Sino-Tibetan Yaz Family. Basic families of languages: Indo-European, Afrazian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Chinese-Tibetan languages

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Introduction

general information

Classification

Structural characteristic of Sino-Tibetan languages
Introduction

Sino-Tibetan languagesotherwise, called Chinese-Tibetan, is the language family in Asia. It ranks second in the world by the number of speakers after Indo-European languages. Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bare common primarily in the PRC, in the north-east of India, in Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan, as well as in Bangladesh, Laos and Thailand; In addition, tens of millions of Chinese who preserve their language live in almost all countries of South-East Asia (in Singapore, they make up more than 75% of the population); A significant Chinese diaspora is common worldwide.

The number of languages \u200b\u200bincluded in the Sino-Tibetan family is estimated in different ways, most often about 300. The uncertainty is associated not only with the traditional problem of distinguishing the language and dialect, but also with the sociolinguistic and cultural and historical heterogeneity of the family. On the one hand, it includes the largest in the world in the number of speaking on it as a native and having a multiplinary cultural tradition, writing and literature Chinese, as well as two other fairly large old languages \u200b\u200b- Burmese and Tibetan. On the other hand, the Sino-Tibetan family includes many small and completely not studied tribal languages.

This abstract reveals the theme of Sino -Tibetan languages, their community, classification and the role of the Chinese language in it.

general information

Sino-Tibetan (used to be called also sino-Tibetan) - A large language family common in eastern, Southeast and South Asia. Combines about 300 languages. The total number of speakers in these languages \u200b\u200bis at least 1.2 billion people, thus, by the number of media, this family ranks second in the world after Indo-European.

Tibetan languages \u200b\u200b- the language group of the Sino-Tibetan family, uniting mutually unclear Tibeto-Burmese, on which they say predominantly Tibetans living in the east of Central Asia, bordering South Asia, including Tibetan Highlands, North of Indian: Baltistan, Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim and Butane. The classical written form of the language is the largest literary language of the region used in the literature of Buddhism. About 6 million people speak Tibetan languages. About 150 thousand extensions living outside their ethnic lands are spoken at Lhank Tibetan, for example, in India. The Tibetan also speak a number of ethnic minorities in Tibet, which lived in proximity to Tibetans, but retaining their tongue and culture. The classic Tibetan language is not tonal, but some varieties, such as Centraltybetan and Khamsky Tibetan have a developed tone (AMDO and Ladakhs without tone). Tibetan morphology can be described in general as agglutinating, although the classic Tibetan was insulating. The classification of Varying is different. Some groups of Kham and Amdo are combined as Eastotibetic (do not confuse with the East-Comfortable, which are ethnically not Tibetan).

Classification

The literature presents several classifications of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bthat differ significantly from each other. Genealogical relations inside the Sino-Tibetan family are not sufficiently studied, which is due to a number of reasons: a deficit of empirical material, the lack of majority of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bfor some long last written tradition and, consequently, information about their state in the past, as well as the structural features of these languages: The underdeveloped morphology and the wide use of tones, until recently, poorly fixed in the descriptions, and all this amid the significant typological similarity of their phonological structure. Such a combination of typological similarity (which Sino-Tibetan is divided into a number of geographically neighboring linguistic families) with an insufficient development of historical reconstruction, was due to the ambiguity of the borders of the Sino-Tibetan language family themselves. It has been included for quite a long time for quite a long time (which includes, in particular, Thai and Lao) and the Languages \u200b\u200bof Miao-Yao, recognized as independent linguistic families; The discussion remains about belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language of Bai, or Minjia in the Chinese province Yunnan (approx. 900 thousand speakers of 1.6 million ethnic Bai; Chinese borrowings in the dictionary of this language reach 70%).

The first wondness in European science, the classification of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bbelongs to the Norwegian scientist S.Konov (1909), one of the authors of the fundamental multi-volume Linguistic review of India. Two other standard classifications belong to the American scientist R. Wisfer and P. Bennedict, under the leadership of which in 1934-1940 in the University of California in the United States carried out a project on the comparative study of the phonetics of Sino-Tibetan languages. The results of this project were published: Introduction to the study of Sino-Tibetan languages R. Sherifer (in 5 parts) saw the light in 1966-1974, and P. Benedict Sino-Tibetan languages. Abstract - in 1972. In the late 1970s, classification schemes G.Mayer and B.Mayer, S.E.Yyontov also appeared; There are other classifications.

The genetic community of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bis currently generally accepted, although material (in the appearance of morphemes with a common origin) differences between them are great. The GLOTTOKROMological analysis shows that the time of their discrepancies can reach 10 thousand years (a number of researchers this figure is considered overestimated).

In all classifications, starting with Konov, the Chinese branch consisting of Chinese and Dungan languages \u200b\u200band the Tibeto-Burmese branch is distinguished and opposed to each other. (Chinese actually represents a group of dialects that have separated so much that if it were not for the strong national identity of the Chinese, the community of culture and the presence of a proto-dealed written norm and unified statehood in China, they should be considered independent languages; Dungansky is just the only Chinese The dialect, which is recognized as the status of language.) To the Tibeto-Burmese branch, the number of speakers in which is superior to 60 million people, include all Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bminus Chinese and Dungansky. Sometimes, along with these two branches, as part of the Sino-Tibetan family, they allocate as an independent also Karen branch (which included languages \u200b\u200bwith a total number of speakers of several more than 3 million are common in the south of Burma and in the adjacent areas of Thailand). Benedict Karenskaya Group unites with a Tibeto-Burmese swittless into the opposed Chinese Tibeto-Karen branch; At the Shaper T.N. The "Karen section" is part of the Tibeto-Burmese branch along with Tibetan, Burmese and Bar section (Bodo Garo). Tibeto-Burmese languages \u200b\u200bin all classifications have complex internal membership.

At intermediate tiers of classification, it is so strong that some definite correspondences between them are not established or not differ by visibility. You can only specify several genetic groups allocated to more or less uniquely, but in different ways (and sometimes under different names) built into various classifications. These include the following.

Lolo-Burmese group is the most studied grouping of Sino-Tibetan languages, for which there are reconstructions of the Praevka (in particular, the reconstruction of J.Matisoff). The languages \u200b\u200bof this group are distributed mainly in Burma and in the south of China, several languages \u200b\u200bare also in Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. In addition to Burmese, the Lolo Burmese group includes relatively large languages \u200b\u200bas Hani in the Chinese province of Yunnan and neighboring countries (the number of "official nationality" is approx. 1.25 million people; the number of speaking actual hali less); nearby the previous language of the ache (approx. 360 thousand people in the same area); Wounded at the junction of the PRC, Burma and Thailand LANGUES LANGUAGE (has two strongly different dialects: a "black lah" dialect - approx. 580 thousand, according to 1981, and a "yellow lash" dialect "- approx. 14.5 thousand) and fox (the number of which is estimated at about 657 thousand). The last two languages, especially lane, are well described, and their material at one time played an important role in syntactic typology.

Bodo Garo Group, which includes about a dozen languages \u200b\u200bcommon in the east of India and in Bangladesh, in particular, in fact, languages \u200b\u200bof Bodo (approx. 1 million speakers) and Garo (up to 700 thousand) for Bodo Garo there is a reconstruction of pricing phonetics , published in 1959 R.berling.

The group of Cook-Chin (about 40 languages), mainly in India and Burma, which includes, among others, Languages, Maithei, or manipuri (second - by the name of Manipur; Maithey acts on the role of Lingva Frank and speaks OK. 1, 3 million people in almost all states in the east of India), Lusha (at least 517 thousand people in the east of India and partly in Burma) and Rong, or Lepacha (approx. 65 thousand mainly in India and Bhutan; some authors allocate Pepping into a separate group).

Genetically distributed between these two groups of naga peoples living in the north-east of India (Nagaland, Minipur, Mizora, Assam, the Allied Territory of Arunachal Pradesh and neighboring areas of Burma). Southern Naga (about one and a half dozens of tribes each with his tongue, the largest - hangami, Lhot, or Lotha, Sema, Rhngima) speak languages \u200b\u200bclose to the languages \u200b\u200bCook-Chin, and even about as many tribes in the north of this area - on the so-called languages Cognac (the largest - JSC and actually brandy; in relation to Naga "the largest" means the number of about 100 thousand people). Cook-Chin languages \u200b\u200bare united with the languages \u200b\u200bof southern Naga to the Naga Cooking Group (-CHIN), and the languages \u200b\u200bof Bodo Garo with the languages \u200b\u200bof Cognac - to the Cognac-Bodo Garo group. The latter is sometimes combined with the Kaczynskaya group, which actually includes one Kacinsky language, or JingPO (over 650 thousand speakers, mainly in Myanmar and partly in the PRC) to the Baric Baric.

The most contradictory are the available classifications of the languages \u200b\u200bof the north-western part of the Tibeto-Burmese range - relatively speaking, Tibeto-Himalayan, common in the north of India, in Nepal, Bhutan and the PRC (in Tibet). Sometimes they are united under the name "Bodic" (BODIC - from the self-sizing of Tibet). Here the Tibetan group is allocated, which includes OK. 30 languages, including Tibetan actually with a number of languages \u200b\u200bnear him (for other interpretations - Tibetan dialects), the supports of which are officially included in Tibetan nationality; AMDO (approx. 800 thousand people in various autonomous formations of Qinghai provinces, Gansu and Sichuan; sometimes this language is viewed as a Tibetan dialect, which has preserved archaic features); Not too numerous, but well known in the world for the reasons for the extralyingvistic nature of Sherpi language (approx. 34 thousand people); Ladakh language (approx. 100 thousand people in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir) and others. This group, naturally, is also included by the classic Tibetan language. A group of Gourung (in Nepal) is also allocated, which includes, among others, rather large gurung languages \u200b\u200b(two highly differing dialects, approx. 180 thousand people) and Tamang (four strongly differing dialects, St. 900 thousand people: Tamang They say Gurkhi, known for their service in the British Army); Several "Himalayan" groups with a fairly large number of languages \u200b\u200bincluded in them, among which the Nevari language is most significant (St. 775 thousand people in Nepal); And also a number of smaller groups consisting sometimes from one language.

Other groups are also highlighted in various classifications; The place of some languages \u200b\u200bin the classification, with confidence in their belonging to the number of Sino-Tibetan, remains unclear.

In addition to the listed live languages, the TANGUT language was well known in the Tingto-Burmese branch, the official language of the state of SI (10-13 centuries) destroyed by Mongolian conquerors. The language was reconstructed as a result of decryption of monuments discovered by the expedition PK Zozlov in the Dead city of Hara-Hoto in 1908-1909. In texts 6-12 V. Nowadays the dead tongue drinking in Myanmar.

Structural characteristic of Sino-Tibetan languages

The structural characteristic of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bis usually counted from Chinese, which is the actual reference syllable insulating language; Acquaintance with him just led to the formation of the concept of an insulating language ( cm. Linguistic typology). The syllable in the languages \u200b\u200bof this type is the main phonetic unit, the structure of which is subject to strict laws: at the beginning of the syllable should be a noisy consonant, then the sonant, intermediate and main vowels and the final consonant, and all elements other than the main consonant, optional. The number of possible finite consonants is less than the number of primary, and in a number of languages, only open (ending on the vowel) syllables are generally allowed. In many languages \u200b\u200bthere are several senseless tones ( cm. Asking Language).

Lie always and whether Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bwere arranged so - the question is not quite clear. Tibetan data for which from 7 V. There is a syllable writing, in principle, a word capable of accurately transmitting a sound composition is forced to suspect that at least in this language at the time of creating writing the structure of the syllable was significantly more complex. If we assume that all the signs of Tibetan letters were used to designate sounds (arguments in favor of such a point of view are available, in particular - the data of the AMDO language), then it is necessary to assume that there were numerous type structures in Tibetan brgyad. "nine" or bSLabs. "He studied science" (they are obtained at the transliteration of Tibetan words). Subsequently, the initial and final combinations of consonants strongly simplified, and the repertoire of vowels expanded and the tones appeared. This is typologically similar to what took place in the history of English or French, where the distance between spelling and pronunciation is also great, and there are significantly larger than the signs of special letters. In some respects (concrete way of influence of smooth r. and l. The preceding vowel) in Tibetan is even material similarity with the processes that took place in the history of the English language.

Morphema, and often the word in the "ideal" syno-tibetan language is usually equal to the syllable. The word-imposition (declination, hide) is not, and for the expression of the syntactic relations, official words and the order of words in the composition of phrases and suggestions are used. The classes of words (parts of speech) are allocated exclusively on syntax bases; For example, adjective is a word capable of serve as definition. In this case, the conversion is widespread: without any change in the form, the word can change its syntax functions and thereby refer to different parts of speech. Service morphemes are postpositive and can make not only words, but also phrases.

Really, many of the Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bare different from this standard to one degree or another, and they are observed in them the elements of the formation (in classical Tibetan, for example, in the verb, several foundations differed, for the formation of non-voltages and therefore, knowingly part of the syllable basis Prefixes and suffixes).

The syntax of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bis quite diverse. Many of them are inherent in the construction of a proposal not in accordance with the structure "subject to - a lean", but in accordance with the structure "Topic - Comment" (or, in another terminology, "Theme - Rem"): A word in the proposal syntactically allocated first position may be in completely different semantic (the so-called role-playing: a manufacturer of action, the addressee, undergoing, etc.) relations to the verb-torsion; It is important that this word calls the subject of speech and the subject limits the scope of applicability of what will be said further. In Russian, this design with "nominative theme" like Department store « Moscow» i will do? (instead of regulatory I will deliver to department store« Moscow"?), Which are belonging to spoken speech; In Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200b(at least in some of them: in Chinese, Fox, Lahu - the so-called "languages \u200b\u200bwith the topical extension") such structures are the norm.

Output

Chinese - language or language branch of a Sino-Tibetan language family, consisting of varieties that are mutually understandable to varying degrees. Chinese is the most common modern language with the number of speakers

1.213 billion people.

Chinese language is one of the two branches of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Initially, he was the language of the Majaethnic Group of China - the people han. In its standard form, Chinese is the official language of the PRC and Taiwan, as well as one of the six official and UN working languages.

Chinese is a combination of very highly different dialects, and therefore it is considered by most of the linguists as an independent language branch consisting of individual, although related, linguistic and / or dialect groups.

The history of studying Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bis primarily the story of the study of Chinese and Tibetan languages. China belongs to countries that created a national linguistic tradition, and Tibet inherited the linguistic tradition of ancient India, brought together with Buddhism. As for the typological and comparative historical study of Sino-Tibetan languages, it began only at the end of the 19th century; The main stages are mentioned at the beginning of the article. In Russia, studies in this area were engaged in, in particular, S.A. Starostin and S.E.Yyontov.

Bibliography

Peyaros I.I. Sino-Tibetan and Austro Thai Languages. - In the book: Comparative study of languages \u200b\u200bof different families: tasks and prospects. M., 1982.
Starostin S.A. Hypothesis on the genetic relations of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bwith the Yenisei and North Caucasian languages. - In the book: Linguistic reconstruction and history of the East. M., 1984.
Yakhontov S.E. Sino-Tibetan. - Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990.

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S.A.Starostin was nominated by a hypothesis about the far kinship of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bas a whole with North Caucasian (Abkhazo-Adygh and Nakh-Dagestani), as well as the Yenisei languages \u200b\u200b(from the entire Yenisei language family, only the Ketsky language in which he says About a thousand people in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, and 2-3 recent carriers of the South Language; other Yenisei languages \u200b\u200bwere extinct in 18-19 centuries) and a number of reconstructions were proposed.

The sociolinguistic status of most Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bis low; They are used mainly in a conversational useful function. The exceptions are Chinese and Burmese (state languages \u200b\u200bwith a complete set of functions, and Chinese - in several countries), and partly Tibetan (the language of interethnic communication and office work), Nevari (including the prestigious Kathmandu dialist, named so on the capital of Nepal, in which It is used), Maithei.

Writing in Chinese (hieroglyphic) is used from 13-14 centuries. BC. For the tangut language from 1036, hieroglyphic writing was also used (the earliest monument - 1094). For Tibetan language from 7th century, for Burmese from 11 V. The syllable written writers of Indian origin are used, in turn served by the basis for a number of other written words, in particular, the writing of the Rong, known since the end of the 17th century. From the 12th century A letter of Nevari is known; In the past, there was writing on Maithhe. At a relatively recently, a series of alphabets on a Latin basis was developed; For Donggansky, a Cyrillic-based alphabet is used.

Pavel Parshin

Eastern Asian languages \u200b\u200bare among the largest language families in the world. In the first place in the number of speakers there is a Chinese-Tibetan family of languages \u200b\u200bthat pretended in this territory. Altai family has representatives of all branches here, and the scope of its formation, although in part, was part of East Asia.

The geographically distribution of languages \u200b\u200bin East Asia can be represented as: Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200balmost undilly occupy the entire central and southern parts of this territory. Only in two places on the outskirts among them are foreign components: monkhmer in Yunnani and Malaysian-Polynesian in Taiwan. The languages \u200b\u200bof the Altai family are looking through the entire area under its northern outskirts. This belt closes in the extreme West by the languages \u200b\u200bof the mountain Tajiks belonging to the Indo-European family, and in the East East - Ayn language. one

Sino-Tibetan Language Family

The discrepancy between the individual branches and the languages \u200b\u200bof the Chinese-Tibetan family in the vocabulary and the longas of the Sino-Tibetan family, which they mentioned herein the linguistic families, the Kylov, which correspond to the degree of kinship, part of the body, as well as the phenomena of nature, are often completely different even in the languages \u200b\u200bof one branch. On the other hand, numerical are very close, almost the same in the languages \u200b\u200bof even different branches. Reconstruction of any defense for the Sino-Tibetan family is relatively unlikely. Similar features are more likely to be explained by the partial preservation of the area with primitive language continuity that has once existed here. Multiple relocations broke this continuity, but its traces are stored in the nature of the differences between the languages.

General features for the entire Chinese-Tibetan family are as follows: for very rare exceptions, each primary speech unit is a root coinciding with a single-corner word, is one syllable. At the same time, any such syllable, taken separately, already gives us if not in modern living language, then in any case in its ancient value, a completely complete word - part or a particle of speech. This gives some linguists a reason to characterize modern Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bas monosyllabic, i.e. monosyllars. However, in fact, most of the specific words of any live language of this family are multifined, representing a combination of several koreslogs. Corelogs - Parts of speech, combined, give complex words: so, in the Novokaysky language Corelova Ho J / C "Fire" and Chere $ 1. Treag ", connecting, give a new word I want a train."

Such two-part words are called Binomes. Words made up of three and more corelogs can be viewed as secondary binomes. So, the word "print on a typewriter" in Chinese is transmitted by Binome Datsima from Corelov Yes "beat 'and zi" sign 7. The concept of "typewriter 'consists of three syllables: Datzi Ji, but this is also essentially a bin of two meanings: Datsima" Print "and Ji" Mechanism ".

If in Russian and other Indo-European languages, such components are relatively small, then in the Chinese-Tibetan, they constitute most of the entire vocabulary stock; Corelogs - speech particles and words that have lost their independent semantic meaning, joining other words, at the beginning or end are moving to prefixes or suffixes that serve for word formation and word.

Potentially syllables in the Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bare disintegrated into three elements: consonant initials consisting of one or several consonants, vowel (simple or difthong, trifththong) and consonant final. The vowel is the carrier of a certain tone and is called a tonal. Tonal - a mandatory element in the word; So, in the Chinese language Corelog man, f! The canopy contains the initial simple consonant (guitial) m, simple vowel a (tonal) and the final n. Corelogues of Ma Yl sacrifice are also possible ', Academy of Sciences, Dusk' and and PPF - interjections. It should be noted that as initials usually perform all the consonants found in this language, and in many languages \u200b\u200band their combinations. Initiality - combinations of consonants - there were, for example, in ancientity. However, the Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bare inherent in the trend towards the simplification of the initiasis, to the conviction of the combinations of consonants in simple consonants.

The words of the syllables can be worn consonants, and not all. For example, in modern literary Chinese, only two final and ns are preserved. In the Yue dialect (Cantonese), the final of P, G, K - the remains of the ancient Chinese larger set of finals are preserved. The reduction in the final, inherent in the Chinese-Tibetan family as a whole, in some cases ended with their complete disappearance and turning all the syllables into the open.

Since only consonant combinations are used in the initiating, therefore the total number of theoretically possible syllables (and, consequently, Corelov) is rather limited in each language. However, this number increases several times due to the presence of tones wearing senselessness. Thus, mentioned above the word Ma "sacrifice", like all the words associated with him, pronounced with a falling tone (fourth in Chinese). The same sounding Ma, uttered under the first (even) tone, means

"Mother", under the second (ascending) - "hemp", under the third (none-ascending) - "horse". The primary formation of the tones is historically in direct connection with the truncation of the final in the Chinese-Tibetan languages; sometimes it is connected with Changing the composition of vowels.

The number of tones varies in different languages \u200b\u200band dialects from two to nine and even more, but the general historical trend is more likely to simplify the tonal composition.

The grammar of Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bis analytical at the base. As a rule, a person, time, subit and object relations are descriptively expressed and through the context. Almost all languages \u200b\u200bof this family are characterized by the abundance of particle classifiers, which are used to combine numerical and pronouns with nouns and indicate the generic sign of the latter. For example, in Chinese "Two Tables '- Liang Zhang Zho, where Liang Two', Zho" Table ", Zhang is a classifier of all flat items. For many Chinese-Tibetan languages, a tendency to reduce the number of such discharges, to the use of a limited number of universal classifiers.

Chinese earlier than other Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bbecame known to European linguists. Monosilllabic character of the Corelov, the lack of flexia, the apparent grammatical amorphousness of the Chinese language gave rise to linguists - supporters of the stageal theory to see in it an example of the lowest stage in the development of the language, the state characteristic of the tongue almost immediately after its occurrence and preserved to this day. The historical study of Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200brefutes this opinion.

The monosyllabic state of the classical Chinese language Weniana is primary, but is the result of simplifying the ancient Chinese language, in which there were elements of agglutination and flex.

There are still centuries of development towards the re-complication and the emergence of new elements of agglutination.

The unity of the Protokoyky tribal languages, one of which was known to us on the inscriptions on the assignment bones of the Shang-Yin tribes (XVI-XI centuries. BC), confirmed ease of distribution of Yin writing after the XI century. By virtue of the hieroglyphic nature, the last phonetic composition of these languages \u200b\u200bor dialects is difficult to reconstruct. You can restore with sufficient accuracy only the overall audio system of the ancient Chinese language.

The development of the Chinese language went throughout the centuries-old history of the Chinese people. The two parties of this process are the development and gradual change in the language in connection with the ethnic history and the gradual formation, and then the absorption of local dialects.

There are significant differences in phonetics and semantics of the dictionary formation of the Chinese language of various historical periods. For example, the word go, which currently means the state has passed an interesting way to change value, depending on the socio-economic conditions for its existence. It meant consistently fence, fenced place, city, ownership, kingdom, state. The word Jia "Family" sounds like this in a modern literary language; the same word in the south sounds like that it sounded in ancient Chinese language.

Ancient Chinese language developed up to the III century. BC er, the literary language of this time was Guwan, which coincides with the conversation or close to him; And with the III century. n. e. The ancient Chinese is gradually becoming a dead language and the formation of the Mid-China on the basis of Guang begins. At this time, the ancient Chinese turns into a different from the conversational archaic written Wenian. Then follows the new period - from the IX century. By the movement "May 4, 1919", when Wenian is, but the "Yuan Drama" is already close to the conversational language, based on the northern dialects. As a result, the struggle for the conventional language of Bayhua in the whole country is gradually strengthened by Putunhua, based on the Beijing dialect.

Chinese includes a number of dialects. Currently, it is customary to allocate eight major dialects: 1) Peking, which speaks more than half of all Chinese, 2) Jiangnan (i.e., a dialect, common in Jiangsu province South Yangzz and in Zhejiang province), 3) Guangdunsky, 4) Hunan , 5) Dealer "Cajia" (or Hakka), 6) Minnunan (i.e. Yuzhnofuciansky), 7) Jiangzi 8) Minable (i.e. Northfucian).

The names of dialects reflect only the main areas of their distribution. Thus, Hubei Province, Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan are also included in the proliferation area of \u200b\u200bthe Beijing dialect.

Differences in the dialects of the modern Chinese language are mainly on the line of phonetic; There are lexical differences; In the grammatical strict difference is small. In general, dialects are uniform, although the most strongly divided large dialects of the Chinese language are mutually reconnectable.

The geographical location of dialects and the periodization of the development of the language is well consistent with the ethnic history of the Chinese. With the first stage, it was undoubtedly the development of childbirth and tribal languages; Within the ethnic territory of the Chinese, these languages \u200b\u200bwere associated with a chain of linguistic continuity.

The main of modern dialects, obviously, represent the relics of the residents of local tribal languages \u200b\u200bin antiquity in different parts of China. In addition, in the formation of modern dialects, such a role could also play both foreign-speaking, non-Chinese substrates, such as Zhuang Dunch in the south. The peoples of the southeastern seaside band were partially perceived by the last time of the winners as the second, then as the only one. Nevertheless, the features of local south languages \u200b\u200bhave been preserved to the present days in local dialects (or, as they are called, Koin g /, Ming and Yue).

A significant influx of immigrants from Central-China regions secured the process of adaptation of the language. Already a millennium after the population of the seaside band considered itself part of the Chinese people.

Otherwise, there was a process in the North and Southwestern regions of the country. The assimilation of local languages \u200b\u200bof non-Chinese peoples either did not meet resistance or did not occur. The differences between the Chinese language dialects of these areas are so small that it would be better to talk about the dialects (Tukhua).

Modern conversational literary Chinese language (regulatory language of the Chinese nation) - Putunhua, which in the literal translation denotes a "common language", is the largest number of speakers in the world.

Chinese Polytonal. In the Beijing pronunciation, which is accepted as a normative for the Pujuhua, there are four tones.

For Putunhua, it is characterized by the use of a large number of classifiers, modifiers, modal particles, showing changes in the number, view, form, etc. In a significant part, these final auxiliary particles have become suffixes (for example, the indicator of a plural number of animated nouns, as in the word

tongzhimin "Comrades'). Modal particles can express the issue of emotion, shade in expression.

There is no name of names in Chinese. The plural suffix for names denoting faces, soap is used only when the plurality does not appear from the context. The word is somewhat developed only at the verb, but there is neither time nor face, but there are form and modalism forms. The syntax is built according to the scheme to be subject to the predetermined-supplement. The definition precedes the definable. From the ancient Chinese language, the proposed structures were preserved. So, in modern language, a design is very characteristic, which literally sounds:

or, by taking a pencil, I write '(in the literary translation I am better writing a pencil').

Tibeto-Burmese Languages \u200b\u200bare excellent from other languages \u200b\u200bof the Chinese-Tibetan family syntax, where there is a rigid scheme to be supplemented.

Only in cases where there is an indicator of the supplement subject and the index, such as in the NAS language, the procedure for interpretation may be changed.

Usually, the definition is preceded by a definable (in Tibetan it can stand for determined). Additions are entered by post-year. In the verb, temporary, involvement and particle forms are developed. It is curious to note that all these features are present in the Altai family, the probable zone of the formation of which is geographically adjacent to the zone of formation of Tibeto-Burmese languages \u200b\u200b- for the first it is mostly Altai-Sayan Highlands and the steppe of Mongolia, for the second - the province of PRC - Gansu, Sichuan and Qinghai. It is possible that the Altai languages \u200b\u200binfluenced the branches of the Chinese-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bthat spread to the West, the initial center of the formation of which the Great Chinese Plain was most likely and the Logish Plateau west of it.

In a number of relations, the languages \u200b\u200bof the Tibeto-Burmese branch seem more archaic than other Chinese-Tibetan languages. For example, in them, especially in the Jiang and a number of Tibetan dialects, traces of former polysillabicity are preserved, clusters of consonants in the initiating and final, fewer tones and the smaller share of their sense-distinguctive role, in some languages \u200b\u200b- Tibetan and Jingpo -Mo-consumable classifiers. In a number of languages \u200b\u200bof the group, they, on the contrary, are close to merge with numeral. The position of classifiers in the syntactic design is also different from the Chinese language. Instead of the Chinese scheme, the numerical (or index pronoun) -classifier-noun in Tibeto-Birmansky languages \u200b\u200bis used for the design of a noun-numerical classifier.

For many Tibeto-Burmese languages, the presence of suffixes.

The Tibeto-Burmese branch of languages \u200b\u200bwithin East Asia decays into three groups: Tibetan, Izzu and Jingpo. 2.

In the Tibetan group you can allocate languages \u200b\u200bTibetan, Jezen, Qiang, Sifan, Doulong, well; However, the last two languages \u200b\u200boccupy a special position, and they can be distinguished into a separate subgroup, calling it eastern, and the remaining Tibetan languages \u200b\u200b- the Western subgroup. The Languages \u200b\u200bof the Eastern Subgroup are brought together with another group of Tibeto-Burmese branch, namely, the Izzu group, which includes languages, Izzu, Fox, Nasi, Lahu, Hani, Achan, Bai. Jingpo Language One forms a special group, which, however, sometimes gets closer and even unites with Burmese, and on the other hand, the influence of the languages \u200b\u200bof the ICDU group.

Many of the listed languages \u200b\u200bdecompose on dialects, sometimes very numerous and so much different from each other, that the scale of these differences is close to differences between individual languages. This is especially true of the languages \u200b\u200bof Tibetan, Izzu, Hani, Jingpo.

Zhuang-Dong languages \u200b\u200bare in the Chinese-Tibetan language family a third branch, which in Western European linguistics is commonly called Thai. It is divided into three groups - Zhuang Thai, Dong-Shuisian and group. The first includes languages \u200b\u200bZhuang, extremely close to him, especially to its northern dialects, the tongue of Bui and the language of Tai. Tong-Shuisian includes Tongs, Mulao, Maonan, Shui. Lee with their dialects - the only representative of the third group. It should be noted that, with the exception of the peculiar language, the dialectful differences in the languages \u200b\u200bof Zhuang-Dong branch are not very high and, as a rule, even between carriers of different languages \u200b\u200bwithin the same group is possible understanding.

It is usually better understood by each other carriers of neighboring dialects and languages. More difference between the languages \u200b\u200bof peoples separated by large distances. The nature of the relationship of Zhuang-Dong languages, apparently, makes it possible to talk about their origin from a single language.

In modern Chinese linguistics for * this branch, the name of the Zhuang Dong branch was strengthened by the names of the most important languages \u200b\u200bincluded in China. Vocabulary of Thai, or Zhuang-Dong, languages \u200b\u200bpartially similar to Chinese. This is especially true of the numerical, which are generally similar in Chinese, and in Tibeto-Burmese, and in Zhuang Dong languages. The offer is built according to the "subject-beam-supplement" scheme. The method of determining is sharply different from those adopted in Tibeto-Burmese and Chinese, namely, the definition always follows the defined. So, in the tongue of the young man 'sounds P'I sA: i. literally young man '; "Old man' r" and 1ai literally old man '. Classifier words are close to transformation into articles-prefixes and enter the dictionary shape of the nouns. In the same language Bui tu. - animal classifier; tu.- mA. horse', tu.- pA "a fish'; zwak - Classifier of birds: zwak- lA: iN. "sparrow', zwak- kau. miau. "Hingsted owl". In the numerical structures, the "Noun-noun-numerical classifier" scheme is common, but with indicable pronouns and with a numerical "one", the design "Noun-classifier-pronoun" is used.

The fourth branch - Miao-Yao languages \u200b\u200bin their vocabulary differ from the Chinese language, and from Zhuang-Dong languages \u200b\u200bmore than these branches of languages \u200b\u200bdiffer from each other, although there are no doubt that there are certain common features between the vocabulary of Miao-Yao and Chinese language or Zhuang Dong. However, in the field of grammar, Miao-Yao languages \u200b\u200boccupy an intermediate position between Chinese and Zhuangian languages. In Ioo-Yao languages, there are several tones - from five to eight. The structure of the phrase "subjectable-to-beam-supplement" - coincides with the Zhuang-Dong model. As for the configuration of the definition and determined, the "Definitive-Definition" scheme is most common. So, in the Language of Miao "Shortwear" sounds like<аэ1е "одежда короткая’. Однако некоторые наиболее употребительные прилагательные ставятся перед определяемым словом, например, mien. d.^ u. ^ big gate ', wow "good song", as well as locomotive definitions that brings the syntax of Miao-Yao with Chinese.

Nouns in vocabulary form usually perfectly with their classifiers, although in the phrase the latter can go down; So in the language of Miao-Yao Classifier of the terms of kinship - A: A-Ra 'Father',<a.- mi. mother ', A-R'eu Grandfather.

The composition of numerical in the languages \u200b\u200bof Miao-Yao is very different from the Chinese, Zhuang Dong and Tibeto-Burmese set of numerical, but the developed system of counting words brings them closer with Chinese. As for the expressive-plane design, the order "Classifier-noun-pronoun" is accepted in the language of the Miao, and in the language of the National Classifier Nouns.

In the Branch of Miao-Yao, a group of Miao can be distinguished (Miao language with its dialects) ^ Group of Yao (Languages \u200b\u200bof Yao and SHE); A somewhat mansion of Galao language can be allocated to the third group. The dialects of the languages \u200b\u200bof Yao and especially meo are so different between themselves, which is often unparalleled between carriers of various dialects.

It seems that these dialects rise to tribal languages \u200b\u200band are now only in the process of consolidation in national languages. At the same time, individual groups calling themselves meo, for example on. Hainan, they speak dialects, very close to Yao, and even in a number of clearly moselig dialects, for example, in Makuo, there are some features. It can be assumed that the differentiation of Miao-Yao dialects into two groups is approximately possible to dawn over our era.

However, it is unlikely that you can talk about the uniform defense of Miao-Yao. Rather, there was a single area of \u200b\u200bexistence of dialects that were in a state of primitive linguistic continuity. Perhaps some kind of ancient stage is fixed in Chinese sources like San Miao. It should be thought that Galo's language stood out of her earlier. At the same time, it should be remembered about the possibility of presence as part of San Miao ancestors of Zhuang-Dong peoples, later called Yue (Lo-Yue, Nan-Yue, etc.). Naturally assume that the languages \u200b\u200bof the ancient Miao and Yue strongly influenced each other, which manifested itself in a specific, somewhat intermediate nature of Galaio languages \u200b\u200band whether.

If the proximity of Chinese and Tibeto-Burmese languages, generally not seriously challenged, the classification of Thai (Zhuang-Dong) languages \u200b\u200band languages \u200b\u200bMiao-Yao caused disputes. Thus, in the work of Benedict, Thai languages \u200b\u200bcome off from the Sino-Tibetan family and are considered as part of one greater community together with Malaysian-Polynesian languages. With the relic of their general practice, at the same time, a group of Kadai was constructed by Benedict, where the Lie Lie and the Galo language, indeed from all the languages \u200b\u200bof Miao-Yao closer to others worth it to Zhuhan Dunnsky.

In the work of Davis, which had a great influence on the views of European linguists on this issue, Miao-Yao languages \u200b\u200bare included in the monkmer family of languages. There are other points of view, but in general, the struggle of the opinions was carried out mainly on the relationship between the languages \u200b\u200bof Zhuang-Dong and Miao-Yao with Sino-Tibetan languages, as well as with the Languages \u200b\u200bof Mont-Khmer and Malaysian-Polynesian. Indeed, in the syntax of Zhuang Dong and partly Miao-Yao languages, and in their vocabulary, it is possible to notice shifts towards rapprochement with the languages \u200b\u200bof the Monkmersk and Malay-Polynesian families, which are closest neighbors.

It does not consider separately Vietnamese, as it is distributed mainly outside the territory under study and only a small number of Vietnamese residents living in the border areas of China speaks. However, the formation of the Vietnamese language is obviously closely connected, as well as the formation of Zhuang-Dong languages, with existing ones in the territory of South China, in Guangxi and related areas, LO-Yue dialects. The vocabulary closer to Vietnamese to the Monkhmer family, but the structural characteristics equally bring it closer to most of the languages \u200b\u200bof the Sino-Tibetan family.

sino-Tibetic Programming Languages, Sino-Tibetan Languages
a family Status:

generally accepted

Area:

Southeast, Eastern, South Asia

Eurasia languages

Sino-Caucasian macro (hypothesis)

Structure

chinese, Tibeto-Burmese

Separation time:

ser. 5 thousand BC e.

The percentage of coincidences: Codes of the language group GOST 7.75-97: ISO 639-2: ISO 639-5: See also: Project: Linguistics

Sino-Tibetan (Previously, they were also called Chinese-Tibetan) - a large language family distributed in Eastern, Southeast and South Asia. Combines about 300 languages. The total number of speakers in these languages \u200b\u200bis at least 1.2 billion people, thus, by the number of media, this family ranks second in the world after Indo-European.

The Sino-Tibetan family is divided into two councils - Chinese (Sinite), consisting of several Chinese languages \u200b\u200b(traditionally referred to as dialects), including the Dungan language and Bai language, and Tibeto-Burmese (all other languages). The number of carriers of Chinese languages \u200b\u200bexceeds 1 billion people.

According to one of the discussion theories, it is assumed that Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bare included in the hypothetical Sino-Caucasian macro.

Pressure

Pressure (Singing) In Sino-Tibetan languages, it is expressed with the help of drawing mistakes (particles) standing after the defined word. For Tibetan and Burmese coincidence of these particles is one of the manifestations of their remote kinship.

Chinese

Service Word 的 (DE).

Example

我的书 (Water Shu) is my book.

Tibetan

The index of the attractiveness is a particle dremere (Yi, Ki, Gi, Kyi). The grammar focused on the Indian tradition, the attractiveness was described as a genitive case.

Example

Ngarani DEP is my book.

Burmese

An indicator of the attractiveness is either a special particle symbol. piensinhmuvibe. (Burm. And), or the symbol of the short tone of Aukyn. Example: Square and Saou - my book.

Another form of expression of attractiveness without a noun in Burmese is a particle ha. Example: Snainly - mine.

Bibliography

Starostin S. A. A Comparative Vocabulary of Five Sino-Tibetian Languages \u200b\u200b(Sov. With I. I. Parosom, 1996).
Benedict P. K. Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus. J. A. Matisoff (ED.). Cambridge: The University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-521-08175-0.
COBLIN W. S. A SINOLOGIST'S HANDLIST OF SINO-TIBETAN LEXICAL COMPARISONS. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series 18. Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1986. ISBN 3-87787-208-5
Shafer R. INTRODUCTION TO SINO-TIBETAN (PART 1-5). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966-1974.
Thurgood G., Lapolla R.J. (EDS.) Sino-Tibetan Languages. ROUTLEDGE, 2002. ISBN 0-7007-1129-5

Language families Eurasia
Language families	abkhazo-Adyg Austro-Asian Austronezian Andaman Dravidian Yenisei Indo-European Carvela Montgolskaya Miao-Yao Nakhko-Dagestan Semitic sino-Tibetan Tai Kadai Tungus-Manchur Türk Ural Chukotka-Kamchatka Schompena Eskimo-Aleutskaya Yukagirskaya Japanese-Ryukyu
Isolated languages	aynian Basque Burusski Korean Kusund Niwha
Disappeared	paleoypanic languages \u200b\u200bTirren Family Khattsky Hurrito-Urartskaya Family Elamsky Sumerian
Geographical associations	caucasian languages \u200b\u200bPaleoeuropean languages \u200b\u200bPaleoisian languages
Hypothesis	altai Austric Indo-Ural Nostratic Sino-Caucasian North Caucasian Urals-Yukagir Ural Altai

sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bof India, Sino-Tibetan Languages, Sino-Tibetan Languages \u200b\u200bof Flame, Sino-Tibetan Programming Languages

Indo-European languages.The first language family established by the comparative historical method was the so-called "Indo-European". After the opening of Sanskrit, many European scientists - Danish, German, Italian, French, Russians, have been studying the details of the kinship of various externally similar languages \u200b\u200bof Europe and Asia, the method that was proposed by William Jones. German specialists called this large grouping of the Languages \u200b\u200bof "Indoberman" and often continue to call it and to this day (in other countries this term is not used).

Separate language groups, or branches, included in the Indo-European family from the very beginning, is indian, or indoary; iranian; greekrepresented by the dialects of the Greek alone (in the history of which the ancient Greek and Novogreic periods differ); italy, which included Latin, numerous descendants of which form modern romaneskaya group; celtic; germanic; baltiyskaya; slavyanskaya; as well as insulated Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b- armenian and albanian. There are generally accepted rapprochement between these groups, allowing to talk about such groups such as Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages.

At the end of the 19th - early 20 century. An inscriptions in languages \u200b\u200bwere discovered and decrypt hetto-Luvian, or Anatolian Group, including in the Hett language, spilled light on the earliest stage of the history of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200b(monuments of 18-13 V. BC). Attracting materials of the Hett and other Hetto-Luvian languages \u200b\u200bstimulated a significant revision of systematizing statements on the structure of the Indo-European primacy, and some scientists even began to use the term "Indo-Hett" to designate the stage preceding the department of the Hetto-Luvian branch, and the term "Indo-European" propose to maintain One or more later stages.

Indo-European also belongs to toroic A group that includes two dead languages \u200b\u200bon which they spoke in Xinjiang in 5-8 centuries. AD (Texts in these languages \u200b\u200bwere found at the end of the 19th century); illyrian group (two dead languages, actually Illyrian and Messapsky); A number of other isolated dead languages \u200b\u200bcommon in the I thousand BC. in the Balkans - phrygian, thracian, venetian and ancaseAsedonian (the latter was under strong Greek influence); pelasgsky Language of the corporal population of ancient Greece. Without a doubt, there were other Indo-European languages, and possibly groups of languages \u200b\u200bdisappeared without a trace.

According to the total number of languages \u200b\u200bin it, the Indo-European family is inferior to many other language families, but the geographical prevalence and the number of speakers are not equal (even without taking into account those hundreds of millions of people almost all over the world, which enjoy English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian , Hindi, to a lesser extent by German and Novoperside as the second).

Afrazian languages.The Semitic Language Family was recognized for a long time, the similarity between Jewish and Arabic was noticed already in the Middle Ages. A comparative study of the Semitic languages \u200b\u200bbegan in the 19th century, and the archaeological finds of the 20th century. They made many significant new information. The establishment of kinship between the Semitic family and some languages \u200b\u200bof Northeast Africa led to the postulation of seven-Khamita macros; This term and today is very used. A more detailed study of the African members of this group led to the refusal of the idea of \u200b\u200bsome special "Khamita" language unity, opposed to Semitic, and therefore was proposed to the name "Afrazian" (or "Afroasian) languages. A significant degree of separation of Afrazian languages \u200b\u200band the very early estimated time of their discrepancy makes this grouping by a classic example of macros. It includes five or, according to other classifications, six branches; In addition to semitic, this is egyptian a branch consisting of an ancient Egyptian language and inherited to him Copt, now the cult language of the Coptic Church; kushitskaya branch (most famous languages \u200b\u200b- Somalia and Oromo); previously included in the composition of the Kushitsky languages Omotskaya branch (a number of languages \u200b\u200bin the south-west of Ethiopia, the largest - Volumo and Kaffa); chadskaya branch (most significant language - house); and berbero Libyan A branch, also called Berbero-Libyan-Guangch, because in it, according to modern ideas, in addition to numerous languages \u200b\u200band / or dialects of nomads of North Africa, there were also languages \u200b\u200bexterminated by Europeans by the Aboriginal Islands. According to the number of languages \u200b\u200bincluded in it (more than 300), the Afrazian family refers to the number of the largest; The number of speaking in Afrazian languages \u200b\u200bexceeds 250 million people (mainly due to Arabic, House and Amharic; Also largest languages \u200b\u200bare solo, Somalia and Hebrew). Languages \u200b\u200bArabic, ancient Egyptian, revived in the form of Hebrew Hebrew, Geez, as well as the dead Akkadsky, Phoenician and Aramaic languages \u200b\u200band a number of other semitic languages \u200b\u200bplay now or played an outstanding cultural role in history.

Sino-Tibetan languages.To this language family, also called the Chinese-Tibetan, the world's largest in the number of speakers on it as in the native chinese language that together with dungansky forms in its composition a separate branch; Other languages, a number of about 200 to 300 or more, are combined into a Tibeto-Burmese branch, the internal device of which is interpreted by various researchers in different ways. With the greatest confidence in its composition, Lolo-Burmanskaya groups stand out (the largest language - burmese), Bodo Garo, Cookie Chin (the largest language - maithey, or maniplery in the east of India), Tibetan (the largest language - tibetanfragmented on highly different dialects), Gourung and several groups of the so-called "Himalayan" languages \u200b\u200b(the largest - nevari. in Nepal). The total number of speakers in the languages \u200b\u200bof the Tibeto-Burmese branch is over 60 million people, in Chinese - more than 1 billion, and at his expense, the Sino-Tibetan family ranks second in the world according to the number of speakers after Indo-European. Chinese, Tibetan and Burmese languages \u200b\u200bhave long written traditions (from the second half of the II thousand BC, 6th century. N.E. and 12 V. AD, respectively) and great cultural significance, however most Sino-Tibetan Languages \u200b\u200bremain safe. According to numerous monuments, found and decrypted in the 20th century, the dead is known. tangutsky The language of the SI-XI (10-13 centuries); There are monuments of a dead language drink (6-12 centuries, Burma).

Sino-Tibetan languages \u200b\u200bare inherent in such a structural characteristic as the use of tone (high-altitude) differences for distinguishing between the usual morpheme; There is no or almost absent word or in general, any use of affixes; Syntax relies on the phrase phrase phrase and the order of words. Some of the Chinese and Tibeto-Burmese languages \u200b\u200bwere subjected to a large-scale study, but reconstruction, similar to the one that was made for Indo-European languages, was carried out only to a small extent.

For quite a long time with Sino-Tibetan languages, specifically with Chinese, brought the Thai languages \u200b\u200band languages \u200b\u200bof Miao-Yao, uniting them into a special syntic branch, opposed Tibeto-Burmanskaya. Currently, this hypothesis has practically no supporters left.

Turkic languagesparticipated in the Altai linguistic family. Turkic languages: about 30 languages, and with dead languages \u200b\u200band local varieties, the status of which as languages \u200b\u200bis not always indisputable - more than 50; The largest - Turkish, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Kazakh, Uygur, Tatar; The total number of speaking Turkic languages \u200b\u200bis about 120 million people. The center of the Turkic range is Central Asia, from where they have been spreading during historical migrations, on the one hand, to South Russia, the Caucasus and Malaya Asia, and on the other - to the northeast, to the eastern Siberia, right up to Yakutia. The relatively historical study of Altai languages \u200b\u200bbegan in 19th. Nevertheless, there is no generally recognized reconstruction of the Altai Pri-language, one of the reasons is the intensive contacts of the Altai languages \u200b\u200band numerous mutual borrowings that make it difficult to apply standard comparative methods.

Ural languages.This macro consists of two families - finno-Ugorskaya and selfish. Finno-Ugric family to which owned, in particular, Finnish, Estonian, Izhora, Karelian, Vepssky, Vepsky, Livsky, Sami (Baltic-Finnish branch) and the Hungarian (the Ugric branch, which also includes the Khanty and Mansiysk Languages) languages, It was in general terms described at the end of the 19th century; At the same time, the reduction was carried out; The Finno-Ugric family also includes Volzhskaya (Mordovskie (Erzyansky and Mokshansky) and Mari (Mountain and Lugovy Naschay) languages) and Perm (Udmurt, Komi-Permytsky and Komi-Zyryansky languages) branches. Later, relations were established with the Finno-Ugrics common in the north of the Eurasian Selfish languages. The number of Ural languages \u200b\u200b- more than 20, if we consider the Sami in a single language, and about 40, if you recognize the existence of individual Sami languages, and also take into account dead languages, which are mostly known only by names. The total number of peoples speaking in the Urals - about 25 million people (of them more than half are carriers of the Hungarian language and over 20% - Finnish). Small Baltic-Finnish languages \u200b\u200b(except for Vepssky) are located on the verge of extinction, and Wasky may have already disappeared; Mail and three of the four self-language languages \u200b\u200b(except nonsense).

Sino-Tibetan Yaz Family. Basic families of languages: Indo-European, Afrazian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Chinese-Tibetan languages

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Pressure

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Bibliography