Introduction

Features and conditions for the development of Russian culture of the XVIII century

Russian culture of the XVIII century

1 science and education

3 Russian Theater in the XVIII century

4 Flowering Russian painting in the XVIII century

5 New trends in the architecture of the XVIII century

Results of the development of Russian culture in the XVIII century

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

ATTACHMENT

Introduction

The choice of theme. To write a course work, we chose a significant and important topic - "Culture of Russia of the XVIII century". Its significance and importance are due to the fact that it is this epoch that is characterized by intensive flowering in Russia of culture that laid the foundation for the further development of universal Russian culture.

The relevance of the test work. Of course, the chosen topic is relevant. Despite a number of large and serious studies dedicated to the Russian cultural culture of the 18th century, which have recently appeared, the noble culture of this period remains still a poorly studied sociocultural phenomenon in the history of Russian culture. Although in the history of Russia, the XVIII century can truly be called with the full right of fateful. It has become the time of indigenous changes, which were caused by the implementation of Petrovsky reforms. Peter I turned his conversion to the West cool. For the development of Russia and Russian culture, this turn and its consequences became the subject of an acute dispute of thinkers and scientists, which broke out with a special force in the XIX. century and continues up to the present.

Purchase to rich cultural heritage Europe, Russians of the XVIII century leaked at the same time on the indigenous domestic traditions, which were accumulated over the long preceding period of artistic and historical development, for the experience that the ancient had russian art. Russia because of this deep continuity during the XVIII century, it was not only active participation to accept general process Movement of world culture, but also to create their national schools, which have established themselves firmly in music and the theater, in painting and architecture, in poetry and in general in the literature.

Russia continued to intensively expand its territories, turning into a huge Empire country. Reforms and transformations started in the XVIII century, also continued, and Russia changed accelerated, gained its legitimate and decent place among the leading powers of the world. These reflections clearly indicate the relevance of the course work selected by us.

The object of study is the culture of Russia of the XVIII century; The subject of research is the features of the culture of Russia of the XVIII century.

The goal of the course work is to present in detail the culture of Russia of the XVIII century. This goal is related to the disclosure of a number of essential tasks:

Calculate the economic, political and social conditions for the development of Russian culture in the XVIII century.

Reveal the features of the development of culture in the XVIII century

Consider the foundations of the theory of Russian literature.

Describe new fiction with a developed genre system.

Light the question of the birth of the Russian theater.

It is characterized by the development of a variety of painting genres.

Focus on the principles of the new time architecture.

Submit the contribution of Russian culture of the XVIII century to world culture And its influence on the subsequent development of the culture of Russia.

Consider the culture of the Orlovsky Territory in the XVIII century.

This topic has found quite wide coverage in special literature. Researchers have their attention to the individual moments of this era.

When analyzing the material under study, the following research methods were used: acquaintance with literature on this topic, analysis method, comparison methods.

The structure of the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, broken into a number of paragraphs, conclusions, conclusions, literature of literature.

1. Features and conditions for the development of Russian culture of the XVIII century

1 Economic, political and social conditions for the development of Russian culture in the XVIII century

It should be paid to the resistant tradition of the selection of the XVIII century as a holistic in its singularities in public, political, domestic, cultural relations. It was unlikely that some century was so closely attributable to the attention of historical novelists, publicists, scientists, just lovers of history as the "XVIII century". The culture of Dopererovskaya Russia is usually united by the concept of "ancient" (sometimes called "medieval"). Culture XVIII century. Assimate is accustomed to the "Old Russian", but also separately it costs from subsequent time.

The concept of "culture of the XVIII century", traditional for the "essays of Russian culture," covers not only what relates to spiritual culture, and the culture of agricultural production, political, culture, military art, ways of activity of people in the field of court and law , medicine and health learning natural conditions Countries, trade, etc.

Not only the results, outstanding achievements created by the activities of people spiritual and material values, but first of all, the organization, incentives, forms, conditions, etc. Human activity allow us to unite the concept of "culture" such a variety of phenomena as labor labor on manufactory , the work of the publisher of magazines and books N. I. Novikova or Poet G. R. Derzhavin. In particular, this such approach to the concept of "culture" makes it possible to avoid its elite interpretation, when researchers were guided mainly to those phenomena, which seem to be achieving the most outstanding figures Culture. From the sphere cultural activity Involuntarily excludes the real diverse life of all social layers, in the context of which the highest achievements can be understood artistic creativity, social and political thought and science.

The concept of "Russian culture of the XVIII century" In itself absorbs the culture of the Russian people as a whole in a certain period of its history. The concept of "Russian culture of the XVIII century" Also includes many private concepts, such as: art, social thought, culture of agricultural, industrial production, etc. Another circle of paired concepts: medieval (traditional) -no culture; Culture national nation; noble - peasant; Urban culture-culture of manor, etc.

Peter I reforms in Russia, who opened this era, contributed to the creation of an unusual cultural situation. Europeanization, which touched only the highest sections of society, led to the emergence of a deep cultural abyss between the noble estate and the main mass of the country's population. In Russia, that epoch has arisen as if two cultures: the dominant, which closely became close to the European, and the people who remained most of the traditional advantage.

In the history of Russian culture, Peter I played a huge role. At the beginning of the XVIII century. Culture passes from the Middle Ages by the period of the new time, all spheres of society have been susceptible to Europeanization, a secularization of culture occurred.

Petrovskaya Epoch always caused controversy with its ambiguity and complexity. But definitely, the fact that Peter's reforms did not mean a radical gap with national traditions, with the past of the Russian people, and the complete assimilation of Western samples. Nevertheless, the openness of Russian culture west accelerated its own development. For the culture of this period, a quick change of styles (classicism, baroque) is characteristic. The authorship of the created cultural works appears. Art acquires secular character, featuring a large variety in genre attitude and using state support. But the artistic culture of the first decades of the XVIII century, along with the advent of these trends, still retained a number of prior century, characterizing the transitional character.

Peter I Russia with medieval Christian thinking, patriarchalism and deeply rooted archaica resolutely made the step towards the new time. "Hence the emergency fragility of transformations and the unpredictability of the stroke of historical cultural Development In Russia, XVIII century. Hence the formation of a number of "opposition pairs" in the Russian sococultural process of the XVIII-XIX centuries. ".

In the XVIII century Two tendencies were outlined in the development of Russia, competing among themselves and those represented by the "enlightened" minority (cultural elite) and a conservatively confined majority ("unenmended" mass). It was an unconscious struggle between the "Foreignas" who defended the original path of the development of Russia, and pro-Westernly tuned by the advocates of reforms. The ideas of Western reforms and liberalism proceeded often from the power structures; Representatives of this area called "Wessengers". The prevailing national-solar and security and conservative moods rose "from below", coinciding completely with the sentiments of the masses and most provincial local nobility; Representatives of this direction were called "Slavophila".

In fact, the implementation of reforms "above" emphasized even more and strengthened the difference between the "noble" estate and "smaller people", which were called the majority of the peasant population. These differences "were expressed as in the lifestyle, and manifested in the style of thinking. On the one hand - westernization (Western lifestyle) and the desire for enlightenment, at the beginning of the surface, and then in-depth humanitarian education; On the other hand, conservative traditions, strengthening of serfdom and practically solid illiteracy "15, c. 71].

The reforms were carried out by the command-despotic way, and their results were reflected in the phenomenon, called the "democracy of non-volatile". The essence of the mentioned phenomenon was concluded in the external democratization of the Eastern type. In Russia by the end of the XVIII century. The opposition to the opposition is carried out in the face of the creative intelligentsia and the enlightened nobility. In 1825, representatives of the enlightened nobility performed openly against absolutism.

But much more than an open speech against autocracy, the opposition minds occupied socio-political, aesthetic and moral and religious problems: the legitimate position of the nobility in society, the significance of the human existence and human personality, the path of moral improvement of society, the corrections of the morals (A. Kantemir, N. Karamzin, N. Novikov, P. Radishchev, D. Fonvizin, M. Shcherbatov, etc.).

The so-called noble culture as a result of such turbulent processes split to the end of the XVIII century. On the two wings - the conservative-guard, which was the support of absolutism, and the liberal, characterized by the rejection of the Moffial Church and the enlightened absolutism, which was disregarded by personality and serfdom.

2 Features of the development of culture and its periodization in the XVIII century

The main feature and characteristic feature of the development of domestic artistic culture in the XVIII century was the achievement of the Alloy "Europeism" and national originality.

The reforms of Russian "culture-faith" broke into "faith" and "culture", creating two cultures: religious and secular; At the same time, the religious part of the culture moved to the periphery of national-cultural development, and secular culture rooted.

In Russian history for the first time interest artistic culture It turned out immeasurably large: now the literary works began to read not only in secular salons, but they also showed great interest in the emergence of the emerging intelligentsia (teachers, hairdressers, officials, etc.). The life of the "enlightened" society includes performances and musical evenings. Sign good tone And even the fashion was considered the collection of porcelain, paintings, books.

In the development of artistic creativity in the XVIII century, the era of Baroque 40-50s and the era of classicism of the second halves XVIII century.

Russian culture XVIII century. He began to penetrate the principle of historicism: the story from this pore appears as an artificial "resurrection" of the past, as a memory, pursuing the goals of edification, education, the task of understanding, analyzing the learned experience or repulsion from the past, as a "lesson" of the present. At the same time, the orientation of Russian culture for the future is born, its appeal to the installations and ideas of development. Hence the development in the XVIII century. Professional scientific interest in learning national history - The formation of domestic history as science (V. Tatishchev, M. Lomonosov, Miller, M. Shcherbatov, I. Baltin, etc.) and artistic understanding experience in poetry, prose and drama (A. Sumarokov, M. Heraskov, Ya. Knyaznin, N. Karamzin, etc.).

One way or another, in Russia with the beginning of Petrovsky reforms, a situation of sociocultural coup was arose. In Russian culture, the dominance received the principle of unlimited freedom, began to transform almost a revolutionary form of everyday behavior; cultural values; Style and ideas and works of culture. The introduction received new traditions and rites, while the old began to reject. The change occurred in the life culture - of course, all these changes were carried out in the framework of the life of a rather narrow circle of people, European educated. The presence of formal and meaningful "novelty" became a mandatory requirement of the Russian "Age of Education".

For Russia, the XVIII century is significant for significant achievements and noticeable changes in the field of art. His character, content, genre structure, means of artistic expression changed. Russian art and painting, and in sculpture, and in architecture, and in the chart went on pan-European development paths. In the depths of the XVII century, in Petrovsky times, the process of "prumping" of Russian culture proceeded. In the development and development of the secular culture of the pan-European type, it was impossible to rely on old artistic frames, for which new tasks were not on the shoulder. Foreign masters invited in those years in Russian service, not only helped in creating new art, but also became teachers and mentors of Russian people. Another equally important way to obtain vocational training was the parcel of Russian masters for study in Western Europe.

Many Russian masters in this way were highly prepared in Holland, in France, in Germany, England, Italy. As it seems to us: Russian art at this stage has entered closer contact with style trends that have been developed in western European art The new time, through which the way to stay was to come. But at the beginning, the process of restructuring the artistic consciousness of Russian masters proceeded with great difficulties, in the method of their work, traditional ideas also affected the laws of medieval creativity in the form of monumental-decorative paintings and iconography.

So, all these changes, once again we emphasize, concerned the noble estate. But most of the peasants in the XVIII century. He lived in still outstanding, which was treated in black. In winter, in the hollow with people contained young cattle. The absence of hygiene and crowded caused high mortality, especially children. Although there were something here - what changes: the design of the hut changed: a wooden ceiling appeared and the same floor.

The overwhelming majority of fortress peasants were an illiterate part of the population. Leisure that appeared usually only in winter timeWhen the peasants completed agricultural work, filled with traditional entertainment: round dance, songs, riding with ice slides, gatherings. Traditional remained I. family relationships. Contrary to the decree of Peter I, the decision to marry, as before, did not take so much young as the senior family members solved.

The life of a rich landowner had nothing to do with a rustic. The daily table of the landowner, the interior of his dwelling, his costume, from the peasant was different not only with wealth, as in the XVI-XVII century, but also the type itself. The landowner put on Camzole, uniform, and later - he died in a fracture, held a cook preparing sophisticated dishes. Typically, the rich nobles of cooks tried to write out from abroad. In the rich estates there was a numerous courtyard, which consisted not only of Kucher and Laces, but also contained their own tailors, shoemakers and even musicians. But such a lifestyle was characteristic of the notable and rich top of the nobility. In small noble nobles and requests, and the opportunities themselves, were much more modest.

Even at the end of the XVIII century. Only a few nobles acquired a good education. Nevertheless, it is a manor house, freedom from material needs and official duties and ensured the flowering of culture of the second half of XVIII.

In the general path of the historical development of Russian art of the XVIII century, three main periods are distinguished:

· the first quarter of a century, associated with Peter reforms;

· the era of the 30s and 1960s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art and at the same time strengthening the estate of the current oppression;

· last third Century (starting from the mid-60s) marked with large public shifts, exacerbation social contradictions, noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

So, the Russian enlightenment, starting with Petrovsky reforms and ending with the "golden age" of Catherine, simultaneously performed as a renewable and destructive power in relation to the ancient Russian culture and its values, traditions and norms of Holy Russia, Dopurerovskaya civilization, and this is shown brightly modernization meaning and character.

culture painting architecture science

2. Russian culture of the XVIII century

1 science and education

Petrovsky reforms contributed to the political and economic and rise of the country. The enlightenment has greatly advanced, which has great impact on the further development of culture. From January 1, 1700, a new spring was introduced - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural-historical museum called Kunstkamera was organized in Russia. This museum was created with the aim of promoting scientific knowledge. It was placed historical relics, zoological and other collections (rarities, all sorts of dickers, monsters).

Under Peter 1, education was part of the state policy, and such a step was associated with the fact that the state was required to implement the reforms. Under Peter 1, general and special schools began to open, all necessary conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences.

In Moscow, in 1701, a navigation school was opened, which became the first secular state educational institution. Also created several professional schools - Medical, engineering, artillery. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. Spiritual seminary, churches of christmas schools, tsifir schools opened.

The organization of higher and secondary education is associated with the creation of the Academy of Sciences by Decree Peter I (1724). It includes gymnasium, university and academy. The establishment of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences marked the beginning of the organizational registration of scientific activities in Russia. Academic science was considered initially as a kind of scientific department, guided by the needs of the state. Academy of Sciences and Arts (as it was called in Project Peter I) included "three classes of science": mathematical, which included mechanics, theoretical mathematics, navigation, geography and astronomy: physical, which included experimental and theoretical physics, nerd, astronomy and Chemistry. In the humanitarian class planned learning new and ancient history, eloquence, ethics, politics, and right.

"The Academy did not provide for conducting research in the field of theology, she initially wore a secular character. This concerned and teaching in the created academic gymnasium and an academic university, which provided for the preparation of future academic workers. The first invited from abroad by members of the Academy were scientists with world name - mathematicians L. Eyler and D. Bernoulli, physicist F. Epinus, Astronomer G. Delilov, and others. The first Russian academician was elected to the post of professor (academician) of chemistry in 1745 . M. V. Lomonosov. Later, the members of the Academy became S. P. Khennikov, S. Ya. Rumovsky, I. I. Lephechin, and others - mostly children of artisans, soldiers, low clergy. "

Mikhail Lomonosov received a deserved title of the first Russian academician. This thinker was an encyclopedist scientist, which Pushkin said that he, the founder of Moscow University, himself was the first to our university . Persistent work, ingenious abilities made this man with Titan of Science - he worked in the field of chemistry, physics, mineralogy, astronomy, mining, geology, geography, history, poetics, linguistics. In these and other branches, the scientist was able to leave a noticeable, deep and outstanding trail. For example, Lomonosov was opened the law of preserving matter and movement, the theory of the atomic-molecular structure of the substance is substantiated, the reasons for raising the mainland and the property, etc. historical science He criticized decisively scientists Miller and Bayer, without taking their Norman theory. He argued that the history of the Russian people, his language is originally deep antiquity And at all at all with the calling of Varyagov, whom he considered the inhabitants of the southern coast of Baltic.

Great Mathematics L. Eiller, at the Academy who worked at the same time with Lomonosov, called this scientist ingenious personWho does his knowledge of the same academy as his science.

For Lomonosov followed the whole pleiad of outstanding Russian scientists. M. V. Serygin is the founder of the Russian Mineralogical School. S. P. Krashennikov made a famous Description of the land of Kamchatka , I. I. Lephechin described the land of Siberia, the Urals, the Volga region in their Day notes.

At the same time, in the second half of the century, the scientific foundations of agrochemistry, biology and other branches of knowledge were laid. In the area of \u200b\u200bhistory, such outstanding scientists worked as: I. N. Botin, M. M. Shcherbatov ( History Russian from ancient times).

At the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov in 1755, Moscow University was opened, which became large cultural Center. In the printing house, which was organized with it, the newspaper "Moscow News" began published. Professional and artistic educational institutions have also appeared. Moscow opened the ballet school and the Academy of Arts, c. St. Petersburg was famous Dance school.

At the end of the XVIII century, 550 operated in Russia educational institutionsin which 62 thousand students studied.

The development of science as we said was caused by the practical needs of the state, the expansion of links with the world science appearing a significant number of scientists from Russians and foreigners. In connection with the country's extreme ends large number Expeditions of its participants constitute the cards of Kamchatka, Don and the Caspian and Baltic seas, etc. I. K. Kirilov together threatened in his Atlas of the Russian Empire (1734) Geographical discoveries.

Under Peter I, labor was created on the history of the Northern War - History of Northern War and Book Marsov . In the second quarter of the XVIII V.V. N. Tatishchev was created by a generalizing work - The story is Russian . In her thinker used big number different sources, including Russian chronicles, including those that have not been preserved to this day. Thus, passages from them, which are given in his work, are given, firstly, information about events that are missing in other chronicles known to us, secondly, allow you to study more fully by the history of the very beginning. Tatishchev did what the usual was for his time: it was sometimes a very high source record, accompanying them with his arguments, additions, etc., that it was often introduced and introduced today to the delusion of critics and researchers.

The rise of technology was connected closely with the creation of the army, the construction of ships, the development of industry. Russian manuffs in technical equipment No difference from Western European.

In 1712, the famous inventor A. K. Narovov created a lathe using self-propelled mechanical cutter holder. NARTOVA Persons the invention of machines for drilling blew at guns, mechanization and technology of coins were developed.

Efim Nikonov in 1720-1724 Built and experienced a submarine and diving suit. In the country, the construction of hydraulic structures was carried out.

In 1700, they created a state mining and exploration service. In the Urals, the copper ore deposit was opened, coal Found on Don, and coal reserves brought Kuzbass.

Translated by Ya. Bruce appeared a popular book of famous physics and astronomer H.Guygens "The book of the worldview, or an opinion on the heavenly globes and their decorations", devoted to the rationale for the Geliocentric System N. Copernicus. Ya. Bruce and G. Farvars were organized by astronomical observations in Russia. The first printed calendar, which contains information on meteorology, astrology, astronomy began to publish. In St. Petersburg from 1725 We began to systematically carry out meteorological observations.

In St. Petersburg and Moscow opened a series of pharmacies, medical schools were created and hospitals were organized. In St. Petersburg, from 1718, they began to make medical instruments.

A book publishers in this eyelid increased in this age. In 1708 he conducted a font reform, was introduced to civilian printing, which contributed to an increase in civilian and secular books, as well as issuing magazines. Libraries were organized, bookstores opened.

The concept of Petrovsky reforms developed technical and natural sciences, material production, the priority of things instead of the priority of words and verbal etiquette, as a rule, speaking in the form of template religious thinking.

2 Russian literature XVIII century

In the literature of the XVIII century, old forms were preserved, but the content of the works was changed, subjected to the influence of the ideas of enlightenment and humanistic thought.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. Popular were the story ("stories"), especially the story about the Russian sailor of Vasily Korotovka, "reflecting the appearance of a new hero, a figure, a patriot and a citizen. "Stories" showed that success in life a person can achieve thanks to personal qualities, virtues of a person, not origin. The influence of the Baroque style was manifested primarily in poetry, dramaturgy (presented, mainly translated plays), love lyrics.

The foundations of the theory of Russian literature of the New Time laid a writer and publicist F. Prokopovich in his writings "rhetoric" and "On poetic art". He substantiated the principles of early classicism. In Russian literature, the beginning of the classical tradition was made by the work of A.D. Kantemir, poet, first introducing a genre of poetic satire in Russia, which was developed by classicism.

In the literature, starting from the 30s. The effect of classicism was manifested. This direction occurred under the influence of Western European, earlier in time. Russian classicism submitted to pan-European laws, but he was still inherent and expressed interest in antiquity and rigid genre regulation. Translations of antique authors (especially Horace and Anaconon) have become great popularity. In drama and poetry, the dominant place was given to the ancient plots. The national feature of Russian classicism was its closer (compared with Western Europe) with the ideology of enlightenment, which was manifested in a high civilian pathos of art.

Classicism has acquired its characteristic features - pathos of the absolute monarchy, national statehood. The vertices of their direction of classicism reached the philosophical, solemn gods of Lomonosov with their ideas of crowded cultural progress and wise monarch.

Russian Classicism is represented by the names of M.M.Heraskova, A. P. Sumarokova, his heads, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, V. I. Maikov and others. Preaching high civilian feelings, noble deeds, these literature figures proceeded from the thoughts on the continuity of interest Nobility and autocratic statehood.

The founder of the new renovation, which is based on modern Russian poetry, was Vasily Kirillovich Tredyakovsky (1703 - 1768). The new, Syllabo-tonic storage system has become a significant element of a new literature. It is based on alternating unstressed and shock syllables in the string.

At the sources of the new Russian drama, the author of the first Russian comedies and tragedies Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1717-1777), he created 12 comedies and 9 tragedies, as well as about 400 Bassen. The stories of most tragedies he took from Russian history, for example, Dmitry Samozvana.

The influence of the ideas of the enlightenment, Pugachev's peasant war, and then French revolution He led to the fact that the writers were dedicated to their works with acute social and political problems. Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744-1792) Indilated arbitrariness and ignorance of landowners in a comedy "inexpensive." Gabril Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816) tried to create an image of the "ideal monarch" in Ode "Felitsa", comparisons with which the rulers did not stand up to him.

Sentimentalism came to change the classicism. He is inherent in a pupil interest in experiences, feelings, interests of a simple person, especially from the average estates, the beginning of sentimentalism is associated with the name of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826). The writer managed in his story "Poor Lisa" to prove the simple truth that "and the peasants know how to love" and they are ready to give their lives for love.

The noble poem of this pore is not limited to only love lyrics. He is familiar with the genres of greater social significance, for example, satire, the significant samples of which for the first time introduced Kantemir, although the satirical elements appeared, for example, in the oratorical prose of Feofan Prokopovich, in Simeon Polotsk or in the Interludes, which were often discharged in the caricature The form of enemies of the policy of feudal expansion.

In the works of Lomonosov and Kantemir, the older genres of the sulfur and satire took shape. The work of Tremakovsky gave samples of artistic prose, poem Eposa And put the beginning of the formation of the genre system lyrics.

Sumaro and his followers went through the lyrics line and especially along the High-Style Reduction Comedy. Lomonosov's theory comedy ranked to the category of low genres, allowing it greater freedom From "Rules" and thereby "reducing" classicism in it. Wide noble literature to use this relative freedom did not fail. Sumarokov in their "epistole about poem" paid a lot of attention to the comedy, which he set the didactic task: "The comedy property of the mock edit the temper is to mix and use the direct charter."

In the genre of sentimental travel, the sentimental story wrote N. M. Karamzin.

In a number of works that belong to the genre of classicism, the elements of realism are clearly visible. D. I. Fonvizin in his comedies Brigadier and Inexpensive Realistly and metka described the life of the landlord estate, drawing the morals of their owners, sympathizing with the fate of the peasants, the position of which required, according to his thoughts, relief by mitigating the morals of the nobility, as well as his enlightenment.

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) in artistic form, in his works, set the problem of the need to eliminate serfdom and autocracy. In the book "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow", which combines a journey genre with a sensitive story, they are given bright paintings of lawlessness and arbitrariness.

Beginning of XVIII in. It is an important period in the formation of a Russian literary language. The literature of the Petrovskaya era was distinguished by a large linguistic variety, along with the Church Slavonic language, they used actively foreign words, many of which were preserved in and modern Russian.

First of all, Russian classical poetics developed questions of the poetic language to be adapted to new tasks

The lexical standards of the literary language in the middle of the XVIII century. were ordered M.V. Lomonosov.<#"justify">3. Results of the development of Russian culture in the XVIII century

1 contribution to the Russian culture of the XVIII century to world culture and its influence on the subsequent development of the culture of Russia

The eighteenth century in the field of culture of Russia is considered a century of deep social contrasts, lifting science and education.

The age of mind and enlightenment "- so talked about their time the great thinkers of the XVIII century, prostineers of new revolutionary ideas. The XVIII century in the history of world culture entered as the era of large socio-historical and ideological shifts, the most acute struggle with religious dogmatism and feudal monarchic stuff.

The spread of the materialistic worldview and the approval of the spirit of freedom-loving is bright reflection found in the literature, science, philosophy, in the educational activities of the largest thinkers, writers, scientists of this time - Golbach and Didro, Rousseau and Voltaire, Schiller, Goethe, Lessing.

Russian scientists not only were perceived creatively achieving Western European scientists, but they themselves had an increasing influence on the global scientific idea. In Russia, the overall level of development of science in the XVIIIVEK was lower than in Western Europe, but the greater the importance of its new achievement. Editions of the Russian Academy of Sciences fame used by scientists from other countries. Abroad followed the scientific life of St. Petersburg carefully.

It was the first century when a secular culture received a rapid development, when a new, rationalistic worldview was a decisive victory over the ascetic harsh dogmas of religious morality, which opened a wide way of the flowering of the culture of subsequent eras.

Russian culture took a worthy place in world culture during this period. It manifested themselves the features of the National Mirosoria and Character. She began to possess their own dynamics of development, which gave it uniqueness, uniqueness and recognition among other cultures.

The culture of the Russian state in the XVIII century, susceptible to European influence, and herself acquired world importance. The main achievement of the named period is associated with the release of the creative forces of the personality, the flourishing of personal creativity, the implementation of the Lomonosov formula, that "the Russian Earth's own platonists and fast intelligence will bring up the Russian Earth."

In Russia, XVIII century. Architectural creations were created, which are the property not only Russia, but also the whole world. Some of them, namely, Bazhenov V. I. - Construction of the Grand Kremlin Palace and the buildings of the Boards in the territory of the Moscow Kremlin. And so far one very perfect work Total Russian classicism of the late XVIII century.

The most important progressive traditions of Russian architecture, which has great importance to practice late architecture, are urban-planning art and ensemble. The architecture in time was transformed, but nevertheless, a number of features of Russian architecture were also evaluated for several centuries, while maintaining traditional stability until the XX century.

In general, Russian art XVIII. in. make up important mile not only in the history of Russian artistic culture, but also a big role played in the approval of progressive aesthetic ideals european Culture XVIII century generally.

The results of the historical and cultural development of the XVIII century. Very significant. The development received Russian national traditions in all kinds of art. All directions of culture have developed - typography, education, visual arts, architecture, literature. There is a formation of Russian classicism. Development of the culture of the XVIII century. prepared the soil for the brilliant heyday of the Russian culture XIX. c. which became an integral part of world culture. Russian culture of the XVIII century has performed his great mission with dignity, becoming a culture that Russian life spiritualized with new ideals that laid the foundation of the Russian public self-consciousness for many centuries. In artistic culture, the principles were formed, the most complete implementation of which determines the age of XIX. Great culture Russia of the new century elapses its significance to be contradictory, complete quest and painful transition from the medieval era to the era of educating the culture of the preceding century. But it is the basis of the wonderful processes of the development of Russian spirituality of the XIX and even the XX centuries.

2 Culture of the Orlovsky Territory in the XVIII century

The percentage of the urban population of the Oryol province in the XVIIV. It was small, since the overwhelming part of the population lived in rural areas, and 2/3 it accounted for the fortress peasants.

For a long time, the provincial training was low, although in the second half of the XVIII century. In Russia, the Social School system began its formation. The main pedagogical centers in the Oryol Territory continued to be monasteries. In the Oryol province in 1778, established a spiritual seminary. The spiritual seminary (bishop school) has become one of the few educational institutions of the province. It examines the training of priests for the parishes of the Oryol diocese. She played a positive role in the development of education. "Not all of her graduates became priests, some of them continued to study in other secular schools. From the student of the spiritual seminary, teachers were gained for popular schools of the province. " Soon after the opening of the seminary, several spiritual schools were established. In particular, on September 15, 1779, the Orlovsky Spiritual School, who was located in Assumption male monastery. Here they taught French, Greek and latin languages, arithmetic, sacred history, catechism, grammar. Later the poetic class was opened, the teaching of philosophy and german language.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Professional music is rapidly developing - Orel at this time, an Oryol musical chapel was created. The nobles arranged often, musical evenings and performances, concerts, engaged in enthusiastically homely musication.

During the years of belonging to the Orlovsk region to the Sevsk diocese, there was a significant rise in the moral and intellectual level of the flock and clergy. The archpastics caused scientists of monks from the Kiev diocese, a crying at churches of the library, demanding from the clergy of compulsory education of the people and children.

During this time, the most important event was the emergence of spiritual educational institutions. At the Third Sevil Bishop of Ambrosy (subhead), subsequently St. Petersburg Metropolitan was founded in 1778 in the city of Sevsk. In addition to the seminary, spiritual schools opened in Orel. Due to this, not only in urban, but also rural arrival appeared deacons and priests who graduated from theological school.

Architecture of the Oryol Territory of the middle of the XVIII century. Characterized by the development of the Baroque style. Turned civil buildings continued to be intensively. In Orlovshchina received the spread of church stone construction. At first, the monasteries performed by its initiators.

The fortress theater appeared. The actors on specially arranged scenes were played by comedy and tragedy, took part in ballet and opera performances. Quantitative composition Troupes were connected with the wealth of the owner. On the occasion of travel through Eagle Ekaterina II on July 17, 1787, the "noble troupe" was given a great view in the residence of the Governor General. Actors in the presence of the empress was played by a comedy french playwright Charles of Favar "Soliman II, or" Three Sultanshi ". It became the first theatrical viewwhich was recorded in the history of the eagle.

Thus, in the second half of the XVIII century, the city of Eagle developed in the cultural direction rapid pace. Architecture, music, education, - everything moved forward, leaving behind the indelible traces in the history of the Orlovsky Territory.

Conclusion

Deciding the tasks and put forward, we formulate some conclusions that were reflected in the work:

The reforms of Peter I created an unusual cultural situation in Russia. The results of the historical and cultural development of the XVIII century. are very significant. In all kinds of art, the development of Russians continued national traditions. At the same time, the strengthening of links with foreign mills contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture.

Development received all directions all directions of culture - typography, education, visual arts, architecture, literature. Appeared new fiction, literary magazines, light music, public theater. The formation of Russian classicism is carried out, on a change whom sentimentalism passed. Development of the culture of the XVIII century. The brilliant flourishing of the Russian cultural culture of the subsequent century has prepared, which has become an integral part of world culture.

Literature Development is considered to be mid XVIII Century, when a developed system of genres-boss, soda, tragedy, elegy, story, comedy, journey, romance. Main distinctive features that time is also presented new literary language and a new system of poems. The XVIII century is the period of extraordinarily intensive cultural development of the country, since Russia at this time discovered the achievements of Western European culture accumulated over the centuries. The domestic school of visual and theatrical art, in the literature in the XVIII century. Developed, obeying the general laws of European culture, while actively preparing the rise of national culture in the XIX century.

Bibliographic list

1.Anisimov E.V. The birth of the empire // KN. The history of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays of the history of Russia IX - early XX century. / E.V. Anisimov. - M.: Prospekt, 2011.- 570 p.

.Universal art history. Volume 4. Art 17-18 centuries. - M.: Art, 2013. - 479 p.

.Gorky A.M.O Russian art. Collected works by t. 24. / M.M. Gorky. - M.: Infra - M., 2011.- 372 p.

.Dmitrieva N.A. Brief history of arts. In 3-kN. Kn. 2. / N.A. Dmitrieva. - M.: Gardenik, 2009.- 567 p.

.Zenina Mr., Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. HISTORY OF RUSSIAN CULTURE. / M.R.Sesina, L.V. Koshman, V.S. Shulgin M., Higher School, 2010.- 390 s.

.Ilyina E.A. Culturalology / E.A. Ilina, M.E. Drills. - M.: Miemp, 2009. - 85 p.

.Isaev I.A. History of the state and the rights of Russia. / I.A.isaev. - M.: Enlightenment, 2012. - 402.

.The history of Russia since ancient times until the end of the XVIII century. / Sub. A.M.Saharov and A.P.Noseltseva. - M: Exam, 2011.- 398 p.

.Klyuchevsky V.O. New Russian history. Course of lectures. / V.O. Klyuchevsky.- M.: Statute, 2008.- 279 p.

10.Krasnobayev B.<#"justify">ATTACHMENT

M.Yu. Lomonosov

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Rockies F. Portrait Peter III

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Petrovsky reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. The enlightenment was far advanced, which had a great influence on the further development of culture.

From January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural-historical museum in Russia - Kunstkamera was created.

With Peter 1, education has become a state policy, since educated people were needed for the implementation of reforms. Under Peter 1, general and special schools opened, conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences.

In 197. The Navigation School was opened in Moscow - the first secular public educational institution was opened, a number of professional schools were created - artillery, engineering, medical. In the first quarter of 18 V. Typhyry schools, christmas schools, spiritual seminaries began to open. The organization of secondary and higher education is closely related to the creation of the Academy of Sciences (1724). It included a academy, university and gymnasium. Mikhail Lomonosov became the first Russian academician. In 1755, at the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was created, which became a major cultural center. In organized with it, the printing house published the newspaper "Moscow News".

Professional and artistic educational institutions appeared. In St. Petersburg - a dance school, in Moscow - a ballet school and the Academy of Arts.

Typography. The book publisher has significantly increased. In 1708, the font reform was carried out, civil and civilian printing were introduced, which contributed to an increase in secular and civil books, magazines. Libraries were organized, bookstores were opened.

Large Russian thinker XVIII century. There was Faofan Prokopovich, a contemporary and companion of Peter. In his works ("The Word of the Power and the Honor of the Tsarist", "True will of the monarch", etc.) he develops the Russian version of the concept of enlightened absolutism. The objection of past Russia is devoted to the works of V.N. Tatishcheva - the first major Russian historian who wrote the "Russian history from the most ancient times." In it, he traces the history of Russia from Rürik to Peter I. N. Radishchev - a writer and philosopher - occupies a special place in the spiritual life of Russia.

Literature. Wide publishers widely accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of a civilian has contributed to strengthening the secular language. At this time, the poetic works were very popular - OD, Basni, the epigrams of the Russian poet and the enlightener of Antioch Kantemir (1708-1744).

Poet V.K.Tebredikovsky (1703-1768) became the reformer of the Russian language and resentment.

A.P.Sumenokov became the founder of Russian drama (1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian theater in St. Petersburg. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables. In the works of these writers, they reflected the ideas of Russian classicism ..

Last quarter of 18 V. She became the heyday of the work of a large poet of G. Pedzhavin (1743-1816). The main genre of his works was the ODA.

Russian morals and customs expressed in their social comedies "Brigadier" and "Nepali" D.I. Fontvizin. His comedies laid the beginning of an integrity-realistic direction in the literature.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism became N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), the author of the History "Poor Lisa", "Village", etc. The main essay of Karamzin is the "History of the Russian State".

Architecture. In the Petrovsk era, innovations are entered into architecture and construction, due to the requirements of the government to express the strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire in architectural structures.

With the political and economic development of the country are presented to civil construction. The most noticeable buildings of that time in Moscow were a large stone bridge, arsenal in the Kremlin and others. In 1749, Ukhtomsky organized the first architectural school in Russia in Moscow, in which V.P. Bagainov and MF Kazakov studied under his leadership.

The Petrovskaya Epoch is characterized by the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg (since 1703), for which foreign architectory treatments were invited, Rastrelli. The new capital was conceived as a regular city, with long radiation prospectuses, with urban ensembles of quarters and streets, squares. Trezini acted as the author of residential buildings of three categories: for "famous" citizens - stone, for "prosperous" and "simple" people - Mazankov. Public facilities of Trezini were distinguished by simplicity of the style of the twelve college (now the University). The most significant building was the Petropavlovsky Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Among the public buildings were highlighted a seating courtyard, exchange, admiralty. Simultaneously with St. Petersburg, country palaces were built with famous park ensembles - Peterhof and others.

A huge contribution to the style of Russian baroque was the activities of the father and son of Rastrelli. Father (Italian sculptor) participated in the decorative design of Peterhof. The Son (already Russian architect) was the author of the Smolny Monastery and the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Ekaterininsky Palace in the Tsarskoye Selo, and others. To replace Russian Baroque in Arkness in the 60s, the Russian classicism came in the 60s that he reached his heyday at the beginning 19th century Architects V.P. became representatives of classicism in Russia Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I. E. Starov.

Bazhenov and Kazakov worked in Moscow and St. Petersburg - the palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, the Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, the noble assembly with the magnificent column hall, Mikhailovsky Castle. Starov - Author of the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra of the Tauride Palace - a victory monument in the Russian-Turkish war. The main value of classicism is an ensemble, an ensemble organization: strict symmetry, straight lines, straight rows of columns. Bright example - Palace Square Architect K.I. Rossi. Preserved buildings 18 V. And today are not only the decoration of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world importance.

Art. This is the heyday of portrait painting. The most famous artists of Petrovsky Time - Andrei Matveyev (1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin (1690-1742) are the founders of Russian secular painting. By the end of the 20s, there was a fracture to the court direction of painting. The best portraitists 18V.- A.P.ANTROPOV, F.S. Kotov, D.T.levitsky, V.L. Korovikovsky. Fedor Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky represented the classical direction in the sculpture.

At the end of the 18th century One of the richest artistic collections of the world is formed - Hermitage. It is based on a private collection of paintings Catherine 2.

In 18 V. The development of the theater continued. New theaters were opened, there were performances on the plays of Russian authors - Sumorov, Fonvizin.

Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers in intermission of dramatic and opera performances. In 1741, by decree of the daughter of Peter Elizabeth, a Russian ballet troupe was established.

Continued to develop a fortress theater. The history of the theater includes the names of the fortress actors Praskovyi Pearlovaya, Mikhail Shchepkin and others. In the 18th century, the theater has gained enormous popularity, became the property of broad masses.

Music. In 18 V. Secular musical art begins to spread. A philharmonic society is created, in which the old and classical music is performed, a composer school is formed, Russian composers appear - the authors of the opera, chamber music. The leading musical genre becomes opera. The leading opera composer of that time was DS Botnoyansky - author about 200 works. At the end of the century, the genre of chamber lyrical song appears - the Russian romance to the poems of Russian poets.

The results of the historical and cultural development of 18 V. Very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all kinds of art continued. At the same time, the strengthening of links with foreign mills contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. All directions were developed all areas of culture - education, typography, literature, architecture, visual art. New literary magazines appeared, fiction, publicly available theater, secular music. There is a formation of Russian classicism. The development of the culture of 18 V. Prepared a brilliant flourishing of Russian culture of the 19th century, which became an integral part of world culture.

The culture of the 18th century.

"Age of Mind and Enlightenment"

Characteristic features of a period
1. rationalism. (Philosophical direction, recognizing the mind of knowledge of knowledge)
In the 18th century there is a restructuring of culture on the basis of rationalism. If there were earlier the phenomena of nature, public life (we are talking about the cultural elite, of course), they were prone to explain to divine intervention, now the basis of these phenomena people seek to see natural scientific or rational principles

2. Formation of scientific knowledge.
It was in the 18th century that this process begins to form science - as the basis of all ideas about the world. Scattered views begin to develop into a single knowledge system

3. Culture secularization.
Secularization of church ownership state (land, culture) in secular
Back in the depths of the XVII century, the process of "priority" of Russian culture took place.
Next, you can already speak basically about secular culture.

4. Orientation to Western European samples.
There is no doubt that this happened at the end of the 17th century, but it was from Peter I, Russian culture entered the pan-European and became part of it.

Education and enlightenment
By the 18th century there were schools at churches and monasteries. There were two academies -Kyevo-Mogilyanskaya and in Moscow Slavic Greco-Latin, they were universities.
In general, the education system required restructuring

State Education Policy
(First Peter ... then the time of palace coups and Ekaterina II)

An important for the enlightenment was the publication in the 1702 g of the heading newspaper "Vedomosti" Vedomosti, the first printed newspaper in Russia could buy everyone. They introduced a civil font, simpler and clear, and the Church Slavonic font was used only in the liturgical books.

Peter's reforms require qualified personnel. Schools opened to train specialists: navigator, artillery, engineering in both capitals; Mountain-in the Urals; Diocesan and cyphira, garrison and admiralty - in the province. Moscow existed a school of foreign languages. In St. Petersburg founded the Marine Academy. Nobles sent to Germany and Netherlands, Italy and England for learning sciences.

Published tutorials, textbooks, dictionaries, buckwar. The foundations of mathematical sciences expressed L. F. Magnitsky in his "arithmetic" (the first edition - 1707)
In the middle-second half of the century, competent people became more and more. By the beginning of the XIX century. There were 550 educational institutions with 62 thousand students. It was a step forward. But Russia has grown far from many european countries. For example, in France there were up to 8 thousand schools (1794). The term of study was from three to five years. He studied on "arithmetic" L. Magnitsky, "Grammar" M. Forersky, "First Teaching Line" F. Prokopovich, Azboks, Character. Psalm. Among students of secondary schools were children of peasants and artisans, masters and soldiers, sailors. There were special soldiers' schools - for children soldiers who continued the traditions of the Tsifir schools of Peter I.

In 1725, the Academy of Sciences appeared in St. Petersburg

For the training of noble opportunities was more - private pensions, shirts of the hulls (the first is open at Anna Ioannovna
With Elizabeth, military schools were reorganized. In 1744, a decree expanded the network of primary schools.
The first gymnasiums are open: in Moscow (1755) and Kazan (1758).

In 1755, they founded, by the city of I. I. Shuvanov and M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow University. The university has released a large number of specialists in various sectors of knowledge, many large scientists have come out of them.

In 1754, the Academy of Arts is the Higher Educational Institution in the Russian Empire in the Fine Arts. The initiator became Shuvalov.

In the second half of the century, the authorities took an interesting attempt to reform education and upbringing. Her initiator and active conductor in life became Ivan Ivanovich Betskaya. In the foundation of his pedagogical reform, Beetska laid the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a new breed of people through education. According to his thoughts borrowed from French enlighteners and supported by the Empress, the goal of education of youth is to give it a good general education and " moral development ("Heart Frost"). For this, students need to be isolated from the oblique environment from which they came out and put in closed schools (boarding schools). Thus, "brutal and frantic in words and actions" old rutiners will not be able to influence them. On his initiative, urban schools were created, educational Meshchansky Schools with the Shankhetsky Corps and the Academy of Arts. He laid the beginning of female education

Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens - the first female educational institution in Russia, which posted the beginning of women's education in the country. The institute is based on the initiative of I. I. Bezzky and in accordance with the decree signed by Catherine second 1764

The name of Betsky is associated with the institution in 1763 the first in Russia of an educational house. In the house, they trained children from 14-15 years old by various crafts. Five years later, they could marry. When leaving the house, the pupils received full uniforms and rights of free people.

Portrait of I. I. Bezzky

Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkov

Girlfriend and Supportment of Empress Ekaterina II, a member of the state coup of 1762 (after the coup of Catherine II, cooled to the girlfriend and Princess Dashkov did not play a prominent role in the affairs of the Board). One of the notable personalities of Russian enlightenment.
Empress, decree of 1783, appointed Dashkov to the post of director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences under the presidency of Count K. G. Romumbovsky.
Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkov became the first woman in the world that ruled the Academy of Sciences. On her proposal was also established by 1783 The Imperial Russian Academy, which had a study of the Russian language, and Dashkov became its director

School reform Catherine II
In 1782, a large-scale school reform was carried out. The provincial cities arise the main, and in the county, small folk schools. These schools were all-known and kept at the expense of the state. The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational transformation can be considered the first experience in the creation of a system of general primary education in Russia, not limited to class barriers (with the exception of serf peasants). The meaning of this reform is very high

Projects of 1760 about low village schools, the public education system remained unfulfilled due to the lack of funds.

In general, in the XVIII century, 4 stages of education in Russia can be distinguished:
The first quarter of the XVIII V is the creation of secular educational institutions, practical oriented in the conditions of reform.
1730-1765 - The emergence of closed textual educational institutions, the formation of the system of noble education, the struggle of M.V. Lomonosov for nationwide education, the creation of Moscow University.
1766 - 1782. - The development of educational pedagogical ideas, the increase in the role of Moscow University, awareness of the need for the state system of popular education.
1782 - 1796 - Attempt to create a system of folk education.

THE SCIENCE
I. K. Kirilov brought together the geographical discoveries in his "Atlas of the Russian Empire" (1734).
For the propaganda of scientific knowledge, Kunstkamera (1719) with its historical relics, zoological and other collections ("Monsters", all sorts of dickers, rarities) were opened in St. Petersburg.

In the second quarter of the XVIII century. V. N. Tatishchev created a generalized work - "Russian history". It uses a large number of different sources, including Russian chronicles, including those that have not been preserved to our time. In the second half of the century, the scientific foundations of biology, agrochemistry and other branches of knowledge are laid. In the field of history, outstanding scientists are working - M. M. Shcherbatov ("Russian history from ancient times"), I. N. Botin.

S. P. Krasheninnikov made up the famous "Description of the Earth Kamchatka", I. I. Lephechin - Description of the Land of the Volga region, Urals, Siberia ("Day notes").

The first Russian academician became M. V. Lomonosov, about which Pushkin said that he, the founder of Moscow University, "himself was the first to our university." Persistent work, ingenious abilities made it titanium of science - he worked in physics and chemistry, astronomy and mineralogy, geology and mining, history and geography, linguistics and poetics. In these and other industries, the scientist left a deep mark. Lomonosov discovered, for example, the law of preserving the matter and movement, justified the theories of the atomic-molecular structure of the substance, the reasons for raising the mainland and the property, etc. In historical science, he strongly criticized the scientists of Bayer and Miller, their Norman theory. The history of the Russian people, his language begins, as he argued, with "deep antiquity", and by no means with the calling of Varyagov, whom he considered the inhabitants of the southern coast of Baltic.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765)

Bering Vitus Ionassen. Seaflomer, Officer of the Russian Fleet, Captain Commander. Less from Denmark. Invited to Russian service in 1703.
In 1725-1730 and 1733-1741 led the first and second Kamchatka expeditions. She passed according to the strait between Chukotka and Alaska (later Bering Strait), reached North America and opened a number of the islands of the Aleuta ridge.

Inventions
A. NARTS Russian scientist, mechanic and sculptor, Stat adviser, member of the Academy of Sciences (1723-1756), the inventor of the world's first turning and rope machine.

I. Polzunov-Russian inventor, the creator of the first steam machine in Russia and the world's first two-cylinder steam engine.

Much of steaming machine I.I. Polzunova

Ivan Kulibiba is an outstanding Russian-inventor mechanic.

for more than 30 years, Kulibin has headed the mechanical workshop of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Led the production of machine tools, astronomical, physical and navigation instruments and tools.
By 1772, Kulibin developed several projects of a 300-meter unionic bridge through the Neva with wooden lattice farms. He built and experienced a large model of such a bridge, for the first time in the practice of bridge construction, showing the possibility of modeling bridge structures. In subsequent years, Kulibin invented and made many original mechanisms, machines and devices. Among them is a flashlight-spotlight with a parabolic reflector from the smallest mirrors, a river vessel with a watery engine, moving against a flow, a mechanical crew with a pedal drive.
The overwhelming majority of the inventions of the Kulibin, the possibility of using which has confirmed our time, then it was not implemented. Walking machines, funny toys, ingenious fireworks for a hollow crowd - only this impressed with contemporaries.

Social and political thought

I. T. Posochkov. A lot of notes appeared in Petrovskie, "Prozheeks", the authors of which were in support of reforms, proposed certain measures. I. T. Posochkov, the author of the "Books about poverty and wealth", the expressive of the interests of merchants and the peasantry, taking advantage of the development of the domestic industry, trade. To do this, it should be carried out by the policy of protectionism in the interests of Russian entrepreneurs, and the merchants-ingenians should lead to humility. In the interests of the state, it is necessary to regulate the subsidy of peasants in favor of the owners. "Peasants," the author claimed, "the landowners are not age-old owners."
To streamline administrative and judicial institutions, Poshkov offered to plant people in them instead of "grivy" people from any other classes, if there is a "oxygen sharpness", "destroy" "any different explicit and hidden robbers." He is a supporter of equality of all classes in front of the court. Posochkov proposed to prepare a new exhibition with the help of elections from all residents of Russia, including peasants. The draft of this Code of Laws should be published for discussion, amending ("in the" native ").

On the results of reforms and the northern war are in the "reasoning of the reasons of the Savy war" Vice-Chancellor . P. Shafirova (Afterword, Peter I himself wrote to him).

Faofan Prokopovich, Vice-President of the Synod, the famous preacher, in the "spiritual regulation" and the truth of the will of the monarch "acts, in accordance with the intentions of Peter, a supporter of submission to the clergy of secular power. He also suggests that the king is waited for the throne to whom wishes, regardless of the degree of kinship of the heir. Of the three forms of state-democracy (population), aristocracy and monarchy, the most acceptable third, i.e. Unlimited power of the monarch. In theological treatises, the preaching of Prokopovich glorifies the success of Russia on the field of Brahi, in the development of industry, trade, reform.

Criticism of serfdom sounded in the writings A. Ya. Polenova, Soldan Son, I. G. Eisen, Liflyand Pastor, and L. Kenemann, Mitava lawyer, in the speeches of deputies of the commissioned commission 1767-1768, Korlakh . P. Kozelsky, Peasants I. Chuprov, I. Zherebtsova, Cossack A. Aleinikov and others. Deputies set a question about mitigating serfdom, restriction, gradually released from him.

Russian enlightenment figures who saw in the spread of knowledge, science, impassation of mind main way Transformations of society, made a lot for the publication of books and magazines, translations of the essays of Thinkers of Europe. They also set the peasant question. N. I. Novikov in his magazines, most of all in the "Trutne" and "painter", placed a lot of articles on the amorality of serfdom.
Novikov Nikolai Ivanovich (Contemporary Catherine II) Artist Livitsky

thinker A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) - the author of "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow."
In the book "Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790) drew a picture of the sub-million existence of the Russian fortress peasantry. Condemning the serfdom, he writes that it is necessary to carry out the "perfect destruction of slavery", transfer the land to the peasants. The monarchy condemns the monarchy as strongly strongly: "The autocraticness is the most resistant human nature."
Catherine II after reading said: "The rowman is worse than Pugacheva! He, though the king attacked, the monarchist system confessed, and this, revolution, thus decided to teach the republic! "
In 1790 A.N. Radishchev suffered a death sentence, replaced in 1792 by reference to Tobolsk for a period of 10 years. Following the Radish repression, the publisher N.I. was subjected Novikov (1744-1818), which in 1792 was arrested and sharpened for 15 years in the Shlisselburg fortress. These facts marked the open end of the politics of enlightened absolutism in Russia

The Russian culture of the 18th century was formed during the period of a completely new stage in the history of Russia. The era of transformation Peter I significantly affected all sides of state and public life. The process of European culture Europeanization began.

Peter I. reform

By burning the "window to Europe", the young and energetic Russian king began to carry out large-scale reforms. Many of the beginnings and innovations of Peter I are called "first" in Russia (the first school, the first newspaper, etc.).

Of great importance, Peter I gave the change in the entire lifestyle and life of the Russian nobility in the West Spirit.

Many reforms had a progressive importance and joined Russia to pan-European culture. On the other hand, the violent introduction of someone else's culture often led to ugly manifestations.

In 1706, the attempt of Peter I to create in Russia the first public theater in Russia is "comedy chramine" in Russia.

Characteristic features of the culture of the Petrovsky era:

Top 5 articleswho read with this

• europeanization;
• education;
• secular culture character.

Petersburg

Among the great acts of Peter, the foundation of St. Petersburg occupies a special place, which became the cultural capital of Russia.

On May 16, 1703, Peter I at the mouth of the Neva laid the fortress "St. Peter-Buru", which was the birthday of the city. Already at the beginning of the 20s. The XVIII century, the Imperial Dvor, Central Administrative Institutions and the Diplomatic Corps, moves to St. Petersburg. In fact, the city becomes a new capital of the Empire.

Fig. 1. Type of Peter and Paul Fortress and Palace Embankment. F. Ya. Alekseev.

Culture of "enlightened absolutism"

The development of cultural traditions laid down by Peter I continued to the "epoch of palace coups". On the board of Elizabeth Petrovna in architecture, Baroque becomes the leading style.

A real flourishing culture is experiencing in Epoch of Catherine II. During these years, classicism is becoming a dominant style, which is closely related to the ideas of European enlightenment.

Fig. 2. Petropavlovsky Cathedral.

M. V. Lomonosov played a huge role in the development of Russian culture, which was at the same time a chemist, historian, poet and artist.

V. G. Belinsky called Lomonosov "Peter Great Russian Literature".

Briefly about the Russian culture of the 18th century says the following table:

Table "Russian culture of the 18th century"

The XVIII century in world history is the time of great changes in the socio-public device and the worldview. It is no coincidence that it is called the "age of enlightenment." The ideas of Didro, Rousseau, Radishchev and Voltaire contributed to the approval of the Spirit of freedom-loving, encouraged to combat religious osnosis and dogmatism.

New trends have become tangible in cultural life All European countries. Education, science, philosophy, art carried the imprint of the ideas of enlighteners. The culture of Russia of the 18th century was also experiencing an unprecedented rise, due to several factors.

Stages of development

In historical science, the culture of the Moscow kingdom is customary to be called "ancient" or "medieval". Petrovsky reforms and the creation of the Russian Empire radically changed not only the socio-political structure of the Russian state, but also its cultural life.

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries, the influence of the Orthodox Church was weakened, before that, it was agreed to protect the country from the "heretical" effect of the West. Therefore, the development of the culture of the 18th century in Russia was already on the pan-European path. One of the biggest achievements of this period was the emergence of secular art, in no way associated with the church world.

In general, one can allocate three stages of the development of the cultural sphere of the Russian state:

1. The first quarter of the XVIII century (time of Petrovsky reforms).
2. 30-60 years (achievements in the field of art, literature and science).
3. The last quarter of a century (the growth of the democratization of culture and enlightenment).

Thus, Peter the Great reforms had double consequences. On the one hand, they laid the foundation for renewable changes in Russian art, and on the other, they contributed to the destruction of the cultural traditions and values \u200b\u200bof Moscow Rus.

Achievements in the Enlightenment

For the development of the culture of Russia in the 18th century, changes in education were enormous, the care of Peter I was taken into the rank of state policy. For this purpose, new educational institutions were opened during his reign:

• navitakaya school;
• artillery;
• medical;
• engineering;
• gornozavodsky schools in the Urals;
• typhyry schools where the children of the attain and nobles were trained.

Receivers of the Tsar reformer continued his work, thus founding the Shantechtsky and Page Corps, Smolny Institute, Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. By the end of the century, there were already 550 educational institutions in Russia. The first newspaper "Curarta", and then Vedomosti, contributed to the enlightenment. In addition, a book publishing case appeared in the country, and thanks to Novikov Novikov, the first libraries and book benches appeared.

Scientific activities and invention

Among Russian scientists, those invited from abroad were dominated by experts. However, already in 1745, Lomonosov was elected to the position of Professor of the Academy of Sciences, and in the following years, rows of Russian academics replenished Krashennikov S., Lepjin I., Rumovsky S., et al. These scientists left a noticeable trace in development:

• chemistry;
• geography;
• biology;
• stories;
• cartography;
• physics and other industries of scientific knowledge.

Inventors also made a huge contribution to the history of Russia's 18th century culture. For example, Nikonov E. created a diving suit and a primitive submarine. NARTS A. developed a new technology of coin chasing and invented a lathe, as well as a car for drilling cannon.

From baroque to realism

In the works of Russian authors of the XVIII century, old forms of presentation are preserved. Nevertheless, the influence of humanistic ideas is noticeable in their content. So, the popular "stories" about heroes taught readers that success in life does not depend on the origin, but from personal qualities and virtues.

Literature, as part of the culture of Russia of the 18th century, was influenced by the Baroque style first, and then classicism. The first one is especially noticeable in poetry, translated plays, love lyrics. Classicism, chasing national statehood And the absolute monarchy reached the apogee in Lomonosov. Besides him, the same literary style It is characteristic of the creativity of Knyazhnina Ya., Susharov A., Heraskova M., Majkova V. and other authors.

The achievements in the field of literature should be attributed:

• the emergence of a new renovation that has become the basis of modern Russian poetry (Trediakovsky V.);
• streamlining lexical linguistic rules (Lomonosov M.);
• writing the first Russian tragedies and comedies (Sumarokov A.).

At the end of the century, sentimentalism, inherent in the creativity of Karamzin N., has been replaced by the classicism in the literature in the literature, which was written by the "misfortune of Lisa", the deep experiences and feelings of a simple girl who knows how to hotly love, as the noble girl grown in Negle.

Fonvizin D. and Radishchev A. In his works, they affected the acute social problems, for this reason, literary crowns seize in them the features of realism - a style of development in the next century.

To shift iconopysis

Until the XVIII century. The main and, in fact, the only painters in Russia were the Baby Nazo, writing icons. New genres appear with the development of secular art. The founder of Russian painting is considered to be Losenko A. Although his canvases were just the imitation of Western European samples, nevertheless they marked the rupture of the culture of Russia in the first half of the 18th century with church art, dictating both forms and plots.

In the following decades, the portrait genre began to lead in Russian painting. Chamber, front and intimate canvases for a long time eclipsed household Scenes. The most famous portrait artists of that pore were:

• Levitsky D.
• Borovikovsky V.
• Anthropov A.
• Rockies F.

At the end of the century, the pictures of Western European painters acquired by Empress Catherine, formed the basis of the Hermitage Art Collement.

In stone and metal

The deposit of fine art from church dogmatism gave an incredible impetus to the development of brewing. In this area, the culture of Russia 18-19 centuries reached world-class heights. Antique statues decorated parks and gardens of St. Petersburg, fountains - palace complexes, stucco and reliefs - rational simplicity of facades.

It was in Russia that the multi-faceted talent of Rastrelli K. was completely manifested among his creations that came to us, it is worth mentioning the front busts, the statue of Anna John and a monument to Peter the first, established in front of Mikhailovsky Castle. Along with Rastrelli worked and Russian sculptor Zherryny Ivan.

From the second half of the 18th century, the brewing in Russia has become even more sought-after, as the Baroque style demanded. The facades of palaces, public buildings were abounded by sculptures, and reliefs were actively used to decorate their interiors. As in painting, the portrait genre, in which almost all talented Russian sculptors have been actively developed in sculpting, in which almost all talented Russian sculptors have contributed:

• Shubin F.
• Gordeev F.
• Prokofiev I.
• Kozlovsky M.
• Shchedrin F.
• Martos I.

Of course, one of the most prominent achievements of the Russian sculpture of the 18th century was the creation of a "copper rider" on behalf of Empress Catherine the second.

Theatrical frames

The culture of Russia 18th century is unthinkable without theater and music. At this time, the foundations were laid, which allowed in the next century to clearly manifest themselves with national testers in these areas of art.

For the first time, Music evenings began to be held - the Assemblies, on which the courtiers and nobles could dance. Then the training of the game on Viola, Clavesisin, Flute, Harp, and Salon Singi Training.

The appearance of the theater and the Russian opera is connected with music, the first of which "Cefal and Princis" was set in 1755. But the most outstanding work of that era of art historians consider Opere "Orpheus and Euridic" composer Fomin E. In addition to him, the music was composed:

• Berezovsky M.
• Handoshkin I.
• Bortyansky D.
• Pashkevich V., etc.

In the reign of Catherine, a fastener theater was specially popular with its own orchestra. These teams were often actively toured, thereby waking up interest in this type of art. Speaking O. cultural achievements that time, it is impossible to bypass the opening party in 1776 in Moscow of the Petrovsky Theater - the predecessor of the Bolshoi Theater known to the whole world.

Russian Baroque and classicism

In the architecture of Russia of the XVIII century, two styles dominated. Until the middle of century, it was Russian baroque, replaced by classicism. For the first style, features were characterized, borrowed from Dutch, German and Swedish architects. An example of this can serve a Petropavlovsky Cathedral.

However, despite the foreign architecturally invited to Russia, soon the National Baroque began to form architectural features. The Russian style is already noticeable in the creations of Ukhtomsky D., Zemtsova M., Michurina I. Well, the architectural masterpieces of Rastrelli B.: Peterhof, Catherine and Winter Palaces remain the undisputed achievements of Baroque.

In the second half of the 18th century, the crop of Russia began to appear the features of a new style - classicism, who finally established in the 80s. A typical example of the architecture of this period can be considered the Tauride Palace, erected in St. Petersburg Starov I. According to its own projects, it was created:

• Trinity and Prince-Vladimir Cathedrals.
• Buildings of the Academy of Sciences and the Smolny Institute.
• Alexandrovsky and Pelly Palaces.

RESULTS

Of course, briefly about the culture of Russia in the 18th century and its achievements it is very difficult to speak, so many are multifaceted and numerous. But still it is impossible to argue with the fact that it was the time of the great fracture, which Petrov's reforms contributed to a large extent. The influence of Western art, which allowed Russian culture to become secular, expanding the scope of spiritual activities, predetermined the directions of its development in the next century.