hettov created a powerful kingdom and the first in history mastered the smelting of iron. Part of the Indo-European tribes, for a while she delayed in the Southern Urals, moved to the south, coming first in Central Asia, and then to India and Iran. It was these peoples that called themselves the arias and the very first to record their myths in Sanskrit. The most ancient "Vedas", as it is believed to be recorded in the 16th century. BC e. Finally, some of the Indo-European tribes moved to the east, reaching the Yenisei and settled in North-West China. For a relatively short term Indo-Europeans occupied most Eurasia.