Leaders of national culture. Outstanding Citizens of Russia: List, Biographies, Interesting Facts and Achievements

I came to replace the middle eyelids and lasted before the enlightenment. It is of great importance in the history of Europe. It has a secular type of culture, as well as humanism and anthropocentrism (a person comes to first place). The Renaissance Age figures also changed their views.

basic information

A new culture was formed thanks to public relations changed in Europe. Especially influenced by the fall of the Byzantine state. Many Byzantines immigrated to European countries, and with them they brought a huge number of works of art. All this was not familiar and Kozimo Medici, the impressive, created the Academy of Plato in Florence.

The spread of the republic cities led to the growth of the estates that were far from feudal relations. These treated artisans, bankers, merchants and so on. They were not considered with medieval values \u200b\u200bthat were formed by the Church. As a result, humanism was formed. Under this concept implies the philosophical direction, which considers a person as a higher value.

Many countries began to form secular scientific and research centers. Their distinction from medieval was the separation from the church. The big shift was made in the XV century of a typography. This has become increasingly and more often to appear outstanding figures of the Renaissance.

Formation and flourishing

The first rebirth appeared in Italy. Here, his signs began to manifest themselves in XIII and XIV centuries. However, the popularity was not yet possible to decrease, and only in the 20s of the XV century it could gain. In other European countries, revival has spread much later. It was at the end of the century that the flourishing of this flow came.

The next century became crisis for revival. The result was the appearance of mannerism and baroque. The entire revival era is divided into four periods. Each of them is represented by its culture, art.

PRASTORESANS

It is a transitional period from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance Epoch. It can be divided into two stages. The first continued in the life of Jotto, the second - after his death (1337). The first was filled with great discoveries, during this period they worked the brightest figures of the Renaissance. The second passed parallel to the deadly plague, which Torn Italy.

The artists of the era of the revival of this period expressed their skills mainly in sculpture. You can especially select Arnolfo di Cambio, Andrea Pisano, as well as Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano. The painting of that time is represented by two schools, which were located in Siena and Florence. A huge role in painting of that period was played by Jotto.

The Renaissance Age (artists), in particular Jotto, became in their pictures besides religious topics to affect secular.

In the literature, the coup committed Dante Aligiery, who created the famous "comedy". However, descendants, admiring, called it "Divine Comedy". Sonnet Petrarki (1304-1374), written in that period, gained enormous popularity, and his follower became Giovanni Bokcchcho (1313-1375), author of the Decameron.

The most famous leaders of the Renaiss Age became the creators of the language. The works of these writers gained fame beyond the borders of the native state in their lives, and later they were counted at the treasures of world literature.

The period of early rebirth

This period continued eighty years (1420-1500). The leaders of the Early Revival epochs did not give up the usual recent past, but began to resort to the classics of antiquity in their works. Gradually, they switched from medieval principles to antique. This transition influenced changes in life and culture.

In Italy, the principles of classical antiquity were fully manifested, in the other countries, the traditions of the Gothic style were still adhered. Only by the middle of the XV century, the revival penetrates into Spain and the north of the Alps.

In painting, first of all, began to show the beauty of a person. The early period is mainly represented by the works of Botticelli (1445-1510), as well as Mazacho (1401-1428).

A particularly famous sculptor of that period is Donatello (1386-1466). Portrait type prevailed in his works. Also Donatello for the first time since the time of antiquity created the sculpture of the naked body.

The main thing and the period became Brunlegleski (1377-1446). He managed to join the ancient Roman and gothic styles in his works. Engaged in the construction of chapel, temples and palaces. Also returned the elements of ancient architecture.

The period of high rebirth

This time was the bloom of the Renaissance (1500-1527). The center of Italian art is located in Rome, and not in the usual Florence. The reason for this was the newly minted dad Julius II. He had an enterprising and determiningIn the period of his stay on the papal throne, the best cultural figures of the Renaissance have come to the court.

Rome began the construction of magnificent buildings, sculptors create numerous masterpieces, which are pearls of world art and in our time. There is a writing of the frescoes and paintings that are fascinating with their beauty. All these industries are developing, helping each other.

The study of antiquity is becoming increasingly deep. All with greater accuracy reproduces the culture of the period. At the same time, the calm of the Middle Ages is replaced by playfulness in painting. Nevertheless, the rebirth epochs, the list of which is also extensive, borrow only some elements of antiquity, and the foundation is created independently. Each has its own distinctive features.

Leonardo da Vinci

The famous Renaissance Worker is perhaps Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). This is the most versatile identity of that period. He was engaged in painting, music, sculpture, science. For his life, Da Vinci was able to invent many things that firmly entered our today's life (bike, parachute, tank and so on). Sometimes his experiments ended with the failures, but it happened because some inventions could be said to be out of time.

Most, he is known, of course, thanks to the painting "Mona Lisa". Many scientists still seek a variety of secrets. After Leonardo left several students.

Period of late Revival

He became the final stage in the revival era (from 1530 to 1590-1620, but some scientists extend it until 1630, because of this there are permanent disputes).

In Southern Europe, at that time began to show the movement (counterperification), the purpose of which was to return the greatness of the Catholic Church and christian faith. All challenges of the human body for him were unacceptable.

Numerous contradictions broke out that the crisis of ideas began to appear. As a result of the instability of the religion of the Renaissance, the Renaissance team began to lose harmony between nature and man between bodily and spiritual. The result was the appearance of mannerism and baroque.

Revival in Russia

The culture of revival in some areas has influenced our country. However, its impact was limited to a sufficiently large distance, as well as the attachment of Russian culture to Orthodoxy.

The first ruler, whoaring Renaissance to Russia, became Ivan III, which during his stay on the throne began to invite Italian architects. With their arrival, new elements and construction technologies appeared. However, the huge coup in architecture did not happen.

In 1475, the Italian architect was involved in the restoration of the Assumption Cathedral, he adhered to the traditions of Russian culture, but added to the project.

By the XVII century, due to the influence of the Renaissance, Russian icons acquire realism, but at the same time artists follow all the ancient canons.

Soon Russia was able to master the typography. However, it received special distribution only in the XVII century. Many technologies that appeared in Europe have quickly covered in Russia, where they improved and became part of traditions. For example, in accordance with one of the hypotheses, the vodka was brought from Italy, afterwards its formula was finalized, and in 1430 a Russian version of this drink appeared.

Conclusion

The era of the Renaissance gave the world of many gifted artists, researchers, scientists, sculptors, architects. From a huge number of names, you can allocate those that are most famous and glorified.

Philosophers and scientists:

• Bruno.
• Galilee.
• Pico della Mirandol.
• Nikolay Kuzansky.
• Machiavelli.
• Campanella.
• Paracels.
• Copernicus.
• Munzer.

Writers and poets:

• F. Petrarka.
• Dante.
• J. Bokachcho.
• Rabl.
• Cervantes.
• Shakespeare.
• E. Rotterdamsky.

Architects, painters and sculptors:

• Donatello.
• Leonardo da Vinci.
• N. Pisano.
• A. Rossetino.
• S. Botticelli.
• Raphael.
• Michelangelo.
• Bosch.
• Titian.
• A. Durer.

Of course, it is only a small part of the Renaissance Age, but it was these people who became her personification for many.

1) S. Ezenshtein, I. Bergman, L. Visconti, A.Tarkovsky.

Eisenstein It sought to create a completely new, revolutionary cinema. In the center of the film Eisenstein wanted to put a working revolutionary mass. The "Stachka" was such a launcher and a heart-bearing film, generalizing the massive revolutionary experience of the strike struggle. In an effort to influence the viewer more stronger, Eisenstein built sharp, impressive episodes, calling them "attractions". With the help of editing, created filmometra like literary. Connecting the showing of the hairpins with the showing of a closeup of animals - monkeys, bulldog, owls, he ridiculed the enemies of the working class. An approximate shotgun of the demonstration of the Cossacks with frames showing the slaughter of the bull, tried to metaphorically express the concept of "slaughter". Not all experiments succeed in the same way well, but still the "Age" was the first genuinely revolutionary film about the massive actions of the proletariat.

The unprecedented success won Eisenstein with his second film - "Potemkin's armadapole" (1925). The rebellion of sailors on a military ship in July 1905 in this picture was the manner of the first Russian revolution, tragically depressed, but not defeated.

Ernst Ingmar Bergman Born on July 14, 1918 in Sweden, in the city of Uppsala. He graduated from the University of Stockholm, where he studied the literature and history of the arts. Bergman began working professionally in 1941, editing scenarios. However, he soon wrote his own scenario called `Grass`, which was shielded in 1944. Later Bergman began shooting and their own films. The world recognition received his directorial work of the 50s - 60s - `Strawberry Polyana`,` seventh seal`, `Summer night smiles`,` silence`, `person`, these films brought ingmar Bergman fame and respect for professionals. An outstanding director continued to actively work in the cinema and the next decades, and the scenario he himself wrote from almost his paintings. In the 70s - 80s on the screens came the `touch`,` Autumn Sonata`, `From the life of puppets`,` Snake Egg`, `Fanny and Alexander`. In addition, Ingmar Bergman, who started his creative way As the theater director, he subsequently did not part with the theater and put the plays of W. Waxpiera, Ibsen, A.hekhova, A.Standberg.

Wisconti (Visconti) Lukino (p. 2.11. 1906, Milan), Italian director of theater and cinema, screenwriter. Born in the aristocratic family. Working in the cinema began in 1936. He entered the anti-fascist group of tuned young film critics, played in the vintage of the anti-fascist orientation ("Bianco and Nero" and others). The first director's work - the film "Obsession" (1942) based on the novel of the American writer J. Kane "the postman always calls twice." During the 2nd World War, Visconti Lukino participated in the resistance movement.

Visconti Lukino was one of the founders of neorealism. The most significant films: "Earth tremble" (1948), "The most beautiful" (1951), "feeling" (1954), "Rocco and his brothers" (1960), "Leopard" (1962, on the novel by J. T. Di LAMPEDUZS) and "damned" ("death of the gods", 1970).

From 1945 also works as a theater director. Put the performances: "Death of the Commization -" (1950) and "View from the Bridge" (1958) Miller, "Three Sisters" (1952) and "Uncle Vanya" (1956) Chekhov; Operas "Traviata" and "Troubadour" Verdi and others. A number of films Visconti Lukino received the awards of international film festivals.

Andrey Arsemsemievich Tarkomvsky (April 4, 1932, Yuryevts, Ivanovo region, RSFSR - December 29, 1986, Paris, France) - film director, screenwriter. According to many foreign critics, after Eisenstein, this is the second most important soviet director By deposit into world cinema and influence on the history of its development.

2) A.Kamey, E. From, A. Schweizer.

Alber Cam, French writer, publicist and philosopher born in 1913 in Mondovy (Algeria) in the family family. Actively engaged in theatrical and public activities, collaborated in the left press, released a collection of lyrical essay "Exchange and face" (1937). In 1934-1937 Consisted in the Communist Party.

In 1938, his novel "Wedding" was published, after which Kama moved to France, to Paris, where he collaborated in the underground newspaper Comba. Cami published the philosophical essay "Myth about Sisyiff", comparing the Being of a person with Sisida labor, arguing that the meaning of life is in labor and permanent activity. In 1947, the novel "Plaby" is published, where the fascism is a symbol of evil and violence. The same problems of the Cami raises the "Caligula" play, which was based on the work of Svetonia "Life of Twelve Caesaries". In 1951, the book "Raunting Man" was published, in which Camus had sharply condemned the dictatorship and totalitarianism in all their manifestations, including communism. In 1956, a story "Drop" was published, in which the problems of guilt and repentance were considered in the spirit of ethical norms of Christianity.

In 1957, the Kama was awarded the Nobel Prize in the field of literature "for a huge contribution to the literature that highlighted the importance of human conscience."

Frome Erich, German psychologist and sociologist, representative of Neofreedism. Born on March 23, 1900 in Frankfurt am Main in the family of Jew-Winorec.

After graduating from the gymnasium, Fromm became one of the organizers of the "Society of Jewish National Education", in 1919 he entered the University of Heidelberg, who graduated from 1922, receiving a Ph.D. Under the influence of theories 3. Freud became interested in psychoanalysis and abandoned the circle of previous values. He began to study Buddhism and combine psychoanalysis with practical medicine. A number of years led to the practice of a psychoanalyst doctor who combines her with scientific and literary labor, since 1951 - Professor of the University in Mexico City

Gradually, frome departs from Freud's biologyism, approaching its views to anthropological psychologism and existentialism. The world famous Frochma brought books on the direction of analytical social psychology, developing the whole concept of human personality and the main object of studying the mechanisms of interaction between psychological and social factors in the process of its formation. Main works: "Flight from freedom" (1941), "Fairy tales, myths and dreams" (1951), "Healthy Society" (1955), "Art Love" (1956), " Modern man And his future "(1959)," Free from captivity of illusions "(1962)," Man's soul "(1964)," Anatomy of human destructiveness "(1973)," Have or be "(1976).

Schveser Albert., German-French thinker, theologian, doctor, musicologist and organist; Worldwide is known for anti-war performances. Born on January 14, 1875 in Alsace, in Kaisersberg, in the family of the Lutheran priest. By defending in 1901, the doctoral dissertation "Religious Philosophy of Kanta", becomes a professor, and then director of the Tseological College of St. Thoma. In 1906, published his main theological work "Question about Historical Jesus". At the same time with scientific activities He continued to conquer fame as an organist and musicologist - in 1911 for creating a biography I. S. Baha received a degree of doctor of musicology. However, after another 22, the Swissser gave him an oath to engage in philosophy, music and theology only under 30, and the rest of the way to devote to the direct ministry to mankind. In addition to this oath, the Swissser in 1905 enters the University of Strasbourg College and in 1911 receives a doctor's diploma. In 1918, he returned to Europe and until 1924 he played as a concerting organist and wrote books, the most famous of whom - the cultural philosophy of culture released in 1923. Decision and the revival of civilization "and" cultural philosophy. Culture and ethics " which became the main business of his ideas for Swituer to sermon his ideas.

In 1928, the Swiss was awarded the Frankfurt Götte Prize, and in 1952 the Nobel Prize of the World, for the means of which he built leprosarium at his hospital. At the end of life, became an active fighter for nuclear disarmament and a full ban test atomic weapons. Schweizer died on September 4, 1965 in Lambaren.

3) Hemingway Ernest Miller, American Writer, was born on July 21, 1899 near Chicago in the family of a secured doctor. Early began writing poems and stories, so, after graduating from school (1917), I began to work as a reporter in the Kansas newspaper "Star", but in half a year I went to the front of the First World War, becoming the driver of the American squad of the Red Cross. Returning from the war in 1920-1923. He worked in the Canadian newspaper "Toronto Dalya Star" first local and then the European reporter.

Hemingway's first book - a collection of stories "in our time" (1925), reached in Paris, the next year the novel appeared "and the sun" appears "(" Fiesta ") dedicated to the" lost generation ", as well as the author's world popularity brought by the author A Farewell to Arms!" (1929).

During World War II, Hemingway returned to the ranks of the US Army; At the end of the war, in his work, a noticeable decline comes again - very weak and largely a secondary novel "behind the river, in the shade of trees" (1950) and the unfinished novel "Islands in the Ocean" (published 1970). However, in 1952 the story-parable appears "Old Man and the Sea", which became the result of the writer's creativity, for which he was awarded to Pulizerovskaya (1953) and Nobel (1954) award.

Francis Scott Kay Fitzgerald Born September 24, 1896 In the Saint-Piece (PC. Minnesota) in the family of a small entrepreneur.

• 1920 - comes out the first novel "on this side of Paradise" (this side of Paradise), started during the First World War. The plot of the novel is taken from the author's own life. "This Side of Paradise" shows a standard scenario of the life of a young man in the USA of the 1920s. The popularity of Fitzgerald's romance opens his way to the world of big literature: his works are beginning to print in prestigious magazines and newspapers, such as "Scribner" S "," The Saturday Evening POST ". In addition to fame, this work brings good earnings. Such unexpected changes in financial position Fitzgerald allowed him and Zelta to live so beautiful that Ring Lardner called them the prince and princess of his generation.
• 1922 - Published the second Roman Fitzgerald "Beautiful, but Damned", describing the painful marriage of two gifted and attractive representatives of Artistic Bohemia. There is also a collection of stories of the story of the Tales of the Jazz Age (Tales of the Jazz Age).
• 1923 - Outdoor Piece "Vegetable" (Vegetable; Russian Translation "Mooring"), which brought only losses.
• 1925 - Upon returning to Paris, Fitzgerald finishes and publishes the Roman "Great Gatsby".
• 1926 - comes the collection of stories "All these sad young people." His wife Zelda is experiencing several bouts of clouding reason and gradually goes crazy. It is not possible to cure it. Fitzgerald is experiencing a painful crisis and begins to drink hard.
• 1934 - It turns out the novel "Night" (Tender Is The Night) - not devoid of autobiographical motifs The tragic story of the young psychiatrist Dick Daiver, whose talent is ruined with wealth and deceptive happiness idle and externally bright life.
• 1935 - Collection of "Wake-up signals" (TOP AT REVEILLE).
• 1937 - Fitzgerald decides to become a screenwriter in Hollywood, where he gets acquainted with Sheila Graham and falls in love. The last years of the Life Fitzgerald lives with her, however, during the next swallowing, he becomes a rusty and even cruel.
• December 21, 1940 - Fitzgerald died in his own house in California from a heart attack.
• 1941 - Dismortedly published unfinished Roman Fitzgerald "Last Tycoon" (The Last Tycoon), which gives a brilliant description of the film business.

Russian Chemist Herman Ivanovich (Herman Henrich) Hess was born in Geneva in the family of the artist, who soon moved to Russia. At the 15th age, the GECC leaves for Derpt (now Tartu, Estonia), where he studies first in a private school, and then in the gymnasium, which she finishes in 1822. Returning to Derpt, Gess received a appointment to Irkutsk, where he had to do medical practice. In Irkutsk, he also studied the chemical composition and therapeutic effect of mineral waters, investigated the properties of a stone salt in the deposits of the Irkutsk province. In 1828, Hess was awarded the title of adjunct, and in 1830 - the extraordinary academician of the Academy of Sciences. In the same year, he received the Department of Chemistry at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, where he developed a curriculum and theoretical chemistry. In 1832-1849. He consisted of a professor at the Mountain Institute, he taught in an artillery school. In the late 1820s - early 1830s. He trained the fundamentals of Chemical Kesarevich Alexander's knowledge, the future of Emperor Alexander II.

The world fame of Herman Gess received as the founder of thermochemistry. The scientist formulated the main law of thermochemistry - the "law of constancy of the amount of heat", which is an application of the law of conservation of energy to chemical processes. According to this law, the thermal effect of the reaction depends only on the initial and final states of the reagents, and not from the path of the process (the law of hessagise also owns the opening of the second law of thermochemistry - the law of thermality, according to which there is no thermal effect when mixing neutral saline solutions. Hess also dealt with questions Methods of teaching chemistry. His textbook "Grounds of clean chemistry" (1831) has resista seven publications (last - in 1849).

4) Alexander Nikolaevich Scriabin - Great Russian composer and pianist. In his music, Russia heard his present, turned his future ... It seemed to his contemporaries that he left too early, throwing them on the way, which he himself was assured, without completing his conceived, without reaching the goal. And at three years, it was already watching the tool for hours. To her piano, the boy treated as a living being. He himself and their masters in childhood - small toy pianos ... Anton Rubinstein, who once taught the mother of Scriabin, by the way, a brilliant pianist, was amazed by his musical abilities.

Scriabin's music began to compose early - at seven years he wrote his first opera, calling her the name of the girls in which he was in love then. Scriabin begins early and successfully touring. The first trip abroad - Berlin, Dresden, Lucerne, Genoa. Then Paris. Reviewers, as well as the public, are favorable towards him. "He is the whole impulse and sacred flame," writes one. "He reveals in his game the elusive and peculiar charm of Slavs - the first pianists in the world," says the other. In parallel, Scriabin writes a lot, and its works are immediately included in the repertoire of other pianists. In 1897, his famous second Sonata was completed (there will be only 10 them) and a concert for the piano with the orchestra. In the same year, he marries V. I. Isakovich, a brilliant pianist, also the graduate of the Moscow Conservatory. They have long known, they have common interests, but the marriage will be unsuccessful and after seven years will end the gap.

D. Shostakovich - One of the largest composers of modernity, an outstanding pianist, teacher and public figure Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich was born in St. Petersburg 25 (according to the old style 12) of September 1906.

Father - chemist engineer, music lover. Mother - a gifted pianist, who gave the son of the initial playing skills on the piano. The boy began to compose from 9 years. In 1923, D. Shostakovich graduated from a conservatory as a pianist, and in 1925 - as a composer. His diploma work was "First Symphony", which posted the beginning of the world's world famous fame. After her premiere in Leningrad in 1926, Criticism spoke about Shostakovich as an artist who could fill the void formed in Russian music due to emigration S.V. Rakhmaninova, I.F. Stravinsky, S.S. Prokofiev.

At the same years, D. Shostakovich concerts as a pianist. In 1927, he took part in the 1st International Competition pianists them. Chopin in Warsaw, where honorable diploma was awarded.

In 1932, D. Shostakovich completed the work on the opera of the Opera "Lady Macbeth Mtsensky County", which in 1934 was set in Leningrad and Moscow and was called "Katerina Izmailov". Opera was put in theaters of North America and Europe.

L. Armstrong -Real Name: Louis Daniel Armstrong (Louis Daniel Armstrong)

Great American jazz musician, trumpeter, cornettist, vocalist, head of the orchestra, composer. Grew in the poor, unfavorable family. Since childhood, he was forced to independently earn a living by the seller of the newspapers, a peddler coal, an old woman and the like. In Storville (Novoorlean "quarter of entertainment") heard many of the early jazz musicians, sang in a street vocal ensemble, playing also on the drums. For a random mischievous act, shooting on the street from a pistol kidnapped by Polisman - one of the "visitors" of the mother, in 1913 in a correctional house. Here, despite the difficulties, I began to learn music, I mastered Altgorn and Kornet, performed as part of the brass orchestra and choir.

After liberation, he returned home, interrupted with rare earnings, played in bars with amateur ensembles, continued to study from Novoorlean musicians. Thanks to the acquaintance with King Oliver and on his recommendation, he was admitted to the Orchestra "Kida" Ori in the place of Oliver, who left in Chicago. During this period became professional musician. Since November 1925, Louis began to sign up with the studio ensembles of Hot Five created by him. In the 1930s, he made a number of tour to Europe and North Africa, which brought him wide fame not only abroad, but also in his homeland. Before in the US, he was popular mainly from the Negroan public.

5) Einstein Albert, German physicist, creator of the theory of relativity and one of the creators of quantum theory and statistical physics. Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm in the family co-owner of the electromechanical enterprise. In the gymnasium carried away philosophy, mathematics and popular literature on astronomy. He graduated from the Zurich Polytechnic Institute (1900), in 1902-1909. - Expert in the Federal Patent Bureau in Bern. Here Einstein published his first scientific work, one of which is "a new definition of molecules" (1905) was defended by him in Zurich University as a doctoral dissertation. In the same years, Einstein develops and proves the general provisions of the theory of relativity, which put the end of the T. N. "Newtonian physics", performs research on statistical physics, Brownian movement, radiation theory, etc. These works brought a scientist widely known: in 1909 he became a professor at the University of Zurich, in 1911--1912. - German University in Prague. In 1912, Einstein returns to Zurich and occupied the department in the Zurich Polytechnic. The following year is elected by a member of the Prussian and Bavarian Academy of Sciences and in 1914 moved to Berlin, where until 1933 is simultaneously director of the Physics Institute and Professor of the University of Berlin. During this period, it completes the creation of a general theory of relativity and develops a quantum radiation theory. In 1921, he awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics and Photochemistry for the opening of photophects and work in the field of theoretical physics.

With the coming to power in Germany Nazis, Einstein in the protest against fascism in 1933 refuses the German citizenship, comes out of the Academy and emigrates to the United States, where it becomes a member of the Princeton Institute of Higher Research. Einstein's scientific works played a big role in the development of modern physics, which was the basis of quantum electrodynamics, quantum field theory, atomic and nuclear physics, physics of elementary particles and other sections of physics and astrophysics. He died on April 18, 1955 in Princeton.

Vernadsky Georgy Vladimirovich - The largest historian of Russian abroad. On August 20, 1887, he was born in St. Petersburg, but the children's and youth spent in Moscow, where his father, an outstanding domestic scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945) was a professor of Moscow University. Also in student yearsAlong with the theme of Freemasonry, he was interested in the study of the influences of the East in Russian history, which he devoted several early articles. In the future, this topic will be in his scientific work leading. During the Civil War of Vernadsky, together with his wife, Nina Vladimirovna leaves the capital and moves first to Perm (in 1918-1920 he works as a professor of history in the university's newly open Perm), and then at the Tauride University in Simferopol. For several months, he headed the print department in the Government of General Wrangel.

After evacuation from the Crimea of \u200b\u200bVernadsky for about a year he lived in Athens, where he studied the sources of the Byzantine history in the archives, and then moved to Prague, where he received a professor of the history of Russian law in the Russian Law Faculty. The main works of the Vernadsky, created during the existence of the Eurasian movement, were such works as "drawing Russian history" (1927), "Eurasia's experience from half of the 6th century to the present" (1934), "Links of Russian Culture" (1938) .

Wiener Norbert (November 26, 1894, Colombia, pcs. Missouri - March 18, 1964, Stockholm), American mathematician. In its fundamental work "Cybernetics" (1948) formulated its main provisions. Wiener is the author of labor on mathematical analysis, probability theory, electrical networks and computing technology. Wiener formulated the main provisions of the new science - cybernetics, the subject of studying the control, communication and processing of information in the technique, living organisms and human society.

6) S. Dali - On May 11, 1904, in the family of Don Salvador Dali-I-Kushi and Doni Felipi Domasenech, a boy was born, who was destined to become one of the greatest geniuses of the era of surrealism. His named Salvador Felipe Hasinto Dali. Childhood was given in Catalonia, in the northeast of Spain, a beautiful corner of the globe.

Talent for painting manifested itself from Dali enough at a young age. At four years, he was with an amazing for such a small child, trying to draw. The first picture of Salvador Dali drew when he was 10 years old. It was a small impressionistic landscape, written on a wooden board with oil paints. Already in 14 years it was impossible to doubt the ability to give to drawing.

When Dali was almost 15 years old, he was kicked out of the monastic school for unexpected behavior. But he was able to successfully pass all the exams and enroll in the institute (so in Spain they called school, giving completed secondary education). Institute in 1921 he managed to finish with brilliant estimates. Next, he entered the Madrid Art Academy

At sixteen years old Dali began to state their thoughts on paper. From this time, painting and literature turned out to be equally parts of his creative life. In 1919, in the homemade edition of Studium, he publishes essays about Velasquez, Goya, El Greco, Michelangelo and Leonardo. Participates in student unrest, for which per day is in prison.

A school of painting in which he studied gradually disappointed him and in 1926 Dali was expelled from the Academy for her liberty. In the same 1926, Salvador Dali went to Paris, trying to find something for himself. Having joined the group, who collapsed around Andre Breton, he began to create his first surreal work ("Honey Swealth" 1928; "Bright joy" 1929)

In early 1929, the premiere of the film "Andalusian Dog" on the scenario of El Salvador Dali and Louis Bunuel. The script itself was written in six days! After the scandalous premiere of this film, another film called the "Golden Age" was conceived.

In January 1931, the premiere of the second film was held in London - "Golden Age".

By 1934, Gala had already divorced her husband, and Dali could marry her. The amazing feature of this family couple was that they felt and understood each other. Gala, in the literal sense, lived in life, Dali, and he, in turn, deified her, admired her.

Between 1936 and 1937, El Salvador Dali writes one of the most famous paintings "Metamorphosis Narcissa".

In 1953, a large retrospective exhibition of El Salvador was given in Rome. It presents 24 pictures, 27 drawings, 102 watercolors!

In 1973, the "Museum Dali" was opened in Figueras. This is unmatched surreal creation and to this day leads to the delight of visitors. Salvador Dali can safely be called unique the greatest genius Surialism of the 20th century!

Pablo Picasso (Picasso) (Picasso) (October 25, 1881, Malaga - April 8, 1973, Mougins, Seaside Alps), French artist, Spaniard by origin.

"Blue" and "pink" periods.

For years of trips between Paris and Barcelona (1901-1904) there is a so-called "blue period": blue shades are dominated in the masters palette. For pictures of this period, poverty, melancholy and sorrows are characterized by images (Picasso believed - "who is sad, that sincere"); The movements of people are slowed down, they like listened to themselves ("Ambulance Amateur", 1901; "Date", 1902, both in the Hermitage; "Old beggar old man with a boy", 1903, Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow). In the next period, the name of "pink", the scenes of friendship appear, admire the beauty of the naked body. Composition transition period - From "Blue" to "Pink" - "Girl on a Ball" (1905, Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow).

In 1907, Picasso creates the Avignon Device Composition (Museum of Contemporary Art, New York) - a large panel, whose characters are visitors and girls of a public house in the Barcelona Avignon Quarter (so Poet A. Salmon, who gave the name of the work) - appear to be punishable creatures, some frightening idols. The compositions appear "CUBUSTIC TYNOPEN": encrypted phone numbers, houses, scraps of beloved names, street names, zucchini. Picasso uses collage - gluting in canvas advertisements, labels and cuts from newspapers; Over time, the volume of foreign material increases in the picture (sand powder, mounted pieces of wood and metal, glass fragments, the use of gypsum, etc.). Neoclassicism.

Already in the picture "Artist and his model" (1914) and in a number of drawings, Picasso's interest was manifested with precise contours and plastic forms. After three or four years, neoclassicistic and realistic trends become apparent for all-acting drawings, the wizard makes photos.

Surrealism.

So, in the mid-1920s, he has the effect of surrealism - he writes a few cloths with the image of women on the beach, in the interpretation of the forms of which connects the geometric manner of cubism with underlined by vital elements. It continues to actively engage in sculpture, combining the impressions of African sculpture with the receptions of cubism and surrealism. In 1930, the artist makes a series of 30 etching to Metamorphosis Ovid. In 1930-1937, creates "Suite Vollar";

Post-war period.

In 1944, Picasso becomes a member of the French Communist Party; In the first post-war release salon, the whole hall is given to his works. In 1950, he paints the famous "pigeon of the world", in 1951 he writes the picture "War in Korea" (meeting of the artist's family). Creates a number of works for the Grimaldi Museum in Antibes, which soon gets the name "Picasso Museum". In the 1960s, Picasso writes a kind of variation on the themes of famous paintings famous masters The past ("Menina" Velasquez, "Excretion of the rebels" Goya, "Breakfast on the grass" mana, etc.). Picasso had a huge influence on artists of all countries, becoming the most famous master in the art of the 20th century.

Malevich Kazimir Severinovich (1878, Kiev - 1935, Leningrad) - Avant-garde artist. In 1907, his first known participation in the exhibition of the Moscow partnership of artists was held in the exhibition, where Malevich's works were presented with paintings by V. V. Kandinsky and others. Malevich worked a lot above the cloths of a new picturesque system called "Suprematism" ("Black Square", 1913), the principles of which were set forth in the brochure-manifesto "from cubism to suprematism. New picturesque realism." After the February Revolution of 1917, Malevich was elected chairman of the art section of the Moscow Union of Soldier's Deputies. He developed a project to create the People's Academy of Arts, was a commissar for the protection of antiquity monuments and a member of the Commission for the Protection of the Arts Values \u200b\u200bof the Kremlin. After the October Revolution, he created scenery and costumes for the formulation of "Mystery-Buff" V.V. Mayakovsky, wrote the theoretical work "On new systems in art", together with Chagall in Vitebsk led the workshop in the People's Art School, participated in exhibitions. In 1922 he finished the manuscript "Suprematism. In 1930, his work was exhibited in Austria and Germany; he read a course of lectures on the theory of painting in the House of Arts of Leningrad.

7) J. Lennon - (Full name John Winston Lennon) was born on October 9, 1940 in Liverpool, the United Kingdom, died on December 8, 1980 in New York, USA. In the summer of 1956, John Lennon met Paul McCartney - they began to write songs, tried to collect groups, the last of which was The Beatles. Even before the official collapse of The Beatles in 1970 (John wanted to leave the group before), he began solo work, which was mainly in collaboration with his second wife Yoko. In November 1966, the first solo album of John Lennon came out (with Yoko it). At the end of 1970, the first album of the new group comes out. The epigraph to this album - and the entire subsequent life of the artist - can be considered a phrase from the song "God": "I do not believe in The Beatles, I believe only in myself, in Yoko and myself." In October 1971, John Lennon records his best album "Imagine", instantly occupied the highest line in the chait-parades of England and the United States.

The English rock band Rolling Stones was founded in 1962 in London. In her initial composition Participated: Singer Mick Jagger, guitarist Kate Richard, Brian Jones and Ian Stewart.

In early 1964, negative responses about the group appeared in the press, which were caused, to put it mildly, inadequate behavior of musicians, as well as their hair length. However, the musicians continued to work. In 1964, their first album called "Rolling Stones" ("Kantiy Stones"), the third of their single "Not Fade Away" was a bizarre mosaic from the repertoire of Buddy Holly and Bo Didley, whose decoration was the spectacular voice of Jagger.

Its contribution to the world rock is impossible to overestimate, Rolling Stones has long been the cult figures.

Culture figures - the concept is the same general as the culture itself, and this category is a whole Filisa theme. Culture is understood as something, on the one hand, a man-made, social one - as opposed to nature, on the other, as something ordered and subordinate to the laws of beauty - as opposed to barbarism and wildness. In this sense, art, science, and religion can be attributed to the category of culture, and even the arches of moral norms ... However, delving into the concept of culture as such, we risks to finally get lost in philosophical and cultural "wilds", so that our subject of research suzim Due to the "State Machine" and see what is managed by the Ministry of Culture.

First of all, it is, of course, everything connected with the art - Philharmonic and concert halls, dramatic, opera and puppet theaters, circus, film studios, independent performing teams - orchestras, choirs and ensembles ... That all people who work in establishments of this kind and can be called cultural figures. True, more often consumes a somewhat other formulation - "worker of culture", and "the figure" is already something more sublime ... But no specific, fixed in the documents, meanwhile, cannot be specified.

Employees (or, if you want, workers) culture in our country include those who are preparing frames for all these organizations, and in the very basic level: musical and art schools We are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, not the formation ... It is noteworthy that educational institutions of a higher level - for example, musical schools and conservatory - still belong to the category of education ... otherwise, as the irony of fate you won't call it: after all, a conservatory student is much More chances to become a musician (i.e., a cultural worker) than a student of a music school.

But the cultural figures are counted not only those who create art. This category includes those who preserve it and presents to the general public: art galleries and other museum are also a cultural institution, and their employees are cultural workers. In this concept and library (excluding those that are part of some organizations - for example, universities, in this case we are talking about libraries that are independent organizations).

All cultural figures - whatever different areas of their activities - unites one thing: without them relatively easy to do. It is not by chance that it is for them first all the economic crises - so, in the unforgettable 90s, when the teachers and doctors at least tried to strike, cultural workers, sitting by months without salary, did not even be solved on it: after all, you will tell the word - will close ! And yet ... Imagine that all theaters, art galleries and concert halls will close tomorrow ... From hunger, cold and diseases, of course, we will not die - but something very important will die in us, which fundamentally distinguishes us from animals. It can be said that the main duty of any cultural worker is from a guide in the provincial museum to the director Mariinsky Theater. - It is to make people people.

One of the highest recognition of merit for such a person is the title of a well-deserved worker of culture. True, there are also higher titles - Honored Artist, Honored Artist - But they are artists, and the teacher of music school can become a well-deserved employee of culture.

Brief biographical data

Andreev Leonid Nikolaevich (1871-1919). Writer. He graduated from the Faculty of Faculty of Moscow University (1897). He began to be printed as a fechelonist in 1895 at the beginning of the 1900s. I got close to M. Gorky, adjacent to the group of writers "Knowledge". In the early works ("Thought", 1902; "Wall", 1901; "Life of the Fewanian Vasily", 1904) manifested themselves disbelief into a person's mind, in the possibility of reorganizing life. In the "red laughter" (1904), the horrors of war are influenced; In the stories "Governor" (1906), "Ivan Ivanovich" (1908), "Story about seven-haired" (1908), the play "To the Stars" (1906) expressed sympathy of the revolution, protest against the inhumanity of society. In the cycle of philosophical drama ("human life", 1907; "Black masks", 1908; "Anatema", 1910) there is a thought about the immemium of the mind, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe celebration of irrational forces. In the last period, Andreev also created realistic works: the "Days of our life" (1908), "Anfisa" (1909), "The one who gets slap" (1916). Andreev's work with his schematicism, sharpness of contrasts, grotesque closely expressionism.

Bazhenov Vasily Ivanovich (1737-1799). Son of a rural priest. Originally studied in the team D.V. Ukhtomsky, then at Moscow University. From 1755 in St. Petersburg - a student and assistant S.I. Chevakinsky during the construction of the Nikolsky Cathedral. He studied at the Academy of Arts since its foundation. After graduating from the Academy, sent a pensioner to France and Italy for further education. He studied at the Paris Academy at Sh. De Vaia. He lived and worked in Italy. He had the title of Professor of the Roman Academy, a member of the Academies in Florence and Bologna. In 1765 he returned to St. Petersburg. He participated in the competition for the project of EkateringOf, for which he received the title of academician. He served as an architect of the artillery department. In 1767, sent to Moscow to bring buildings in the Kremlin.

The Grand District Project created by him was not carried out, but it had a huge impact on the formation of classic principles of urban planning in Russia. During work in the Kremlin around Bazhenova, a school of young architects-classicists (MF Kazakov, I.V. Eyrov, E.S. Nazarov, RD Kazakov, I.T. Tamansky), who developed in their further independent Works ideas Bazhenova.

Belinsky Vissarion Grigorievich (1811-1848). Literary critic and philosopher. As a critic had a strong influence on the social movement of Russia. As a philosopher developed the Teaching of Hegel, first of all his dialectical method, introduced a lot of concepts from Western European language into the Russian conversational language philosophical literature (immediacy, lesion, moment, denial, concreteness, reflection, etc.). Developed the provisions of realistic aesthetics and literary criticism based on a specific historical analysis of art phenomena. The basis of the concept created by him is the interpretation artistic image As the unity of general and individual. The nationality of art is reflected in it features of this nation and national character. C1840, he turned to German and French radicalism. This manifested itself in his famous letter N. Gogol (1847).

Berdyaev Nikolay Alexandrovich (1874-1948) - Russian religious philosopher, since 1922 in emigration, lived in Berlin, then in Paris. Being under the strong influence of Marx, Nietzsche, Ibsen, Kant and Carlery, defended the ideas of existentialism, in which the problematics of philosophy prevailed, taught about the primacy of freedom over Genesis (freedom can not be anyone and anything determined, even by God, she goes his roots in oblivion) , about the revelation of being through (god-like) man, about a reasonable course of history, wrote about the Christian revelation, on issues of sociology and ethics. For the controversy with the theorists of scientific communism, he was twice with arrest, and in the fall of 1922 he was expelled outside Russia among dozens of scientists, writers, publicists.

Main works: "The meaning of creativity", 1916; "The meaning of history", 1923; "New Middle Ages", 1924; "On the appointment of a person", 1931; "I and the world of objects", 1933; "The fate of a person in the modern world", 1934; "Spirit and Reality", 1949; "Existential dialectic of Divine and Human", 1951; "The Kingdom of Spirit and the Kingdom Kingdom", 1952; "Self-knowledge", 1953.

Block Alexander Alexandrovich (1880-1921). Russian poet. Father - Professor of the Rights of Warsaw University, Mother - M.A. Beketova, writer and translator. He graduated from the Slavic-Russian Branch of the Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg University (1906). Poems began to write from childhood, printed - from 1903. In 1904, he published a collection of "poems about the beautiful lady", where she appeared as a lyric symbolist who had influenced mystical poetry. Solovyov. Since 1903, a social topic has been in an abstract romantic poetry of the block: an antichelovic city with his slave labor, poverty (section "Crossroads", 1902-1904). The topic of the Motherland is constantly present in the poetry of the block. His creativity becomes a tragedy and deep, permeated feeling of the catastrophic of the era (cycle "On the field of Kulikov", 1908, sections of the cycle "Free thoughts", 1907, "Jamb", 1907-1914). The love lyrics of the bloc of romantic, it carries along with delight and the screaming of the fatal and tragic start (sections of the Snow Mask cycle, 1907, Faina, 1907-1908, "Carmen", 1914).

Mature block poetry is exempt from distracted symbols and gains vitality, concreteness ("Italian verses", 1909, the poem "Solovyan Garden", 1915, etc.). Many ideas of poetry block are developed in his drama: the "Stranger" play, "Balant", "King in Square" (all in 1906), "Songs of Fate" (1907-1908), "Rose and Cross" (1912-1913). The poetic fame of the block was strengthened after the release of collections "Inadequate joy" (1906), "Snow Mask" (1907), "Land in the snow" (1908), "Lyrical dramas" (1908), "Night Watch" (1911).

In 1918, the block wrote the poem "Twelve" - \u200b\u200babout the crash of the old world and a collision of him with the new one; The poem is constructed on semantic antithesis, sharp contrasts. The poem "Scythians" (the same year) is dedicated historical mission revolutionary Russia.

Bruce Valery Yakovlevich (1873-1924). Writer. Born in a merchant family. Literary debut - three collections "Russian symbolists" (1894-1895) was a selection of samples of Western poetry (verses in the spirit of P. Vellen, S. Mallarm, etc.). The "Third Guard" (1900) marks the beginning of the creative maturity of Bruce. In it, as in the book "CITY AND MIR" (1903), clearly visible specific traits Brysov's poetry is the completion of the images, the clarity of the composition, the volitional intonation, the spectacular pathos. From the beginning of the XX century. Bruces becomes the leader of the symbolism, leads a large organizational work, manages the Publishing House "Scorpio", edits the magazine "Scales".

The book of poems "Wreath" (1906) is the top of Brasov's poetry. High rise of romantic lyrics, magnificent historical and mythological cycles are combined with samples of revolutionary poetry.

In the books of poems "All Tunes" (1909), "Mirror of Shadows" (1912), as well as "Seven Rainbow Colors" (1916), along with life-affirming motifs, notes of fatigue sounds, are inventory formal searches. In the same period, the historical novels "Fire Angel" (1908) and the Altar of Victory (1913), collections of stories and dramatic scenes "Ground Axis" (1907), "Nights and Days" (1913), Collections of articles "Far and Close "(1912). During the 1st World War, Bryusov cooperates with M. Gorky. He studies the history and literature of Armenia, translates the poems of Armenian poets. The October Revolution of Bryusov accepted unconditionally. In 1920, he joined the ranks of the RCP (b). He worked in the People's Commissariat, in the State Grade, headed by the Book Chamber. Published books of poems "Recent Dreams" (1920), "On such days" (1921), "MiG" (1922), "Dali" (1922).

Bulgakov Sergey Nikolaevich (1871-1944). Religious philosopher, theologian, economist. Professor Political Economy in Kiev (1905-1906) and in Moscow (1906-1918). Emigrated in 1923, Professor Dogmatic and Dean of the Russian Theological Institute in Paris in 1925-1944. Tested a significant influence I. Kanta, F.M. Dostoevsky and VS Solovyov, from whom he learned the idea of \u200b\u200balliance. Russia's salvation was looking for the path of religious rebirth and in this regard, all social, national relations and culture saw overvalued at the religious basis. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe award was dominant in the teaching of Bulgakov, i.e. The internal connection of God and the world created by him - Sofia ("Wisdom of God"), which manifests itself in the world and man, making them involved in God. The Sofiology developed by him was set out in the works: "The Light of the University" (1917), "On the God of God. Trilogy "(" Lamb of God ", 1933;" Comforter ", 1936;" Bride of Lamb ", 1945). Other works: "Two hail. Research on the nature of public ideals ", vol. 1-2, 1911; "Quiet Duma", 1918; "Cupina is unclear", 1927. Died in Paris.

Bunin Ivan Alekseevich (1870-1953). Russian writer. From the impoverished noble family. In his youth, he worked as a corrector, statistical, librarian, a reporter. Printed since 1887

The first books I. Bunin - poetic collections. Its poems is an example of the "old" classic form. The theme of the poetry of young Bunin is native nature. Then he began writing stories. In 1899, I. Bunin begins to cooperate with the Publishing House "Knowledge". The best stories of this period - "Antonovskaya apples" (1900), "Pines" (1901), "Chernozem" (1904). Serious public resonance had a story "Village" (1910). The chronicle of the degeneration of the manor nobility was the story "Sukhodol" (1911). Prose I. Bunin is a sample of painting, rigorism, rhythmic expressiveness.

Poetic Collection I. Bunin "Listopad" (1901) - received Pushkin Prize. In 1909, Bunin is elected by an honorary academician. The translation of the poems of Longfello "Song about Gayavate" has become famous. In 1920, Bunin emigrates. In the future, he lives and works in France.

In the emigration, he creates works of love (Mitin Love, 1925; "Correnet Elagina", 1927; the cycle of the Number "Dark Alleys" 1943). The central place in the work of Late Bunin is occupied by the autobiographical novel "Life Arsenyev" (1930). In 1933, the Writer was awarded the Nobel Prize. Abroad I. Bunin also created a philosophical literary treatise about L.N. Tolstoy "Liberation of Tolstoy" (1937) and "Memories" (1950).

Butlers Alexander Mikhailovich (1828-1886). Chemist, public figure. Education received at Kazan University (1844-1849). From 1854 - Professor of Chemistry of this University, and in 1860-1863. His rector. In 1868-1885 Professor of Chemistry of the University of St. Petersburg. Since 1871 - Academician.

A.M. Butlers - the creator of the theory of chemical structure, the head of the largest Kazan school of chemists-organic. The main ideas of the theory of chemical structure for the first time expressed in 1871. The first explained the phenomenon of isomerism. Boutler's views received experimental confirmation in the works of his school scientists. Published in 1864-1866. In Kazan, three issues "Introduction to the complete study of organic chemistry." For the first time on the basis of the chemical structure of Butlers, a systematic study of polymerization began.

Great merit A.M. Butlerova was the creation of the first Russian scientific school of chemists. Among his students such famous chemists like V.V. Markovnikov, A.N. Popov, A.M. Zaitsev, A.E. Favorsky, M.D. Lviv, I.L. Kondakov.

A lot of efforts of Butlers paid the struggle for the recognition of the merit of Russian scientists, turning to public opinion through the seal. He was a champion of higher education for women, participated in the organization of higher female courses (1878), created the chemical laboratories of these courses.

Voronikhin Andrey Nikiforovich (1759-1814). From the family of serf grafa A.S. Stroganova (for some assumptions, his extramarital son). Originally studied at the icon painter Yushkov in the icon-painted workshop of the Tsussor monastery. In 1777, translated into Moscow, where he worked at V.I. Bazhenova. From 1779 he lived in St. Petersburg to the House of Stroganov. In 1781, together with Paul Stroganov and his educator, Romm traveled in Russia. In 1785 he received "free". Since 1786, with Stroganov and Rommomom lives abroad in Switzerland and in France. In 1790, he returned to Russia, worked by A.S. Stroganova. In 1794 he was "appointed" to the Academy of Arts. From 1797 - in the rank of academician of promising painting, from 1800 he taught at the Academy. From 1803 - Professor. Brilliant representative of classicism. To win the competition for the project of the Kazan Cathedral, created a brilliant structure, to taste, proportionality, the grace and the greatness of the precedents.

The main works in St. Petersburg and the surrounding area: restructuring the interiors of the Palace of Stroganov, the dacha of Stroganov in the new village (not preserved), the Kazan Cathedral and the lattice, which enlightened the square in front of him, the Mountain Institute, the interiors of the Pavlovsky Palace, Pink Pavilion in Pavlovsk, Fountain on Pulkovo Mountain.

Herzern Alexander Ivanovich (1812-1870). Thinker, writer, publicist, politician. In 1831-1834 He led a circle at Moscow University, in 1835-1840. In reference (Vyatka), from 1847 to the end of life in emigration (London). Printed under the pseudonym Iskander. A fighter with serf right and autocracy. In his philosophical views, the materialist (work "Dieletantism in Science" - 1843 and "Letters to study Nature" - 1846). The creator of the so-called. "Russian socialism" is the theoretical foundation of nationality. He laughed in the Russian peasant community - the germ of socialist public relations.

In 1853, together with N.P. Ogarev founded in England free Russian printing house. Herzen - the publisher of the Almanaci "Polar Star" (1855-1868) and the newspapers "Bell" (1857-1867) - radical unexpected publications, imported illegally to Russia and had a great influence on Russian public opinion. He promoted the creation of the secret revolutionary society "Earth and Volia" and supported the Polish uprising of 1863-1864, which led to a reduction in its influence among Russian liberals.

A.I. Herzen - an outstanding writer, author of anti-decoral books - Roman "Who is to blame?" (1846), the leader "Doctor of Crimes" (1847) and Soroka-Torovka (1848). One of the best works of domestic literature - "Purled and Duma" (1852-1868) is a wide web of the public life of Russia and Western Europe of the XIX century.

Glinka Mikhail Ivanovich (1804-1857). The founder is Russian classical music, outstanding composer.

From the nobles of Smolensk province. From 1817 he lived in St. Petersburg and studied in a noble board with the main pedagogical school. In the 20s XIX century - Popular capital singer and pianist. In 1837-1839. Capereaster court chapel.

In 1836 on stage Big Theater. St. Petersburg was delivered to the heroic-patriotic opera M. Glinka "Life for the king" ("Ivan Susanin"). In it, the courage and the resistance of the people. In 1842, the premiere of the Opera Ruslan and Lyudmila (on the poem A.S. Pushkin) - the new achievement of domestic music. This opera is a magical oratorio with alternating wide vocal symphonic scenes, with the predominance of epic elements. Russian national features in music "Ruslana and Lyudmila" intertwined with oriental motifs.

The Spanish Overtures of Glinka - "Aragon Khota" (1845) and "Night in Madrid" (1848) and "Night in Madrid" (1848), Scherzo for the Kamarinskaya orchestra (1848), music to the tragedy of N. Kupolnik " Prince Holmsky. "

M. Glinka created about 80 works for vote with piano (romances, aria, songs). Glinka's romances were especially famous for the top of the Russian vocal lyrics. Romances are distinguished on poems A. Pushkin ("I remember a wonderful moment," do not sing, beautiful, with me, "the fire is burning in the blood," and others), V. Zhukovsky (Ballad "Night Watch"), E. Baratyansky ("Do not tempt me without need"), N. Kuzmachnik ("Doubt").

Under the influence of creativity M. Glinka there was a Russian music school. Glinka orchestral letter combines transparency and impressiveness of sound. Russian Sensing - the foundation of Glinkovsky melodics.

Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich (1809-1852). Great Russian writer. Born in the family of the nobles of the Poltava province Gogol-Yanovsky. Education received in the Nezhinskaya gymnasium of higher sciences (1821-1828). From 1828 - in St. Petersburg. In 1831 - acquaintance with Pushkin, which played a special role in the formation of Gogol as a writer. Unsuccessfully tried to teach the history of the Middle Ages.

Literary fame from 1832 ("Evenings on the farm near Dikanka"). In 1835 - the release of the collections of "Arabeski" and "Mirgorod". The top of the Russian playwright of the first half of the XIX century. She became a comedy "Auditor" (1836).

From 1836 to 1848, Gogol with little breaks lives abroad (mainly in Rome), working on the main work, the novel of the poem "Dead Souls". There was only the 1st volume (1842), which caused a huge public resonance with his show of the unsightbed parties to Russian reality. The realism of Gogol, which manifested itself primarily in the "auditor" and "dead souls", his skill of saticaries put the writer at the head of Russian literature.

They became famous for the story of Gogol. In the so-called Petersburg Hands ("Nevsky Prospect", "Notes of Crazy", "Shinel") The theme of the loneliness of a person gets a tragic sound. In the story, the "Portrait" considers the fate of the artist in the world, where they rule the money. The painting of the Zaporizhzhya Side, the life and struggle of Cossacks is presented in Taras Bouvube. The tale of "Shinel" with her defense of a "little man" became a kind of manifesto Russian critical realism.

In 1847, N. Gogol released the book "Selected Places from Correspondence with Friends", who met the lack of understanding of a significant part of Russian society. In it, he tried to present his idea of \u200b\u200bmoral ideals, the debt of every Russian man. The ideal of Gogol is increasingly spoken to religion - the Orthodox spiritual update. From the same position, he is trying to create positive images in the 2nd Tome of "Dead Souls", over which it works after returning to Russia. As a result of a deep mental crisis in February 1852, Gogol burns the manuscript of the 2nd Tom Roman. Soon after that, he died in Moscow.

Danilevsky Nikolai Yakovlevich (1822-1885). Philosopher, sociologist, naturalist. In the book "Russia and Europe" (1869), outlined the sociological theory of isolated "cultural and historical types" (civilizations), which are in continuous struggle with each other and the external environment and passing certain stages of mature, decreasing and death. The story is expressed in the change of cultural and historical types of displacing each other. The most historically promising type considered the "Slavic Type", the most fully expressed in the Russian people and opposing the cultures of the West. The ideas of Danilevsky anticipated the similar concepts of the German philosopher of the culture of Osvald Spengler. Danilevsky is also the author of labor "Darwinism" (t. 1-2, 1885-1889), directed against the theory of Ch. Darwin.

Derzhavin Gabril Romanovich (1743-1816). Russian poet. The leaving of the poor noble family. He studied in the Kazan gymnasium. From 1762 he served ordinary in Guard, participated in the palace coup. In 1772, produced in officers. Member of the suppression of Pugachev uprising. Later served in the Senate. In 1773 he began to print poems.

In 1782 he wrote "ODU to Felice", glorified Catherine II. After the success of this ODA was awarded the Empress. Governor Olonetskaya (1784-1785) and Tambov (1785-1788) provinces. In 1791-1793 Cabinet Secretary Catherine II. In 1794, appointed president of the commerce collegium. In 1802-1803 - Minister of Justice of Russia. From 1803 - retired.

Derzhavin in poetry was able to create new stylecontaining elements of a live speech. For vershitin verse, the species of the image, plastic images, didactics and allegorism are characteristic. He managed to connect the elements of ODD and satire in one poem. In his own letters glorified the commander and monarchs, condemned unworthy nobles and public vices. The most famous "Oda to the death of Prince Meshchersky" (1779), "God" (1784), "Waterfall" (1794). In the philosophical lyrics of Derzhavin manifested a deep understanding of the problems of life and death, greatness and insignificance of man. Creativity G. Derzhavin - the top of classicism in Russian literature.

Dostoevsky Fedor Mikhailovich (1821-1881) - Great Russian Writer. Born in the family doctor. He graduated from 1843 the St. Petersburg Military Engineering School, was enrolled in the draftsman to the Engineering Department, but a year later he retired. The first Roman Dostoevsky "Poor People" (1846) made it one of the most famous writers of Russia. Soon such works of F. Dostoevsky as "Double" (1846), "White Nights" (1848), "Net Obzanov" (1849). They showed an in-depth psychologist writer.

Since 1847, Dostoevsky became a member of the circles of utopian socialists. Attracted to the prosecution of Petrashevtsev, he was sentenced to death penaltyBefore the shooting was replaced with a 4-year-old carriage, followed by the definition of ordinary in the army. Only in 1859 he was able to return to St. Petersburg.

At the turn of the 1850s - 1860s. Dostoevsky publishes the story "Uncle Sleep" and "Stepanchino village and its inhabitants" (both in 1859), Roman "humiliated and offended" (1861), "Notes from the Dead House" (1862), written about Katorga . Dostoevsky and public life (participation in the magazines "Time" and "Epoch") is included. He becomes a supporter of the theory of compatibility, one of the largest thinkers of Russia. Dostoevsky demanded from the intelligentsia that broke away from the "soil", rapprochement with the people, moral cultivation. He was angry with Western bourgeois civilization ("Winter Notes on Summer Impressions", 1863) and the spiritual appearance of the individualist ("Notes from the underground", 1864).

In the second half of the 1860s and in the 1870s. FM Dostoevsky creates its best novels: "Crime and Punishment" (1866), "Idiot" (1868), "demons" (1872), "Teenager" (1875), "Brothers Karamazov" (1879 -1880). In these books, not only public problems and contradictions, but also philosophical, ethical, social searches of the writer were reflected. The basis of the work of Dostoevsky-Romanist is the world of human suffering. At the same time, Dostoevsky like none of the classic writers owned the skill of psychological analysis. Dostoevsky - the creator of the ideological novel.

The activity of Dostoevsky-publicist continues. In 1873-1874 He edited the magazine "Citizen", where he began to print his "Writer's Diary", which separate issues went on monthly in 1876-1877, and episodically and later. The speech was famous for F. Dostoevsky about Pushkin, who became a deep analysis of the national importance of the genius of Russian literature and at the same time declaration of the moral and philosophical ideals of Dostoevsky himself. The influence of F. Dostoevsky to Russian and world literature is huge.

Ekaterina II Alekseevna (1729-1796), Empress of Russia (Catherine Great) in 1762-1796. By origin, the German princess from the Anhalt Czyrch dynasty (Sofia Frederick Augustus). In Russia since 1744, the wife of the Grand Prince Peter Fedorovich (in 1761-1762, Emperor Peter III) from 1745. The Empress after the coup of 1762 conducted the reorganization of the Senate (1763), the secularization of monastic lands (1764), approved the establishment for offices provinces (1775), patched diplomas nobility and cities (1785). Expanded the territory of Russia as a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774) and (1787-1791), as well as three sections of the Commonwealth Speech (1772, 1793, 1795). A prominent workman of the domestic enlightenment. Smolny and Ekaterininsky institutes, pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational houses for windish were opened in her reign. In 1786, approved the "Charter of People's Schools of the Russian Empire", which marked the beginning of the creation of an emergency school system in Russia. Catherine II is the author of many prosaic, dramaturgical and popular essays, as well as the "notes" of a memoir character. Corresponded with the Voltaire and other figures of French Enlightenment of the XVIII century. Supporter of "enlightened absolutism."

Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852). Poet. Ovenful son of the landowner A.I. Bunin and Captive Turkish Salfi. The views and literary addiction of young Zhukovsky were formed at the Moscow Noble Guest House (1797-1801) and the "friendly literary society" (1801) influenced by the traditions of noble liberalism. In 1812, Zhukovsky joined the militia. Since the Patriotic War of 1812, patriotic notes that sounded in the poem "singer in the village of Russian warriors" (1812), etc. Service at the courtyard (from 1815 - Zesarevich's teacher) allowed Zhukovsky to alleviate the fate of the Opt A.S. Pushkin, Decembrists, M.Yu. Lermontova, A.I. Herzen, T.G. Shevchenko. After resigning in 1841, Zhukovsky settled abroad.

The first poetic experiments of Zhukovsky are associated with sentimentalism ("rural cemetery", 1802, etc.). In his lyrics, Zhukovsky developed and deepened the psychological search of the school N.M. Karamzin. The dissatisfaction with real reality identified the nature of the creativity of Zhukovsky with his idea of \u200b\u200ba romantic personality, in deep interest to the finest movements of the human soul. From 1808, Zhukovsky turned to the genre of ballads ("Lyudmila", 1808, Svetlana 1808-1812, "Ealar Harp", 1814, etc.). In ballads, he recreates the world of folk beliefs, church-book or knight legends, distant from real modernity. Zhukovsky's poetry is the top of Russian romanticism.

The psychological realism of Zhukovsky for the first time in Russian poetry opened the mental peace of man, thus creating prerequisites for the future development of realism.

Cossacks Matvey Fedorovich (1738-1812). Born in Moscow. He studied in the architectural school D.V. Ukhtomsky. In 1763-1767 Worked in Tver. He was assistant V.I. Bazhenova in the design of the Grand Kremlin Palace. For the first time in Russia, the designs of the domes and overlap of large spans were created. From 1792 he headed after V.I. Bazhenova architectural school at the expedition of the Kremlin structure. Pupils: I.V. Ekov, O.I. Bov, A.I. Bakrev, F. Sokolov, R.R. Cossacks, E.D. TURIN, and others amounted to the project of organizing a building craft school ("School of Stone and Carpentry Affairs"). He led the preparation of the General and Front Plan of Moscow, in connection with which he fulfilled with the assistants to thirty graphic albums of particular and civil structures containing the drawings of most Moscow houses of the end of the XVIII century. One of the founders and the largest masters of classicism. The author of most structures that determine the appearance of classical Moscow.

Main works: Petrovsky (travel) Palace, Senate Building in the Kremlin with the famous Domeboard, Church of Philip Metropolitan, Golitsyn Hospital, University Building, House of the Noble Assembly, House of Gybina, Baryshnikov, Demidov in Moscow, Church and Mausoleum in the estate of Nikolsky-Server Smolensk province.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826). Writer, publicist and historian. Son of the landowner of the Symbirian province. Education received at home, then in Moscow, in a private board (up to 1783); Also attended lectures at Moscow University. In the magazine Novikova "Children's reading for the heart and mind" published numerous translations of Karamzin and its original story "Eugene and Julia" (1789). In 1789, Karamzin traveled through Western Europe. Returning to Russia, published the Moscow Journal (1791-1792), which published his artworks (the main part of the "letters of the Russian traveler", the story "Liodor", "Poor Lisa", "Natalia, Boyarskaya Daughter", poem " Poetry "," to grace ", etc.). The magazine, which also printed critical articles and reviews of Karamzin on literary and theatrical topics, promoted the aesthetic program of Russian sentimentalism, whose prominent representative was N.M. Karamzin.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Karamzin made a publicist, justified in his journal "Journal of Europe" a program of moderate conservatism. In the same journal he was published historical story "Marfa Posadannin, or the conquest of Novgorod" (1803), who approved the inevitability of the victory of autocracy over the free city.

The literary activities of Karamzina played a big role in the development of the Russian literary problem of personality, in improving artistic means images of the inner world of a person in the development of Russian literary language. An early prose of Karamzin had an impact on the creativity of V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkova, young A.S. Pushkin. From the middle of the 1790s. The interest of Karamzin to the problems of history was determined. He leaves fiction and works primarily on the "Russian state history" (vol. 1-8, 1816-1817; t. 9, 1821, t. 10-11, 1824; t. 12, 1829; reprinted repeatedly), which It became not only significant historical labor, but also a large phenomenon of Russian artistic prose.

Karamzin defended the inviolability of the autocracy and the need to preserve the fortress relations, condemned the rebellion of the Decembrists and endorsed the violence over them. In the "note about ancient and new Russia" (1811) made a sharp criticism of projects of state transformations M.M. Speransky.

He first used a large number of historical documents, incl. Trinity, Lavrentievskaya, Ipatiev Chronicles, Dvinsky diplomas, judicicity, certificates of foreigners, etc. Extracting from documents Karamzin placed in extensions to its "history", which for a long time played the role of a kind of archive for a long time. Karamzin's History promoted an increase in interest in domestic history in various layers of Russian society. She marked a new stage in the development of the noble destination in Russian historical science. The historical concept of Karamzin became the official concept supported by state power. Caramzine Slavophiles believed his spiritual father.

Kramskaya Ivan Nikolaevich (1837-1887). Painter, draftsman, art critic. From the poor boss family. In 1857-1863 He studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, was the initiator of the so-called. "BunTa 14", which ended with the creation of artists who came out of the Academy. Ideological leader and creator of the partnership mobile exhibitions.

Created a gallery of portraits of the largest Russian writers, scientists, artists and public figures (portraits of L.N. Tolstoy, 1873; I.I. Shishkin, 1873; P.M. Tretyakova, 1876; M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, 1879; with .P. Botkin, 1880). The features of the art of Kramsky-portraytist are an expressive simplicity of the composition, the clarity of the drawing, a deep psychological characteristic. Kramsky's populic views found the most vivid expression in the portraits of the peasants ("Hollowman", 1874, "Mina Moiseev", 1882, "Peasant with a bridle", 1883). The central work of I. Kramsky - the picture "Christ in the desert" (1872). In the 1880s. The famous painting of the Kramsky "Unknown" (1883), "Rezaznaya Mountain" (1884). The canvas are distinguished by the skill of the disclosure of complex spiritual experiences, characters and destinies.

Kruzenshtern Ivan Fedorovich (1770-1846). Outstanding navigator and oceanographer, Russian military sailor. Founder of the Naval Academy, one of the founders of the Russian geographical society. Head of the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the ships "Hope" and "Neva" (1803-1805). Opened interpassate countermeasures in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, laid the beginning of a systematic deep-water research of the World Ocean. I put the coast on the map. Sakhalin (approx. 1000 km). Author "Atlas of the Southern Sea" (t. 1-2, 1823-1826). Admiral.

Kindji Arkhip Ivanovich (1841-1910). Painting-landscape. Born in Mariupol, in the family of the Greek Supozhnik. Painting trained independently, and then at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. Member of the comradeship of mobile exhibitions.

Created landscapes designed for specific social associations in the spirit of Movie ("Forgotten Village", 1874, "Chumatsky Tract", 1873). In the mature works of Queenji, the masterks applied composite techniques and light effects ("Ukrainian night", 1876; "Birch grove", 1879; "after a thunderstorm", 1879; "Night on the Dnieper", 1880).

A.I. Quinji taught at the Academy of Arts (Professor since 1892, a valid member since 1893). Fired in 1897 for supporting student unrest. In 1909, he initiated the creation of the Society of Artists (later - Society named after A.I. Kindji). Teacher of a number of famous artists - N.K. Roerich, A.A. Rylov et al.

Kyu Caesar Antonovich (1835-1918) - composer, musical critic, Military engineer and scientist.

He graduated from the Nikolaev Engineering Academy in 1857, was left with her a teacher (from 1880 - Professor). The author of the Capital Labor Fortification, the Fortification Course Teacher at the Academy of General Staff. From 1904 - Engineer-General.

I received the greatest fame as a musical critic (from 1864), a supporter of realism and nationality in music, a propagandist of creativity M.I. Glinka, A.S. Dargomyzhsky. Kyu was one of the members of the "mighty bunch." Author 14 operas. C.A. Kyu created more than 250 romances, characterized by expressiveness and grace. Among them are "burned letter" and "Tsarsko Selo Statue" (words A.S. Pushkin), "Eolia Harp" (words A.N. Majkova) and others. In the heritage of the composer Kyu - numerous works of chamber instrumental ensembles, choirs.

Lavrov Petr Lavrovich (1823-1900). Philosopher and sociologist, publicist, ideologist of "nationality." He took part in the work of the underground revolutionary organizations "Earth and Volya", "People's Volia," was arrested, Soslated, but ran abroad. In philosophical works ("Practical philosophy of Hegel", 1859; "Mechanical theory of the world", 1859; "Essays of issues of practical philosophy", 1860; "The tasks of positivism and their decision", 1886; "The most important points in the history of thought", 1899) believed that the subject of philosophy is a person as a unified inhabitant integer; The material world exists, but in judgments about him, a person cannot go beyond the world of phenomena and human experience. In sociology ("historical letters", 1869) developed the concepts of culture and civilization. The culture of society, in Lavrov, is a medium given by history for the work of thought, and civilization is a creative beginning found in the progressive change of culture forms. Civilization carriers are "critical thinking personality" The measure of the enlighteability of human moral consciousness acts as a criterion of public progress, consisting in increasing the consciousness of the personality and solidarity between personalities. Politics preached propaganda in the people.

Levitan Isaac Ilyich (1860-1900). Painting-landscape. Son of small serving from Lithuania. He studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in A.K. Savrasova and V.D. Polenova. From 1891 a member of the comradeship of the Movement. In 1898-1900. Member of the exhibitions magazine "World of Art".

He worked in the Crimea, on the Volga, in Finland, Italy, France. In his paintings I. Levitan managed to achieve clarity of composition, clear spatial plans, balanced color building ("Evening. Golden Ples", "After the rain. Ples", - both 1889). The creator of the so-called. The scenery of the mood, in which the state of nature is comprehended as an expression of human soul movements.

With its intonational system, mature landscapes of Levitan are close to the lyrical prose Chekhov ("Evening", "Umuta", "Vladimirka", all 1892). Later works are widely known. Levitan - "Fresh wind. Volga, "1891-1895; "Golden Autumn", 1895; "Over eternal Region", 1894; "Summer Evening", 1900

The creativity of the great landscape officer I. Levitan had a significant impact on the following generations of artists.

Lermontov Mikhail Yuryevich(1814-1841). Great Russian poet. Born in the family of captain retired, brought up at Grandma - E.A. Arsenyeva, who gave grandchildren a good education. He studied at the Moscow Noble Guest House (1828-1830) and Moscow University (1830-1832). Later - at the school of Guards submaroes and cavalry junkers (1832-1834). He served in the Life Guard of the Hussar Regiment.

Early works M. Lermontov (lyrical poems, poems, drama " A strange man", 1831," Masquerade ", 1835) indicate the creative growth of the author. In those years, he works on the novel "Vadim", drawing episodes of the uprising under the leadership of Pugachev. The youthful poetry of Lermontov was imbued with a passion-like impulse of freedom, but in the future the pessimistic tones began to prevail in his work.

M. Lermontov - Poet-Romantic, but his romanticism is far from contemplation, filled with a tragic feeling, including elements of a realistic view of the world. With the advent of the poem "The death of the poet" (1837), Lermontov's name becomes the well-known reading Russia. For this poem, he was arrested, and then translated into the Nizhny Novgorod Dragun Regiment, in the Caucasus. The Caucasian theme has become one of Lermontov's main in the work.

In 1838, Lermontov was translated into the Grodno Gusar Regiment, and then returned to the Life Guard Gusar Regiment. The 1838-1840 GG spent in St. Petersburg. - The heyday of the talent of the Great Poet. Its poems began to regularly appear in print. The historical poem "Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich ..." (1838) had a great success ... " romantic poem "MTSY" (1839). The peaks of the creativity of Lermontov were the poem "Demon", and the novel "Hero of our time" (1840). An artistic discovery was the image of Pechorin - the main character of the novel, which shows a wide vision of public life. There are verses like "Borodino" (1837), "Duma", "Poet" (both 1838), "Testament" (1840). Lermontov verses are marked by unprecedented thoughts.

In February 1840, for a duel with the son of the French ambassador, Lermontov was again devoted to the Military Court and sent to the Caucasus. He participates in the heavy battle on the Valerik River (in Chechnya) as part of the Army. In recent months, M. Lermontov created its best poems - "Motherland", "Rock", "Spore", "Leaf", "No, I'm not so dusty I love ...", "Prophet".

Being in the summer of 1841 on the treatment in Pyatigorsk Lermontov died on a duel. In the work of M. Lermontov, civil, philosophical and purely personal motives were organically intertwined. Both in poetry, and in prose, and in drama, he showed himself to an innovator.

Leskov Nikolai Semenovich (1831-1895). Great Russian writer. Born in the Oryol province, in the family of a small official. He studied in the Oryol gymnasium. From the age of 16 served as an official in Orel, then in Kiev. For several years he was an assistant manager of large estates, a lot went through Russia. From 1861 - in St. Petersburg, it works on articles and fechens.

In the 1860s Writes wonderful stories and stories: "Foresting" (1862), "ulcer" (1863), "Life of one woman" (1863), "Lady McBet Mtsensky County" (1865), "Warrior "(1866). Then its long-term controversy begins with supporters of radical, socialist ideas. In a number of their works of N. Leskov (known then under the pseudonym M. Stebnitsky), the images of nihilists, "new people" are promoted. These antinhylic works include the story of "Ovseby" (1863), "Nochud" novels (1864), "mutually" (1865), "on the knives" (1870). Leskov seeks to show the futility of the efforts of revolutionaries, the groundlessness of their activities.

In the 1870s. New period of creativity N. Leskova begins. The writer creates images of Russian righteous people - people, mighty spirit, patriots. The vertices of N. Leskov's prose became the novel of "Sobira" (1872), the story and stories "Enchanted Wanderer", "Improved Angel" (1873), "Iron Will" (1876), "Not Meaning Gold" (1880 G.), "Talk about the Tula Spirla Leeshem and Steel Blook" (1881), "Pechersk Antiki" (1883). In the work of N. Leskova, the motives of the national identity of the Russian people, faith in his creative forces are strong.

In the 80s - 90s. XIX century The critical, satirical content of N. Leskov prose is increasing. He writes works as heartfelt-lyrical (tale "stupid artist", 1883) and islandir ("Hare Remiz", 1891; "Winter Day", 1894, and others). The ideal of the late Leskov is not a revolutionary, but an educator, carrier of gospel ideals of good and justice.

N. Leskova's tongue is remarkable. The narrative style of the writer is distinguished by the virtuoso possession of the folk language (the use of folk rivers, a rich lexicon of fictional words, warvarisms and neologisms). Live, "Fantasy" Leskov's manner reveals an image through its speech characteristic. The writer was able to create an alloy of the literary and folk language.

Lisya Yury Fedorovich (1773-1837). Russian navigator, captain I rank (1809). The commander of the ship "Neva" as part of the first Russian round-the-world expedition I.F. Kruzenshtern (1803-1805). Of the 1095 days of the expedition of 720 days, "Neva" passed on their own. At the same time, a record sea transition was performed - 13923 miles of non-stop sailing without entering the port in 140 days. Lysyansky opened one of the Hawaiian Islands, explored about. Kodiak (off the coast of Alaska) and the Alexander Archipelago.

Lobachevsky Nikolai Ivanovich (1792-1856). Mathematician. All his activities are related to the University of Kazan. He studied in it (1807-1811), became a teacher (from 1814 - an adjunct since 1816. Extraordinary, and from 1822 - an ordinary professor). He taught mathematics, physics and astronomy, 10 years old headed the library of the university, was elected to the Dean of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty (1820-1825), and from 1827 he was 19 years old was a rector of the university. During the rectification of Lobachevsky, the Kazan University received a whole range of auxiliary buildings (observatory, library, physical office, clinic, chemical laboratory), developed publishing activities.

Home merit N.I. Lobachevsky - the creation of a new geometry - scientific theory, rich in content and use of both in mathematics and physics. The Lobachevsky geometry is also called hyperbolic non-child geometry (as opposed to the elliptic geometry of Riemann). The foundations of his theory of Lobachevsky outlined in February 1826, but the composition of the compressed statement began geometry with strict proof of the parallel theorem "was included in the work" On the principles of geometry "and published in 1829. It was the first publication in the world literature. Geometry. His work was further published in 1835-1838, and in 1840 in Germany his book "Geometric Studies" (in German) was published.

Contemporaries did not understand the scientific ideas of Lobachevsky. Only after the death of Lobachevsky, who deceased unrecognized, the works of a number of mathematicians of the 60s - 80s. XIX century The importance of the studies of the creators of non-child geometry of the first half of the century - N. Lobachevsky, Ya. Hungary (Hungary), K. Gaussa (Germany).

At the end of the life of Lobachevsky was deprived of rectorhood, lost his son, experienced material difficulties. Already blinded, he continued scientific work, dictating his last book "Pan-Geometry" a year before death.

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich (1711-1765). Genius of Russian science, the first Russian scientist-naturalist of world importance, historian, poet, artist.

Son of the peasant Pomper Arkhangelsk province. In 1731-1735 He studied at the Moscow Slavic Greco-Latin Academy, and in 1736-1741. He was located in Germany, where he studied physics, chemistry and metallurgy. Upon returning to Russia, he became an adjunct of the Academy of Sciences on the Physical Class, and in August 1745 became the first Russian elected to the post of professor of chemistry. In 1746, Lomonosov was the first to read public lectures on physics in Russian. In Russia, the first Chemical Laboratory in Russia was founded in Russia (1748), and then the Moscow University (1755) was organized.

Since 1748, Lomonosov was mainly engaged in chemistry, opposed by the dominant of his time the theory of heator plant, which opposed his molecular-kinetic theory. In a letter to L. Eilor (June 5, 1748), Lomonosov formulated a general principle of preserving matter and movement. Chemistry Lomonosov relied on physics. In 1752-1753 He read the course "Introduction to True Physical Chemistry." Many attention M. Lomonosov paid for research on atmospheric electricity. He also developed a number of instruments for physical research (viscometer, refractometer).

In addition to physics and chemistry, Lomonosov also engaged in astronomy and geophysics. In 1761, he opened the atmosphere of Venus. He carried out the research of earthly burden. The contribution of Lomonosov to geology and mineralogy is great. Lomonosov argued the organic origin of soil, peat, stone coal, oil and amber. He is the author of the work "Word about the birth of metals from the shaking of the Earth" (1757), "On the Layers of the Earth" (1763). Considerable attention was paid to Lomonosov metallurgy. In 1763, he published the leadership "The first bases of metallurgy or ore cases."

Since 1758, M. Lomonosov is headed by the Geographical Department of An. He explored the marine ice by developing their classification, wrote the work on the meaning of the Northern Sea Route, proposed a number of new devices and methods for determining the latitude and longitude of the place. In 1761, Lomonosov wrote a treatise "On the preservation and reproduction of the Russian people", in which he proposed a number of activities aimed at increasing the population of Russia.

Since 1751, systematic studies of M. Lomonosov Russian history began. He performed with criticism of the Norman theory. Lomonosov - the author of the "Brief Russian Chronicler with Rodarlov" (1760) and "Ancient Russian History ..." (published in 1766). M. Lomonosov also wrote the fundamental work in the field of philology - "Russian grammar" (1757), "Preface about the benefits of church books in Russian" (1758). In the latter, he developed the theory of genres and styles. Peru Lomonosov belongs to the "short guide to eloquence" (1748).

In the literary and artistic works of Lomonosov, as a supporter of classicism and at the same time, the reformer of the Russian poemy. He substantiated a silhlor-tonic system of poems in the "letter of rules of the Russian poem" (1739, publ. In 1778). Lomonosov - the creator of Russian OD. He gave this genre a civil sound (Oda "for the capture of Khotin" - 1739, publ. In 1751). Lomonosov belongs to the tragedy "Tamir and Selim" (1750) and "Demofont" (1752), an unfinished epic poem "Peter Great".

For many years, M. Lomonosov developed the technology of obtaining non-ferrous glass, built a factory for this purpose near St. Petersburg. Colored glasses were used to create a mosaic, in the development of the art of which Lomonosov made a significant contribution. He created a monumental mosaic "Poltava Bataliya". For the mosaic works of Lomonosov in 1763 he was elected a member of the Russian Academy of Arts.

Maxim Greek (1475-1556). Writer, publicist. In the world, Maxim Triviz. From the family of a Greek official, studied in Italy. Accepted monasticism. In 1518, at the request of Vasily III arrived in Russia to correct the translations of church books. A wide form, a brilliant mind, hardworking allowed him to take a privileged position in high circles of the Russian clergy. But later Maxim Greek began to interfere in politics, spoke on the side of incubuseors, so at the church cathedrals in 1525, 1531. It was convicted, imprisoned and released only in 1551. The residue of life spent in the Trinity-Sergiev Monastery, where he died. Most of the work of Maxim Grek is directed against monastic land tenure, usury. In his opinion, the king should act in harmony with the church, with boyars. In international affairs, Maxim Greek recommended determination, but advised to avoid complications. Maxim Grek's political views had a great influence on the elected Rada.

Macarius (1481 / 82-1563). Moscow Metropolitan (from 1542) and politician. (In the world Makar Leontyev). I was close to Vasilia III, with him served as Metropolitan in Novgorod. Actively promoted the statement of power Ivan IV. Under the influence of Makaria and with his participation, Ivan IV in 1547 received the title of king. Macarium was one of the inspirations of Kazan campaigns. He was a supporter of a strong church: at the outline of the Cathedral of 1551, opposed the government's attempts to limit the rights of the church. With his participation, a "power book", "Facial Chronicles". Macarium tried to draw up a complete collection of all the books that in Russian land are acquired ": the lives of the saints, the Holy Scripture with the interpretation of the Gospel, the books of John of Zlatoust, Vasily the Great and many others - only 12 handwritten volumes, the volume of more than 13 thousand sheets of large format. He owns many journalistic works, permeated by the main idea: the need to strengthen autocracy, strengthening the role of the Church in the state. Macarius promoted the opening of the first Russian printing house in Moscow on December 31, 1563

Makarov Stepan Osipovich (1848/49-1904). Flotodets and scientist, vice-admiral. He served on the Pacific and Baltic Fleets. During the service on the armadid boat "Mermaid" began studying the problem of non-optimability of vessels, which still preserved its significance. Member of the Russian-Turkish war 1877-78 In 1877, first used Whitehead torpedo in battle. Conducted hydrological work in the Bosphorus. He wrote the work "On the exchange of water of the Black and Mediterranean Seas" (1885), awarded award of the Academy of Sciences. From August 1886 to May 1889, the Korvette "Vityaz" made a world tour. The results of his observations also received the Award of the Academy of Sciences and the Gold Medal of the Geographical Society. From 1840 Makarov - Council Admiral, since 1891 - the main inspector of marine artillery. In 1896, his idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a powerful icebreaker for the research of the Arctic was embodied in the Iceremaker "Ermak", built under the leadership of Makarov, and in 1899 and 1901. He himself went on this vessel in the Arctic. On February 1, 1904, Makarov was appointed commander of the Pacific Fleet, on February 24 arrived in Port Arthur. He prepared the fleet to active actions against the Japanese, but died together with most of the crew on the Petropavlovsk battleship, which exploded on Mine.

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich (1834-1907). Chemist, teacher and public figure. Born in the family director of the Tobolsk gymnasium. In 1855, the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Chief Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg graduated with the Gold Medal. In 1856 he defended Master, and in 1865 - doctoral dissertation. In 1861 published a textbook "Organic Chemistry", awarded the Academy of Sciences of the Demidov Prize. In 1876 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1865-1890. - Professor of St. Petersburg University. Author of more than 500 printed scientific papers in chemistry, physics, metrology, economics, meteorology, public education issues, etc. In 1892, Mendeleev was appointed scientist keeper of the depot of exemplary weights and scales, which was converted to the main chamber of measures and weights, the director of which he remained until the end of life.

Main scientific merit D.I. Mendeleeva - the opening of the periodic law of chemical elements in 1869. Based on the chemical elements compiled by the Mendeleev, they were predicted by the existence of several other unknown elements, which were soon open - gallium, germanium, scandium. Periodic law has long received universal recognition as one of the basic laws of natural science.

Mendeleev - author of the book "Basics of Chemistry", reprinted many times and translated into a number of languages \u200b\u200b( russian edition 1869-1872, English and German 1891, and French - in 1895). The study of solutions to them is a significant contribution to the chemistry (the monograph "Study of aquatic solutions for specific weight", 1887, containing huge experimental material). D. Mendeleev proposed an industrial method of fractional separation of oil, invented the appearance of a smokeless powder ("Pyricolodies", 1890) and organized its production.

DI. Mendeleev actively participated in the industrial development of Russia. Special attention paid to the oil, coal, metallurgical and chemical industry. Much made for the formation of the Baku and Donbass industrial regions, was the initiator of the construction of oil pipelines. In agriculture, the use of mineral fertilizers and irrigation was promoted. The author of the book "To Knowledge of Russia" (1906), in which the results of reflections on the development of the country's productive forces were summed up.

Musorgsky Modest Petrovich (1839-1881). Great composer, participant of the association " Mighty couch" From the noble family. Music began to study from 6 years. In 1849 he entered Petropavlovsk school (St. Petersburg), and in 1852-1856. He studied at the school of Guards submaroes.

Since 1858, leaving the military service, devoted himself to the composition. In the late 1850s - early 1860s. Posted a number of romances and instrumental works. In 1863-1866 He worked on the opera "Salambo" (according to the novel of Flaubert, not finished). He turned to the actual topics of Russian life. Created songs and romances to N. Nekrasova and T. Shevchenko.

The symphonic picture "Night on Bald Mountain" (1867) is characterized by wealth and juice of sound colors. The greatest creation of M. Mussorgsky was the Opera Boris Godunov (on the tragedy of Pushkin). The first edition of the opera (1869) was not adopted for production, and only in 1874 with great abbreviations "Boris Godunov" was put in the St. Petersburg Mariinsky Theater. In the 1870s. M. Mussorgsky worked on the "folk musical drama" "Hovhanshchina" and the comic opera "Sorochinsky Fair" (according to Gogol). Operas were not finished to the death of the composer. Khovanshchina was completed by Roman-Korsakov, and the Sorochin Fair - A. Lyadov and C. Kyui.

Musician music is an original, expressive musical language, characterized by acute characterity, subtlety, variety of psychological shades. The composer manifested himself as a brilliant playwright. In the musical dramas of Mussorgsky, dynamic and colorful mass scenes are combined with a variety of individual characteristics, psychological depth of individual images.

Novikov Nikolai Ivanovich (1744-1818). Enlightener, writer, journalist, book publisher, bookseller.

Born in the noble family near the city of Bronnitsa (Moscow province). In 1755-1760 He studied at the noble gymnasium at Moscow University, then served in the Izmailovsky regiment. In 1767-1769 - an employee of the Commission on the preparation of "new deposits" (Code of Russian Laws).

Starting from 1770 N. Novikov became the publisher of satirical journals in which he published his works. Novikov's magazines - "Drone", "Pleaspel", "Painter", "Wallet" pledged serfs and officials, half alarmed with the published Catherine II magazine "All Easy". A special success was the "Painter" magazine, where the anti-depletion works of Novikov were printed.

Many N. Novikov's forces gave publishing activities. His merit is the publication of monuments of Russian history - "Ancient Russian Vivlofika" (1773-1775), books "The experience of a historical dictionary about russian writers" Novikov made the first Russian philosophical magazine "Morning Light" (1777-1780) and the first magazine in the country of the Critical Bibliography "St. Petersburg scientists" (1777).

In 1779, N. Novikov moved to Moscow and rented a university typography for 10 years. In the future, he created a "typographic company", which had 2 typography, organized a book trade in 16 cities of Russia. Novikova company produced books on various branches of knowledge, teaching aids. (About a third of all the books published in Russia in the 1780s, released in the light of Novikov).

In 1792, N. Novikov was arrested and concluded for 15 years in the Shlisselburg Fortress for 15 years. In Pavel I was released, but without the right to continue publishing activities. He died in his tribal estate.

Ostrovsky Alexander Nikolaevich (1823-1886). Great dramaturg.. Son official. Education received in the 1st Moscow Gymnasium (1835-1840) and at the Law Faculty of Moscow University, which did not finish. In 1843-1851 He served in Moscow courts.

The first publications in 1847. Fame brought the comedy published in 1850 "his people - to tear." (The comedy was banned until 1861.) Early plays Ostrovsky published in the magazine "Moskvatikan", the organ of Slavophiles. His plays appear, created under the influence of the ideology of Slavophilov: "Do not sit down in our sleeves" (1852), "Poverty is not a vice" (1853), "I don't like how you want" (1854). Starting from the comedy "Do not sit down in your sleeves", the play by A. Ostrovsky quickly conquer the Moscow stage, become the basis of the repertoire of the Russian theater (for more than 30 years each season in the Moscow Mall and St. Petersburg, Alexandrian theaters are marked by the formulation of his new play).

In the second half of the 1850s. Ostrovsky strengthens social criticism in his plays, comes closer with the magazine "Contemporary". The drama of conflicts in the comedies "in someone else's hangover" (1855), "revenue place" (1856), Drama "Thunderstorm" (1859). Images of Katerina and representatives of the "Dark Kingdom" became the vertices of A. Ostrovsky's drama.

In the 1860s The playwright continues to write highly balanced plays - like dramas ("bai", 1865) and satirical comedies ("On all sages of pretty simplicity", 1868; "Money" 1869), historical plays from the era of the vague time. Almost all dramatic works of the Ostrovsky 1870s - early 1880s. Printed in the journal "Domestic Notes".

IN last years Creativity A. Ostrovsky creates social and psychological dramas about the fate of subtle-sensing women in the world of cynicism and spontaneous ("idleness", 1878; "Talents and fans", 1882; "Last victim", etc.). 47 Pieces of Ostrovsky created an extensive and unfavorable repertoire for the Russian scene.

Ostrogradsky Mikhail Vasilyevich (1801-1861). Mathematician and mechanic. He studied at Kharkov University (1816-1820). Professor of the officer classes of the Maritime Cadet Corps (from 1828), the Institute of Corps of Engineers of Railways (since 1830), the Chief Artillery School (from 1841). Academician (1830).

The main works belong to mathematical analysis, theoretical mechanics, mathematical physics. I solved an important scientific task about the propagation of waves on the surface of the fluid in the pool (1826). In physics works, differential heat propagation equations were obtained. Found a formula for the transformation of the integral in volume into the integral over the surface (Ostrogradsky formula - 1828). They built a general impact theory (1854). Of great importance was the work of Ostrogradsky on the theory of movement of spherical shells in the air and to clarify the effect of the shot on the gun yard.

Perov Vasily Grigorievich (1833-1882). Painter. He studied at the Arzamas School of Painting A.V. Stupina (1846-1849; with interruptions) and in the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1853-1861). Member of the partnership of mobile art exhibitions. At the beginning of the 60s. Perov created a number of accusatory genre paintings: described in detail about simple everyday life events, strengthening and focusing the social characteristics of the characters ("Rural Cross in Easter" (1861), "Tea drinking in Mytishchi" (1862), etc.). Work parisian period Against growing interest in human individuality, a pull-to-tonal color ("blind musician", 1864,) in the 2nd half of the 1860s. Critical trends in the works of Perov are implemented in works imbued with sympathy and compassion to the poor, disadvantaged people. Among them: "Wires of the Deader" (1865), "Troika" (1866), "Drilling" (1867), "Last Cabacus at the Ozda" (1868).

Perov created a number of paintings by the genre of close to the portrait, in which they sought to convey the individual qualities of people from the people, their ability to think deeply and feel ("Fomushka-owl", 1868, "Wanderer", 1870).

In the early 70s. Perov worked on portraits of representatives of the intelligentsia, emphasizing the creative start in them. For portraits of Perov characteristic of the objectivity of the relationship to the model, accuracy social characteristics, the unity of the composition, posture and gesture with the psychological state of a person (portraits: A.N. Ostrovsky, 1871, V.I. Dalya and F.M. Dostoevsky - both 1872).

Soon, the ideological crisis was tested (in 1877 he broke with mobile phones): From the accusatory genre that he moved mainly to the life-describing "hunting" scenes ("birds", 1870, "Prival Hunters" and "Fisherman" - both 1871) , as well as to historical painting, the victims in it have a number of creative failures ("Court Pugacheva", 1875). He taught in the Moscow School of Painting, Scarying and Architecture (1871-82).

Peter I Alekseevich (1672-1725), Russian king since 1682 (rules since 1689), Russian emperor (from 1721 Peter the Great), from the Romanov dynasty.

There was numerous reforms in various fields of public life - the creation of the Board, Senate, Synod, the abolition of the Patriarchate, the formation of state control bodies and political schools, building a new capital of Russia - St. Petersburg. Peter I is the creator of the Russian regular army and navy, a large commander and diplomat. I achieved victory in the protracted Northern War with Sweden (1700-1721), the Baltic lands joined Russia.

The role of Peter I in the history of the material and spiritual culture of Russia is great. In order to strengthen the economy, created manufactory, shipyard, metallurgical, mountain, weapons. Peter himself was a major shipbuilder of early XVIII century. At the initiative of Peter the Great, many educational institutions in Russia were opened, the Academy of Sciences was created, a civil alphabet was adopted, the first museum in the country, the Botanical Garden, etc. were found. He contributed to the transformation of the life of the Russian nobility (the introduction of European clothing, the opening of the Assemblies, etc.). Many Russian people received education in the West under Peter. In an effort to use the experience of Western European countries in the development of industry, trade, military affairs Peter the Great promoted Russia to the sign of Western civilization. As a result, the harmonious development of Russian culture was broken.

Pirogov Nikolai Ivanovich (1810-1881). Scientist, doctor, teacher and public figure. Born in the family of a small employee. In 1828 he graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of Moscow University, in 1836-1840. - Professor of theoretical and practical surgery of Derpt University. In 1841-1856 Professor of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgery Academy. Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (from 1847). Participant of Sevastopol Defense 1855, the guardian of Odessa (1856-1858) and Kiev (1858-1861) of training districts.

Pirogov is one of the founders of surgery as a scientific discipline. The main works are "surgical anatomy of arterial trunks and fascia" (1837), "Topographic anatomy" (1859), "On plastic operations in general and on rhinoplastics in particular" (1835), "the beginning of the total military field Surgery "(1866). I laid the foundation of topographic anatomy and operational surgery, made the idea of \u200b\u200bplastic operations (for the first time in the world put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bbone plastics). The first suggested rectal anesthesia, used anesthesia anesthesia in the clinic, applied for the first time in the world (in 1847) anesthesia in military field surgery.

N. Pirogov is the founder of military field surgery. He put forward the position of war as a "traumatic epidemic", about the unity of treatment and evacuation, about sorting the wounded. I traveled as a consultant to the theater of hostilities during the Franco-Prussian (1870-1871) and Russian-Turkish (1877-1878) of wars. I developed and implemented the methods of immobilization of limb (starch, gypsum bandages), first imposed a bandage in the field (1854), during the defense of Sevastopol (1855) attracted women (sisters of mercy) to care for wounded at the front. After the death of Pirogov, the society of Russian doctors in memory of N.I. Pirogov, regularly convened the Pirogov Congresses (12 regular and 3 extraordinary).

As a teacher N. Pirogov led the struggle with class prejudices in the field of education and education, he advocated the autonomy of universities, sought to implement overall primary learning.

Plekhanov Georgy Valentinovich (1857-1918). The theoretical and propagandist of Marxism, the founder of the Social Democratic Movement in Russia, a major researcher in the field of philosophy, sociology, aesthetics, religion, as well as history and economics.

G. Plekhanov - Creator of the Marxist Group "Liberation" (1883). The controversy with populists in the books "Socialism and Political Fighting", "Our Disagreements".

In 1901-1905 - one of the leaders of the created V.I. Lenin newspaper "Spark"; Later spoke against Bolshevism. In the philosophical and sociological works "On the issue of the development of a monistic view of the story" (1895), "Essay on the history of materialism" (1896), "On the question of the role of personality in history" (1898), a materialistic understanding of the story was developed, the dialectical method was applied to knowledge of public life. Related the concept of "Heroes - History Dealers", believing that the "people, the whole nation should be a hero of history." In the field of aesthetics stood in the positions of realism, considering art as a specific form of reflection of social life, the method of artistic development of reality.

Peru Plekhanov belongs to the "History of Russian Public Thought."

Polenov Vasily Dmitrievich (1844-1927). Painter. Active member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893), People's Artist of the RSFSR (1926).

He studied at the Academy of Arts (1863-1871), from 1878 - Mobile. From the late 1870s. Great place in his work began to hold a landscape. Polenov skillfully passed the quiet poetry and the incomplete beauty of Russian nature, achieved freshness of color, composite completion and clarity of the drawing. The most famous are: "Moscow courtyard" and "Babushkin Garden" - both of 1878; "Ingrown pond", 1879 in 1886-1887. A picture of "Christ and the sinner" - a canvas devoted to moral issues. The top of creativity V. Polenova - the picture "Golden Autumn" (1893). He worked a lot in the field of theatrical decorative painting.

Pushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich (1799-1837) - the genius of Russian literature, the creator of the modern Russian literary language, the founder of the domestic classics.

Education received in the Tsarskoselsky Lyceum (1811-1817), the participant of the literary society "Arzamas" and the "Green Lamp" mug. In verses 1817-1820. The dating and the freedom of Pushkin ("Wolney", "Village", "to Chaaadaev", etc.) manifested itself. In 1820, the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" is published, which has become a fracture in Russian poetry. In May 1820, Pushkin is sent to the south of Russia. The time of "South Links" - the era of the heyday of romanticism in the work of the poet. A. Pushkin (1821), Bakhchisarai Fountain (1823), Gypsy (1823) are "Southern Poise". Pushkin: "Caucasian Captive" (1823) In these poems, along with the perfection of a verse, a philosophical approach to the problems of freedom, personality, love was manifested.

In July 1824, Pushkin is excluded for unreliability from the service and will be sent to the generic estate - the village of Mikhailovskoye. Here the poet creates the central heads of the novel in verses "Yevgeny Onegin" (work on it began in May 1823), the "imitation of the Koran" cycle, the Satyric Poem "Count Nulin". At the same time Pushkin writes masterpieces of his lyrics - the poem "the desire of glory", "burned letter", "K" ("I remember a wonderful moment"), "Rhines the Forest of the Criminal Forest." A mature view of the story manifested itself in the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), in which the foundations of Pushkin's understanding of realism and nationality are laid.

In September 1826, the new emperor Nicholas I returns Pushkin from the link. A new period of life and creativity of the poet begins. New works are being created in prose - Roman "Arap Peter Great" (1827) and verses - "Stans" (1826), Poem "Poltava" (1828). Pushkin commits a trip to the Caucasus (1829), cooperates in the "literary newspaper" A. Deligus.

In the fall of 1830, in his Nizhny Novgorod estate, Boldino A. Pushkin is experiencing the flourishing of his creative forces (about 50 works of different genres have been created for 3 months). Here, Evgeny Onegin is mainly completed, a cycle of "Tale of Belkin" ("Shot", "Blizzard", "Ummaker", "Stationery", "Baryshnya-Peasantkaya"), were written, so-called. "Little tragedies" ("stingy knight", "Mozart and Salieri", "Stone Guest", "Pier during plague"). About 30 poems appeared in Boldin (including Elegy, "Spell", "for the shores of the dealer", "demons", etc.).

In 1831, Pushkin marries and moves to St. Petersburg. He carefully studies the history of Russia, gaining access to archives, works on the novel "Dubrovsky". In 1833, travels to the places of Pugachev Uprising - Volga region and the Urals. On the way back in Boldin Pushkin writes "Pugacheva's story", the poem "Copper Horseman", the story "Peak Lady", the poem "Autumn", the cycle "Songs of Western Slavs".

Since 1834, the last period of creativity A. Pushkin begins. He works on the "Peter's story", begins to publish the magazine "Contemporary" (p. 1836). Completes work on " Captain's daughter"- a historic novel about the uprising under the leadership of E. Pugacheva. Pushkin writes the philosophical story "Egyptian nights" (1835), a number of new poetic masterpieces ("It's time for my friend, it's time ...", "... I visited again," "from Pindimony", "I have been erected my monument to myself ... " and etc.). In verses 1834-1836 Philosophical meditation predominate, sadness, thoughts about death and immortality.

In January 1837 A.S. Pushkin received a fatal wound on the duel.

Radishchev Alexander Nikolaevich (1749-1802). Writer and philosopher. Son of a rich nobleman-landowner. He received an education in the Page Corps (1762-1766) and the University of Leipzig (1767-1771). From 1773 he served as an Ober-Auditor (legal adviser) Staff of the Finnish division (St. Petersburg), in 1775 - retired, and from 1777 again in the service in the Commerce-Collegia. From 1780 - Assistant Manager, and from 1790 - Managing St. Petersburg customs.

In 1771-1773 Radishchev performed a number of translations. At the turn of the 1770s and 1780s. He acts as an independent author (unfinished allegorical oratorio "Creation of the world" (1779), "Word about Lomonosov" (1780), "Letter to a friend, resident in Tobolsk" (1782) and Oda "liberty"). From the middle of the 1780s. A. Radishchev began working on his main book - "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow." In the book, he strongly condemned autocracy and serfdom. Condisted by the ideology of enlightenment, he brings the reader to the conclusion about the need for revolution. The book was published in May 1790, and on June 30, Radishchev was arrested. The court sentenced him to the death penalty, replaced by reference for 10 years in Ilimsk Ostrog Siberia with deprivation of ranks and nobility. The reference of Radishchev created a philosophical treatise "On a person, about his mortality and immortality" (1792-1795), a number of other works.

In Pavel, I Radishchev was transferred to one of the estates of the Father - with. Nemtsovo Kaluga province (1797), and Alexander I completely amnestied it. In 1801, Radishchev was determined to serve in the Commission of Compiling Laws. Working on projects of legislation, he put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bdestroying the estate privileges that did not find an understanding in the administration. In September 1802, A. Radishchev pooled.

Repin Ilya Efimovich (1844-1930). Great painter. Born in the family of the military settler. He studied in the drawing school of the Society for the promotion of artists and in the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1864-1871), was a scholarship in Italy and France (1873-1876). From 1878 a member of the partnership of mobile exhibitions. Full member of the Academy of Arts (1893).

In his work, the social contradictions of the Boreframe of Russia opened (the picture "Procession in the Kursk province"). Created images of the revolutionaries, the differences ("refusal of confession", "the arrest of the propagandist", "did not expect" 1879-1884). In the 1870s - 1880s. The best portraits (V.V. Stasova, A.F. Pistemsky, MP Mussorgsky, N.I. Pirogova, P.A. Streptova, L.N. Tolstoy). They disclose the inner world of outstanding figures of Russian culture. The outstanding canvases were created by Repin and in the genre of historical painting ("Tsarevna Sophia", 1979; "Ivan Grozny and his son Ivan" 1885; "Cossacks write a letter to Turkish Sultan", 1878-1891). One of the vertices of Repein's creativity was the monumental group portrait of the "Solemn Meeting of the State Council" (1901-1903).

In 1894-1907 Repin taught at the Academy of Arts, becoming a teacher I.I. Brodsky, I.E. Grabar, B.M. Kustodiev et al. Lived in the Manor "Penate" in Kuokkale (Finland). After 1917, in connection with the Finnish department, it was abroad.

Rimsky-Korsakov Nikolai Andreevich (1844-1908). Composer, teacher, conductor, public figure, music writer. From the nobles. He was educated in the St. Petersburg sea corps, at the end of which (1862) participated in swimming on the clip of "Almaz" (Europe, North and South America). In 1861 he became a member of the music and creative Commonwealth "Mighty Hand". Under the leadership of MA Balakirev, who had a great creative influence on Roman-Corsakov, created the 1st Symphony (1862-1865, 2nd edition 1874). In the 60s. wrote a number of romances (about 20), symphony works, incl. Music picture "Sadko" (1867, final edition of 1892), 2nd symphony ("Antar", 1868, later named Sitoy, the final edition of 1897); Opera "Pskovtyanka" (on Drama L.A. Maya, 1872, final edition 1894). From the 70s. musical activity Roman Corsakov has significantly expanded: he was a professor of Petersburg Conservatory (since 1871), inspector of the Spirit Orchestras of the Naval Office (1873-1884), the director of the free music school (1874-1881), an assistant manager of the court chapel (1883-1894) . He made a collection of "100 Russian folk songs" (1876, published 1877), the Russian songs collected by T.I. Philippov ("40 songs", published 1882).

The passion for the beauty and poetry of folk rites was reflected in the Opera "May Night" (according to N.V. Gogol, 1878) and especially in the "Snow Maiden" (according to A.N. Ostrovsky, 1881) - one of the most inspired and poetic writings of Roman Corsakov , as well as in written later Operators "Mlada" (1890), "Night before Merry" (according to Gogol, 1895). In the 80s. Most of the symphony works were created, incl. "Fairy Tale" (1880), "Symphony for Russian Topics" (1885), "Spanish Capricchio" (1887), Suite "Shehherazad" (1888), "Bright Holiday" overture (1888). In the 2nd half of the 90s. The work of Rimsky-Korsakov acquired exceptional intensity and diversity. After the Opera, the epic "Sadko" (1896) of Roman-Korsakov focuses on the inner world of man.

Roman Korsakov wrote music to the operations: "Mozart and Salieri", "Fear of Vera Solod" (prologue to the opera "Pskovtyanka", 1898), " Tsarist Bride"(1898). Opera "Tale of the Tsar Saltan" (Pushkin, 1900) with its theatricality and elements of the stylization of folk logbook and the majestic, patriotic legend opened "Tale of the Invisible Grade Cite and the Virgin Fevronia" (1904) - Masterpieces of Russian Music. Social and political focus was marked by two tales operas: "Kashing immortal" (1901), with her idea of \u200b\u200bliberation from the oppression, and the Golden Cockerel (Pushkin, 1907), satire on despotism.

The work of Rimsky-Korsakov is deeply originally and at the same time developing classical traditions. Harmonicity of worldview, subtle artistry, perfect skill and robust support on popular base His relatives with M.I. Glinka.

Rosanov Vasily Vasilyevich (1856-1919). Philosopher and writer. Developed the topic of opposition to Christ and peace, paganism and Christianity, which, in his opinion, expresses the globility of hopelessness and death. Spiritual revival should be accomplished on the basis of properly understood new Christianity, the ideals of which will certainly enthusiame not only in the other world, but also here on Earth. Culture, art, family, personality can be understood only in the framework of a new religious worldview as a manifestation of the "Godchild process", as the embodiment of the Divine in man and human history. Rosanov tried to build his philosophy of Rosanov's lifetime, family ("family as religion", 1903), gender. Main works: "On understanding", 1886; "Family question in Russia", 1903; "In the world of unclear and unresolved," 1904; "Near the walls of church", 2 tons, 1906; "Dark Lick. Metaphysics of Christianity ", 1911; "People of lunar light. Metaphysics of Christianity ", 1911; "Favoring leaves", 1913-1915; "Religion and Culture", 1912; "From the eastern motives", 1916.

Rublev Andrey (approx. 1360 - approx. 1430). Russian painter.

Biographical information about the great artist of medieval Russia is very scarce. Brought up in a secular environment, in adulthood, the monastic stop took. The worldview of Andrei Rublev was formed in the atmosphere of the spiritual lift of the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries. With his deep interest in religious issues. The artistic style of Rublev was formed on the basis of the traditions of the art of Moscow Rus.

Not only a deep religious feeling is embodied in the works of Rublev, but also an understanding of the spiritual beauty and moral power of man. Icons of Zvenigorodsky China (Archangel Mikhail, "Apostle Paul", "Savior") make up the pride of medieval Russian iconography. Laconic smooth outlines, wide logging of letters close to monumental painting techniques. The best icon of the brush Rublev - "Trinity" was created at the turn of the XIV and XV centuries. The traditional biblical plot is filled with philosophical content. Harmony of all elements is an artistic expression of the basic idea of \u200b\u200bChristianity.

In 1405, Andrei Rublev, together with the Fauofan Greek and Prokhor, with the city, painted the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and in 1408 with Daniel Black - Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and created an icons for his three-tiered iconostasis. In 1425-1427 The Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergiev Monastery painted and wrote the icons of his iconostasis.

The work of Andrei Rublev is the top of the ancient Russian painting, the treasure of world culture.

Savitsky Konstantin Apollonovich (1844-1905). Painter. He studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1862-1873. A member of the partnership of mobile exhibitions of 1878 taught in the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1891-1897) and the Penza Art School (from 1897 to death), whose director was.

The author of genre paintings of the accusatory orientation, in which was able to convey the psychology of the masses. The most famous canvases: "Repair work on the railway", 1874, "Meeting icons", 1878; "On War", 1880-1888; "The dispute on the bope", 1897 also created the etchings and lithographs.

Savrasov Alexey Kondratievich (1830-1897). Painting-landscape. He studied in 1844-1854. In the Moscow School of Painting, Scary and Architecture, where in 1857-1882. He led the landscape class. One of the founders of the partnership of mobile exhibitions.

Landscapes A. Savrasov are distinguished by lyrical immediacy, skillful transmission of the deep inventiness of Russian nature. Most famous paintings Savrasova - "Losina Island in Sokolniki" (1869), "Grachei flew" (1871), "Caps" (1873). He had a huge influence on Russian landscape players of the late XIX - early XX centuries (K. Korovina, I. Levitan, etc.).

Seraphim Sarovsky (1759-1833) in the world Moshnin Prokhor Sidorovich. Orthodox devotee, Ieromona of the Sarov desert, was canonized in 1903. Since 1778, he was admitted to the monastic fraternity of the Sarov desert. Since 1794, he chooses the path of fineness, and then silent, is made by the rejection. After leaving the shutter in 1813, his spiritual children were many laity, as well as sisters of the Dively Westing Community, founded in 1788 in 12 versts from the Sarov desert. Since 1825, Seraphim took the days in the forest cell near the monastery. It happened to his meetings with spiritual children. Despite the burden of life, he retained the enlightened and peaceful state of the spirit. Isihast, in the strictest ascetic dedicated to God. The doctrine and the image of Saint Seraphim of Sarovsky donated Donskoy, later Sergius will become the godfather of his children). The scene of the Grand Paint-Buddler opened for Sergius the road to wide political activities. In 1374, he takes part in the Great Congress of Russian Princes in Pereslavl, where the princes agreed on the joint struggle against Mamay, and later blesses Dmitry Donskoy on this struggle; In 1378-1379. Solves questions about the device of the Russian Church and Monastic Life. Sergius introduced a hostel charter, destroying the monks existing before the separate residence; He and his disciples have done a lot of work on the organization and construction of Russian monasteries. Sergius Radonezh in the 80s. Conflicts stands between Moscow and other principalities (Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod). Contemporaries highly appreciated Sergius Radonezhsky.

I.A. Ilyin, Sh. De Waiy. In 1766 he moved to Rome. Returned to St. Petersburg in 1768. From 1772. He played a leading role in the Commission on the Stone Building of St. Petersburg and Moscow, engaged in the planning of cities (Voronezh, Pskov, Nikolaev, Ekaterinoslav). Supervisor. Much designed for the book. G.A. Potemkin. From 1769 - Adjunct-Professor, from 1785 - Professor, from 1794. Adjunct-rector of architecture of the Academy of Arts. From 1800 he headed the Commission for the construction of the Kazan Cathedral.

One of the leading classicist masters of the end of the XVIII century. Noteworthy style stiffness, his work has had a huge impact on the development of a classic school. So, the Tauride Palace became a model of manor construction in Russia.

Major works: in St. Petersburg - the Tauride Palace, Trinity Cathedral and the Nevratovaya Church of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra; A number of manor houses in the vicinity of St. Petersburg, of which are preserved at home in Thai and Skloritsa, Palace in Pelle (not preserved); Palaces in Bogoroditsk, Bobrik and Nikolsky-Gagarine near Moscow. Bogoroditsky Cathedral in Kazan; Magistrate in Nikolaev.

Surikov Vasily Ivanovich (1848-1916). Historical painter. Born in the Cossack family. He studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1869-1875) at P.P. Cleaner. Valid member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893). Since 1877, he lived in Moscow, systematically drove to Siberia, was on Don (1893), on the Volga (1901-1903), in Crimea (1913). I visited Germany, France, Austria (1883-1884), Switzerland (1897), Italy (1900), Spain (1910). Member of the partnership of mobile art exhibitions (from 1881).

Surikov passionately loved Russian Starin: turning to the complex turning age in the history of Russia, he sought in the past of the people to find an answer to the exciting questions of modernity. In the 1880s. Surikov created his most significant works - monumental historical paintings: "Morning Streletzka execution" (1881), "Menshikov in Berezov" (1883), "Bearing Morozova" (1887). With the depth and objectivity of the insightful historian, Surikov revealed the tragic contradictions of the history, the logic of its movement, testing, challenged the nature of the people, the struggle of the historical forces in Petrovsky, in the era of the split, during the years of popular movements. The main acting person in his paintings is fighting, suffering, a triumphant folk mass, an infinitely diverse, rich in bright types. After death in 1888, Surikov's wife fell into the sharp depression, left painting. Overcoming after a trip to Siberia (1889-1890) a severe spiritual state, he created a web "Taking a snowy town" (1891), imprinuating the image of the people, full delete, fun. In the picture "Conquest Siberia Ermacom" (1895), the thought of the artist is revealed in the bold remote Cossack troops, in a kind of beauty of human types, clothes, decorations of the Siberian tribes. In the picture "Transition Suvorov through the Alps" (1899), the courage of Russian warriors. During the reaction, he worked (1909-1910) over the picture "Stepan Razin". Patriotic, truthful creativity of Surikova, for the first time with such a force that showed people as a driving force of history, has become a new stage in world historical painting.

Tolstoy Lion Nikolaevich, Count (1828-1910). Great Russian writer. Received a home education, in 1844-1847. He studied at Kazan University. In 1851-1853 participates in hostilities in the Caucasus, and then in Crimean war (on the Danube and in Sevastopol). Military impressions Dali L. Tolstoy Material for the stories "Rieble" (1853), "Rubbing Forest" (1855), art essays "Sevastopol in December", "Sevastopol in May", "Sevastopol in August 1855" (published in the journal "Contemporary" in 1855-1856), Tale "Cossacks" (1853-1863). To the early period of the creativity of Tolstoy belongs to the story "Childhood" (the first printed work, published in the "Contemporary" in 1852), "Defense", "Youth" (1852-1857).

In the late 1850s. L. Tolstoy survived the spiritual crisis from which he found a way out in convergence with the people, in concerns about his needs. In 1859-1862 he gives a lot of strength Casual Polyana School for peasant children, during the peasant reform, acts as the global mediator of the Krapivsky county, protecting the interests of the peasants liberated from the fortress dependence.

It's time for the heyday of the artistic genius of Lev Tolstoy - the 1860s. He lives and works in a clear clearing. C1860, he writes the novel "Decembrists" (the intention was left), and from 1863 - "War and Peace". Work on the main novel L. Tolstoy went to 1869 (publishing from 1865). "War and Peace" - a work that combines the depth of the psychological novel with the scope of the novel epic. Images of the novel, his concept - glorified Tolstoy, made his creation of the top of world literature.

The main work of L. Tolstoy 1870s. - Roman "Anna Karenina" (1873-1877, publ. - 1876-1877). This is an urgent work, in which a strong protest against the public hypocrisy. The sophisticated mastery of Tolstoy manifested itself in the characters of the heroes of the novel.

By the end of the 1870s. The worldview of Lion Tolstoy is formed - so-called. "Treaty". It was expressed in his works "Confession" (1879-1880), "What is my faith?" (1882-1884). Tolstoy appears with the criticism of the teachings of the Orthodox Church, trying to create his religion. He claims to "update" and "cleansing" of Christianity (Proceedings "Study of dogmatic theology" (1879-1880), "Connection and translation of the four Gospels" (1880-1881) and others). A sharp criticism of modern civilization is given L. Tolstoy in journalistic works "So what do we do?" (1882), "slavery of our time" (1899-1900).

Interest shows L. Tolstoy and to drama. The drama "Power of Darkness" and the comedy "Fruits of Enlightenment" (1886-1890) had a great success. Themes of love, life and death and in the 1880s. - Central for tolstovskaya prose. Masterpieces were the lead "Death of Ivan Ilyich" (1884-1886), "Creicheraova Sonata" (1887-1899), "Devil" (1890). In the 1890s. The main artistic work of L. Tolstoy became the Roman "Resurrection" (1899). Artistically exploring the fate of people from the people, the writer paints the picture of the curence and oppression, calls for a spiritual awakening, "Resurrection". The sharp criticism of church rites in the novel led to the excavation of L. Tolstoy Holy Synod from the Orthodox Church (1901).

In the same years, L. Tolstoy produces works published posthumously (in 1911-1912) - "Father Sergius", "Hadji Murat", "After Bala", "Fake coupon", "live corpse." In the story, "Haji-Murat" is reflected by the despotism of Shamil and Nikolai I, and in the play "Living Corp" attention was riveted to the problem of the "care" of a person from the family and from the environment in which it became a "shame" to live.

In the last years of L. Tolstoy, L. Tolstoy speaks with journalistic articles against militarism and the death penalty ("I can not be silent", etc.). Care, death and funeral L. Tolstoy in 1910 became a large public event.

Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich (1818-1883). Great Russian writer. Mother - V.P. Lutovinova; Father - S.N. Turgenev, officer, participant in the Patriotic War of 1812. The children's years of Turgenev spent in the estate of the mother - with. Spassky-Lutovinovo Oryol province. In 1833 he entered Moscow University, a year later he moved to St. Petersburg University to the verbal branch of the Faculty of Philosophy (graduated from 1837). To the 30s series. The early poetic experiments of I. Turgenev. In 1838, the first poems of Turgenev "Evening" and "to Venus Medica" were published in the contemporary journal. In 1842, Turgenev endured the University of St. Petersburg the exam on the Master of Philosophy, made a trip to Germany. Upon return served in the Ministry of the Interior official special instructions (1842-1844).

In 1843, the poem of Turgenev Parashai was published, highly appreciated by Belinsky; Following it, the poems "Conversation" (1845), "Andrei" (1846) and the "landowner" (1846) are published. In prosaic works of these years - "Andrei Kolosov" (1844), "Three Portrait" (1846), "Breter" (1847) - Turgenev continued the development of the problem of personality and society nominated romanticism.

IN dramatic works Turgenev - genre scenes "lack of money" (1846), "Breakfast at the leader" (1849, published 1856), "Bachelor" (1849) and social drama "Nachlebank" (1848, was delivered in 1849, published in 1857) - in the image of a "little man" the traditions of N.V. Gogol. In the plays "where it is thin," provincial "(1851)," Month in the village "(1850, published in 1855) are expressed by Turgenev's defentiolence of the noble intelligentsia, the monitoring of the new hero.

The cycle of essays "Hunter's Notes" (1847-1852) The most significant work of young Turgenev. It had a great influence on the development of Russian literature and brought the author world fame. The book was translated into many European languages \u200b\u200band already in the 50s., Being actually banned in Russia, withstood many publications in Germany, France, England. In the center of the essays - a fortress peasant, intelligent, talented, but dying. Turgenev discovered a sharp contrast between " dead souls»Landlords and high spiritual qualities Peasants arising in communicating with a great nature, excellent nature.

In 1856, Rudin novel appeared in the "contemporary" - a peculiar result of the thunderness of Turgenev about the advanced Hero of modernity. The point of view of Turgenev at the "excess person" in Rudine dual: recognizing the meaning of the Rudinsky "Word" in the awakening of the consciousness of people of the 40s, he notes the lack of propaganda alone high ideas In the context of the Russian life of the 50s.

In the novel, the "noble nest" (1859) is sharply raised by the question of the historical destinies of Russia. Hero of the novel Lavretsky closer to folk life, it is better to understand the needs of the people. He considers his duty to alleviate the fate of the peasants.

Turgenev in the novel "On the eve" (1860) expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need for creatively heroic nature. In the form of the dispenser Bulgarian Insarov, the writer brought a person with a one-way character, all moral forces of which are focused on the desire to free their homeland.

In the novel "Fathers and Children" (1862), Turgenev continued the artistic understanding of the "new person." The novel is not just about changing generations, but about the struggle of ideological directions (idealism and materialism), on the inevitable and intransigent collision of old and new socio-political forces.

After "fathers and children" for the writer, a period of doubt and disappointments came. There are "ghosts" (1864), "pretty" (1865), performed by sad thoughtup and pessimistic sentiment. In the center of Roman "Smoke" (1867) - the problem of the cinema reform of Russia. The novel wore a sharply satirical and antislavyatile character. Roman "Nov'" - (1877) - Roman about the people's movement. I.S. Turgenev - Master of Russian prose. His creativity has the sophisticated art of psychological analysis.

Tyutchev Fedor Ivanovich (1803-1873). Russian poet. Belonged to the old nobility. In 1819-1821. He studied on the verbal branch of Moscow University. At the end of the course is enrolled in the service of the Foreign Affairs College. Consisted with Russian diplomatic missions in Munich (1822-1837) and Turin (1837-1839). In 1836 A.S. Pushkin, admired by the verses of Tyutchev, delivered to him from Germany, printed them in the "contemporary". Returning to Russia (1844), Tyutchev since 1848 held the position of senior censorship of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and from 1858 and until the end of the life headed the Foreign Censorship Committee.

As the poet Tyutchev developed at the turn of the 20-30s. By this time there are masterpieces of his lyrics: "insomnia", "Summer Evening", "Vision", "Last Cataclysm", "Like Ocean Ball Ground", "Cicero", "Spring Water", "Autumn Evening". Fused by passionate, tense thought and at the same time a sharp feeling of the tragedy of life, Lyric Tyutchev artistically expressed the complexity and contradiction of reality. In 1854, the first collection of his poems was released, who received the recognition of contemporaries. 40th - 50th. XIX century - the heyday of the poetic talent of F.I. Tyutchev. In itself, the poet feels "terrible split", which is, according to his conviction, the distinguishing property of man XIX century. ("Our Age", 1851, "Oh my meaning soul!", 1855, etc.).

Tyutcheva lyrics are impregnated with anxiety. The world, nature, people appear in his verses in a constant confrontation of the opposing forces.

In the 50-60s. The best works are created love lyrics Tyutchev, stunning psychological truth in the disclosure of human experiences.

Penetrated lyrics and poet-thinner F.I. Tyutchev was a Russian verse master, which attached the traditional dimensions of an extraordinary rhythmic diversity that was not afraid of unusual expressive combinations.

Fedorov Ivan (Fedorov-Moskvitin) (approx. 1510-1583). Founder of typography in Russia and in Ukraine. He was a deacon of the Church of Nikola Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin. Probably in the 50s. XVI in. He worked in the so-called anonymous printing house in Moscow. In 1564, together with Peter Mstislavts, the Apostle was published, known as the first Russian print edition (However, 9 books were printed). The "apostle" is skillfully ornamented. Ivan Fedorov created the so-called anti-shirt style, and the font developed on the basis of the Moscow semi-art letter of the middle of the XVI century.

In 1566, because of the persecution of the Josephlantian church, Ivan Fedorov moved to Lithuania, worked in Zabludov, then in Lviv, Ostrog, published the "Evening", "Bible", "New Testament", "Ostrog Bible" - the first full Slavic Bible. I. Fedorov was a versatile master who owned many crafts: he invented a multi-dimensional mortist, cast guns.

Fedorov Nikolai Fedorovich (1828-1903). Religious thinker, philosopher. In the composition of the "Philosophy of General Cause" (vol. 1-2, 1906-1913), published after the death of Fedorov his students and followers, he proposed the original system - Cosmism, - the subordinate idea of \u200b\u200b"Patrophanization" (the resurrection of the ancestors - "fathers"), Which implied the recreation of all living generations, their transformation and return to God. Their "resurrection" saw in the possibility of regulating the blind forces of nature by means of developing science and technology, mastering their achievements. This, according to Fedorov, could lead to universal fraternity and kinship ("the union of sons for the resurrection of fathers"), to overcoming any enmity, gap between thought and affair, "scientists" and "unarenly", city and country, wealth and poverty ; In addition, prerequisites would be created to stop all wars and militaristic aspirations. The Christian idea of \u200b\u200bpersonal salvation considered the opposite cause of universal salvation and therefore immoral. Recognition came to him after his death, at the beginning of the XX century, during the period of the patient's hobby in mysticism.

Florensky Pavel Alexandrovich (1882-1937). Religious philosopher, scientist, priest and theologian. In 1911, he accepted the priesthood, until the closure of the Moscow Spiritual Academy in 1919 was edited by the magazine "Theological Bulletin". In 1933, he was arrested. The central questions of his main work "Pillars and the approval of truth" (1914) - the concept of alliance and the doctrine of Sofia, as well as the rationale for Orthodox dogmatics, especially the trinity, asceticism and reverence of the icons. The religious and philosophical issues are subsequently widely combined with Florensky with research in various fields of knowledge - linguistics, theory of spatial arts, mathematics, physics. Here he tried to combine the truth of science with religious faith, believing that only Revelation could be the primary way of "setting" the truth. Main works: "The meaning of idealism", 1914; "Near Homyakov", 1916; "The first steps of philosophy", 1917; "Iconostasis", 1918; "Thrust in geometry", 1922. In 1937, shot at Solovki.

Frank Semen Ludwigovich (1877-1950). Religious philosopher and psychologist. Professor of Saratov and Moscow universities until 1922, when he was expelled together with a large group of philosophers, writers and public figures from Soviet Russia. Until 1937, he lived in Berlin, where he taught at Berlin University, he was part of the Religious and Philosophical Academy, organized by N.A. Berdyaev, participated in the publication of the journal "Path". From 1937 he lived in Paris, and then before his death - in London. Back in 1905-1909. Edited the magazine "Polar Star", and then participated in the edition of the collection "Milestones", where he printed the article "Ethics of Nihilism" - a sharp rejection of the rigoristic moralism and the poor perception of the world of revolutionary intelligentsia.

In his philosophical views, Frank supported and developed the idea of \u200b\u200bunity in the spirit of V.S. Solovyov, tried to reconcile rational thinking with the religious faith in the way of overcoming the controversialness of the Divine value of the whole, imperfection of the world and the construction of Christian theotian and ethics. All his life, the philosopher argued as the highest value of "comprehensive love as perception and recognition of the value of all the specific living." Main works: "Friedrich Nietzsche and Ethics of Love to Far", 1902; "Philosophy and Life", St. Petersburg, 1910; "The subject of knowledge", 1915; "Man's soul", 1918; "Essay Methodology of Social Sciences." M., 1922; "Live knowledge." Berlin, 1923; "The wreck of idols." 1924; "Spiritual Fundamentals of the Company", 1930; "Difficult". Paris, 1939; "Reality and man. Metaphysics of human being. " Paris, 1956; "God is with us". Paris, 1964.

Tchaikovsky Peter Ilyich (1840-1893). Great composer. Son of the mountain engineer of the Kamsko-Vyatkinsky plant of Vyatka province. In 1850-1859 He studied in the School of Law (St. Petersburg), and then (in 1859-1863) served in the Ministry of Justice. In the early 1860s. He studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (graduated in 1865 with honors). In 1866-1878 - Professor of the Moscow Conservatory, author of the textbook "Guide to the Practical Study of Harmony" (1872). Spoke as a music critic.

Already in the Moscow period of life, P. Tchaikovsky comes the flourishing of his work (1866-1877). Three symphonies, the fantasy-fantasy "Romeo and Juliet", the symphony fantasy "storm" (1873) and Francesca da Rimini (1876), the Opera "Voevoda" (1868), "Okrichnik" (1872), "Kuznets" (1874, 2nd Ed. - Cherevichki, 1885), Ballet "Swan Lake" (1876), music to the play by A. Ostrovsky "Snow Maiden" (1873), piano plays (including cycle "Seasons" ") and etc.

In the fall of 1877, P. Tchaikovsky went abroad, where he completely devoted himself to composer labor. In these years, the Opera "Orleans" (1879), Mazepa (1883), "Italian Capricchio" (1880) and three suits are written. In 1885, Tchaikovsky returned to his homeland.

From 1892 P.I. Tchaikovsky lives in a wedge (Moscow province). It renews active musical and social activities. He is elected director of the Moscow branch of the Russian Music Society. Since 1887, Tchaikovsky acts as a conductor.

In 1885-1893 Created a number outstanding workswho entered the treasury of world music. Among them: Operas "Clavetok" (1887), "Peak Lady" (1890), "Iolanta" (1891), Ballets "Sleeping Beauty" (1889), "Nutcracker" (1892), Menfred Symphony (1885) , 5th Symphony (1888), 6th Patatheal Symphony (1893), Orchestral Suite "Mozartiana" (1887).

Music Tchaikovsky - Top of Russian musical culture. He is one of the greatest composers-symphonists. It is characterized by a melody-generous musical speech, lyric-dramatic expression. His best operas are psychologically-deep vocal symphonic tragedies. Tchaikovsky ballets due to the introduction of the principles of symphony drama - a new stage in the development of this genre. Tchaikovsky - author 104 romances.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828-1889). Thinker, publicist, writer, literary critic. In 1856-1862 Head of the magazine "Contemporary", an ideologist of the revolutionary movement of the 1860s. The author of many works on philosophy, sociology, political economy, aesthetics. One of the generics of population. His ideals are reflected in the novels "What to do?" (1863) and "Prolog" (1869). In the public sciences supporter of materialism and anthropologism. Hostile also treated to autocracy, and to liberalism.

In 1862, he was arrested, and in 1864 he was sentenced to 7 years of cortic. I was serving the boot and reference in Eastern Siberia. In 1883, translated into Astrakhan, and then to Saratov, where he died.

Chekhov Anton Pavlovich (1860-1904). Great Russian writer. Born in Taganrog, in the family of a merchant of the Third Guild. In 1868-1878. He studied in the gymnasium, and in 1879-1884. At the medical faculty of Moscow University. Engaged in medical practice.

From the late 1870s. Collaborated in the humorous journal. The first collections of the stories Chekhov - "Fairy Tales of Melpomen" (1884) and "Mottle Stories" (1886). In the mid-1880s. Comes from pure humorous story To serious works. There are stories and the story "Steppe" (1888), "Flip", "boring story" (1889). Czech collection "At dusk" (1888) was marked by Pushkin Prize.

In 1890, A. Chekhov is taking a trip to Sakhalin Island (at that time - the court zone of Russia). The results of the trip were the essay book "Sakhalin Island" (1894), the stories "in the link", "murder". In 1892, the story "Chamber No. 6" was published.

From 1892, Chekhov settled in the estate of Melikhovo (Serpukhov district of the Moscow province). It is time for the heyday of creativity A. Chekhov. He writes stories "Student" (1894), "Ionch" (1898), "Lady with a dog" (1899), the story "three years" (1895), "House with mezzanine", "My life" (both - 1896) , "Men" (1897), "in the ravine" (1900). These works are permeated by the desire of the writer to disclose the truth of life, they denounce the spiritual stagnation. The principle of Chekhov's prose is laconicism, compression. The writer claims the Maneru of a restrained, objective narrative. Events as if dissolving in the daily course of life, in psychology.

A.P. Chekhov is a reformer of world dramaturgy. The first plays and waterville were written by them in the second half of the 1880s. ("Ivanov" and others).

In 1896 his play "Seagull" appears (failed on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater). Only in 1898 in Moscow Art Theater She went with the triumph. In 1897, Piez Chekhov "Uncle Vanya" was published, in 1901 - "three sisters" (marked by Griboedovskaya Prize), in 1904 - "Cherry Garden". All these plays were put on the MCAT scene. In Pieces A. Chekhov, there is no scene-intrigue, and the center of gravity moved to the hidden, the inner plot associated with the spiritual world of heroes.

raper.

On February 25, 2010, Noize MC (Ivan Alekseyev) responded to an accident with the participation of the Vice-President of LUKOIL, Anatoly Barkova, as a result of which two women died (one of them is a familiar musician). Barkov did no statement; But the next day after the accident on the Internet, the Noize MC "Mercedes 666 - Road Kolesteritsa" appeared on the Internet, about 750 thousand people were watched. And on August 31, Ivan Alekseeva was detained after a concert in Volgograd, at which he called the police "animals", and planted for ten days "for petty hooliganism." Immediately after his release, a clip was posted on the "10th day" song, in which Noize MC told how he spent the time in conclusion. He was watched by almost a million users. In modern culture, Noize MC actually acts as a popular television, which in an affordable form tells about what is happening around and gives this own assessment.

Marat Gelman

gallist, Director of the Perm Museum of Contemporary Art

Over the past two years, Marat Gelman has become a symbol of successful cultural policy in the regions of Russia. In 2009, he created the Perm Museum of Contemporary Art, around which a stormy cultural life was gradually unfolded: in Perm, under the auspices of Gelman and his fierce opponents (for example, Alexey Ivanov's writer), festivals, exhibitions, film and theatrical experiments and scandals were held. " Public activities In the cultural environment, it becomes more and more, - noted the curator of exhibitions and art historian Andrei Erofeev, who called Gelman among the authoritative cultural figures. - For the year, this movement increased markedly, rising almost from the zero point. For example, the activity of Marat Gelman, his desire to become an alternative minister of culture is indicative: if the environment had not fueled its energy, he would not give him impulses, he would not participate in anything. "

Peter Mamonov

musician and actor, leader of the group "Sounds MU"

The main domestic weak border of the XX and XXI centuries, Peter Mamonov always personified his free man. And the monk, whimsal and martyr, in the "island" (2006), Pavel Lungin, Mamonov, was almost the "conscience of the nation" - a guru, calling us to faith, prayer and repentance. A peculiar inverse of this role was his Ivan Terrgin in the "king" (2009) of the same Lungin, where Mamonov was just as presidentially demonstrated, for what the lawlessness and abuse of power leads to Russia. These two roles are the Mercy Father Anatoly and the king of the King Ivan - as the two sides of the Russian nature, at the same time unforgettable and merciless. And Mamonov - hardly the only modern actor who embodies them with frightening accuracy.

Victor Pelevin

writer

In the 90s Pelevin, in essence, invented and mythologized Russia, which was not yet. The word "Pelevinshchina" went into use as a designation of the absurd social reality of "new Russians". Fixing this reality and finding it the most fantastic explanations, Pelevin earned the title of chief chronicler and the interpreter of modernity. Our era of non-public politics especially needs such interpreters. In fact, the pellevin books are the myths of the peoples of Russia of the late XX - the beginning of the XXI century, partly created, part of the collected and sparky writer. He is not just engaged in the interpretation of our life from the most fantastic position, he created an algorithm of such a relationship to life and to the literature and spawned a whole generation of writers, "bruised Pelevin".

Yuri Norstein

multiplier

Classic of world animation and favorite director Miyazaki, Yuri Norstein finished his last cartoon - "Winter days" - seven years ago. Another work is a screening of Gogol Schineli, started back in 1981, and not completed for financial reasons. The loyalty to my own art, which will survive any market relations, has long turned Norstein to one of the pillars of the creative intelligentsia. His authority is so great that his cartoon fans decided to collect money on the "Shinel": they threw the cliche about the master's material assistance. But, as a true intelligent, Norstens from this help refused, in return by offering to arrange auction for the sale of its drawings, revenue from which and will go to the completion of the project.

Yuri Shevchuk

musician, leader of the DDT group

The symbol of forever living Russian rock. "I highlight the internal freedom of Yuri Shevchuk, who asked several honest questions of Putin" - so explained his choice in our project Sociologist Daniel Donturee. Having introduced himself at the meeting of the premiere with cultural figures as "Jura Shevchuk, a musician", he actually allowed the possibility of the dialogue of power and society, the conversation of two equal - the musician of Yura and Prime Minister Volodya. And before that, in March, at the ceremony of awards "Chartov Dress" in the Olympic "Shevchuk, said a flame on the" total corruption ", about the" bastards, nursing in power, in chains, with flashers in the head. " Musicians, he called to return the ROCA political component: "I am not a politician, but rock is not when everything is good, and when something bad, and you have to sing and talk about it."

Lyudmila Petrushevskaya

writer

Over the years, Lyudmila Stefanovna Petrushevskaya becomes more and more multimedia. Having won a reputation for brilliant playwright by writing a series of scenarios to cartoons, including the famous tale of fairy tale, conquering readers with his prose, she in recent years successfully tried herself as an artist, and also sings songs for several years and performs with its own cabaret. But nevertheless, first of all, Petrushevskaya remains a writer, whose book "Time Night", published in the early 90s, largely predetermined the path of the development of Russian-speaking literature.

Vladimir Sorokin

writer

In 2000, Sorokin from the main anfan terribly of Russia turned into a living classic, whose importance and authority are not questioned even by his ideological opponents. He rewrites our reality, talking about the past, then about the future, then about some parallel space, but every time this story is obtained by an exact portrait of us and our time. This portrait of this is not too flattering: the so-called "the world of the Ochrichnik" is an evil parody of the current Russian society, where the existing social trends are underlined and communicated to the limit.

Vasily Sigarev

kinorazhissar

One of the participants of the Russian new drama, Vasily Sigarev made his debut in the cinema with the picture "Wolf" (2009) - a story about the love of a little girl to his mother. The "Wolf" became the triumpham of last year's "Kinotaur", having received almost all possible prizes - for the best film, the best script and the best female role. While the new drama disassembled with social conflicts, Sigarev was one of the first to understand himself and removed the most personal film of the last decade. It is the orientation for his own voice, no matter how strange and disharmonious, he has determined the intonation " new Wave»Russian cinema-generation directorists who are no longer so worried about social injustice, because their inner world is much more important, more difficult and more dramatic.

Mikhail Ugarov

director and playwright, artistic director of theater.doc

Ideologue of a new drama, Mikhail Ugarov over the past ten years rallied around him active creative group playwrights, directors and actors who do not agree with the traditional repertoire theater and its laws. They write, put and play performances about modern life - About what happens around us and with us about today's social reality. UGAROV - one of those who introduced a fashion for an active discussion of modern times in culture: in the spring he received the "Golden Mask" for the performance "Life" on the play Paul Bicycle, with a tough little language and almost antique tragedy of small people - "Single-cell" as they call their critics. Coauthor (together with his wife Elena Gremina) of the most terrible performance about today's life in Russia - "An hour of eighteen", delivered according to documentary evidence of death in the lawyer of lawyer Sergei Magnitsky.

Photo: Alexey Mayshev for RR; ITAR-TASS (3); Dmitry Lekai / Kommersant; OPALE / FOTOLINK (2); Photoxpress; Dmitry Belyakov for "RR"