The types of smokers despite the fact that dependence on cigarettes in different people is formed approximately the same, it is still individual for everyone. If you understand the reasons for which the individual smokes, it will be clear how to act to get rid of harmful

Hair Types Preserving hair cover, hair health - a problem that a person pays attention throughout life. The presence of hair is generally, the more beautiful and intact, it is important for human self-assumption as well as the presence of healthy teeth, skin, stomach

Memory types Memory is like an entry in the brain of interesting conversations, some cases, bright scenes or important events. There are three types of memory, which differ in time passed since the event before the memories of it. Each type of memory activates its

Types of pain pain are divided into somatic and visceral. Somatic pain can be superficial if it occurs in the skin, or deep - if in the muscles, bones, joints or connective tissue. The surface pain is epicritical, or early, acute, fast,

Oh, these types! Highlight two main types of energy vampires: 1. "Energy leeches" - they are still nicely called "lunar vampires". Like the thieves, they take the energy in the literal sense of "without noise and dust." This is usually bore, whirls, whose eternal discontent

The guide to the main sections of the grammar of the Latin language (phonetics, morphology, syntax) is intended for classic philologists, philologists - novelists, students of classical and non-society offices of higher educational institutions.
Grammar information is collected in the table, which allows you to quickly find the necessary data and easy to understand the difficult story of the language of the ancient Romans.

Initial Romance (IV-VIII century).
The time of education of Romanesque languages \u200b\u200bfrom People's Latin originates from the weakening of Rome in about the IV century of the new era. The provinces are becoming increasingly independent, communication between different parts of the empire and the eternal city are increasingly permanent. Differences accumulate, dialects are formed. In phonetics, it is all sorts of investigations from the disappearance of longitude and shorts of vowels (see Table 15). Power emphasis appears. Shock and unstressed vowels are developing according to various laws (see Table 16). Changes in combination standing in the People's Latin are significantly enhanced (see Table 17). It is in this era that the grounds are laid for differences in the sound of Romanesque languages \u200b\u200b(see Table 18).

Peopleolatin changes continued in the declination system, which led to the complete destruction of the paradigm. From 5 classic Latin declarations with 4 cases in each remaining hardly distinguishable 3 classes that do not have cases at all (see Table 19i). The pronouns form articles (there - the table 19i).

In the verb system, it continues to mix paradigms, replacing the consumable classic verbs of conversational. The number of descriptive forms of different times increases (see Table 20).
This period, covering the IV-VIII century AD, ends with a mature medieval - the time for the appearance of writing in Romanesque languages.

Free download e-book in a convenient format, see and read:
Download Latin Book in Tables, Grammar Handbook, Makhlin P.Ya., 2008 - FilesKachat.com, Fast and Free Download.

• Latin, Glabolm Reference, Bogatyreva I.I., 2011
• Lingua Latina, Latin language textbook, 36 lessons for full course
• Latin language textbook for non-philological humanitarian faculties of universities, Kozarzhevsky A.Ch., 1981

The following textbooks and books:

• English modal verbs, reference book, Mitrushkin T.V., 2012 - English modal verbs directory is a practical guide to the use of modal verbs in modern English. Addressed to students of secondary schools, ...
• English pronouns, reference book, Mitrushkina T.V., 2012 - In the reference book in a systematic form, everything you need to know about the features of the use of pronoun in modern English. He is … English Dictionaries, Vocabularies
• English Artikli, Teaching Directory, Mitrushkina T.V., 2011 - Handbook English Articles contains detailed information about the English articles system. It is addressed to students of secondary schools, lyceums and gymnasiums, students and teachers, ... English Dictionaries, Vocabularies
• Nelicual forms of English verb, infinitives, communion, gerundy, directory, Mitrushkina T.V., 2012 - The directory contains a detailed description of the rules for the functioning of non-personal forms of the English verb in modern English. Addressed to those who have mastered the main sections ... English Dictionaries, Vocabularies

Printed by the decision of the Editorial Publishing Council of the Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University

Reviewers: Doctor of Historical Sciences, prof. V.M. Strogtsky Candidate of Historical Sciences, Association. A.V. Makhlayuk

Scientific Editor:doctor of historical sciences, prof. EAT. Male

Khazina A.V., Sofronova L.V., Domanin S.A. Grammatica Latina. ARS MINOR. Tutorial. Nizhny Novgorod: Publishing House of NGPU, 2000. - 155 p.

The manual is intended for students of the i-th year of philological and historical faculties of non-language universities. The nature of the benefit and the construction of the material make it possible to use it in high school gymnasiums, lyceums and schools with a humanitarian profile.

© Khazina A.V., Sofronova L.V., Domanin S.A.

© Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, 2003

Preface

Tutorial - Grammatica Latina. ARS MINOR - is the result of the collective work of the members of the Department of the Universal History of the Nizhny Novgorod Pedagogical University. It is intended for students of the humanities of the i-th course of non-language universities, and can also be used in high schools of gymnasiums, lyceums and schools with a humanitarian profile.

The authors of the benefit sought on the basis of many years of experience in teaching Latin at the university and in school to give students and schoolchildren with a relatively short, convenient and intelligent guide on the elementary course of the Latin language, following the principle - Breviter et Compendium (short and clear). Therefore, the initial course is limited to the morphology of the Latin language.

The manual consists of three parts. The practical part is equipped with a sufficient amount of exercises that will help students learn Latin grammar. For translation, texts, mostly historical and mythological content are offered, which demonstrate not only the phenomena of Latin grammar, but introduce the history and culture of the ancient world. Some texts and exercises can be used for control and independent work. The theoretical part of the manual gives a brief and systematic presentation of the foundations of Latin grammar. The third part provides Latin-Russian dictionary.

When preparing the manual, textbooks were used: Zaitsev A.I., Korigalov TP and others. Latin language. L., 1974; Vinnicheuk L. Latin language. M., 1980; Tutorial: POSYOSINS A.V., Ochaveleva N.I. Lingua Latina. Introduction to Latin and ancient culture. Ch. I-III.m., 1994.

Introductio Historica.

Latin language (Lingua Latina) is the language of the ancient residents of Latium (Latium), a small area in the middle part of the Apenninsky Peninsula, located along the lower stream of the tiber, along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Latin residents were called Latini (Latini). Over time, the Latin has expanded their possessions, attaching the neighboring Italian tribes to themselves, and their main city became Rome (Roma), according to a legend, founded by Romulom in 753g. BC. It was Rome, thanks to his expansionist politics, he mastered all Italy, and then with all the Mediterranean and became the capital of the Roman Empire. When the Roman decrees were announced, then the first phrase sounded like this: "The city and the world" (Urbi Et ORBI). And although the power and political influence of the Romans spread far beyond the limits of Latin, and their tongue became the language of the entire Roman Empire, he was still called Latin.

The oldest monuments of the Latin language, which came to our time belong to the VI century. BC. In 1871, in the ancient city of Presenters, a slightly east of Rome was found a gold clasp with the inscription (Princeletian Fibula). And in 1899, during the excavations of the Roman Forum (Square), a part of the sacred (sacred) inscription on a black stone was discovered in the so-called "grave of Romula", which contains only a few understandable words.

The history of the literary Latin language begins only in 240 BC, when Greek Andronik translates to Latin "Odyssey" and puts the first tragedy in Rome and comedy in Latin - processing Greek works. This period of development of the language continued to I in. BC, it is customary to call archaic. From this time, the works of the Roman Comediograph of Tita Maccation of Float reached us (approx. 250-184 BC). The Comedy of Float is saturated with the words and turnover peculiar to the spoken Latin language.

I in. BC. known in language history as a century classical Latin. Per

perfection of grammar, the deposit of poetic forms, the variety of genres he was called "Golden Latin". The legacy of this period is beautiful in the form of the work of the speaker Mark Tully Cicero (106-43 BC), a political figure and historian Guya Julia Caesar (100-44. BC), Poets. Vergil Marona ( 70-19. BC) and Queint Horace Flacca (65-8 years. BC).

Literary language I c. AD, called "Silver Latin," was overloaded with stylistic and rhetorical effects and was distinguished from a clean, transparent classic Latin. The "Silver Latin" wrote a philosopher Seneca (4 g. BC - 65 AD), poet Marcial (40 - 104 AD), historian Tacit (55-120 N .E.).

Regardless of the development and changes that occurred in Latin, the speech of educated segments of the population, the elegant speech of Sermo Urbanus (urban speech) was different from the conversational speech of uneducated people, Sermo vulgaris (ordinary, rustic speech).

In V c. AD The Roman Empire fell, Rome was conquered and destroyed, new nationalities and states began to be formed on the site of the former Roman provinces. And on the basis of the Latin language, various Romanesque languages \u200b\u200barose: Italian, Portuguese, Catalan, Provencal, French, Moldavian, etc.

But Latin did not disappear. During the Middle Ages, Latin not only wrote, but also said: it was a conversational and literary language that united educated people of that time. The Renaissance Epoch figures (the XIV-XVI centuries) sought to return to the language of classical antiquity, the language of Cicero. In Latin wrote Thomas Mor in England, Erasmus Rotterdam in Holland, Jordano Bruno in Italy, Nikolai Copernicus in Poland. By the XVII century. Latin is displaced by national languages, keeping the functions of the international language of science. Latin published their works I. Newton, K. Linny, M.V. Lomonosov and many others.

The humanistic tradition of the Renaissance of the Latin language continues to live in our day. In Western Europe and Latin

America exist magazines publishing works of modern Latin authors in various prosaic and poetic genres. Therefore, a young man who receives a humanitarian education in high school and university, it is impossible to do without the knowledge of the Latin language, thanks to which outstanding historical, philosophical, literary masterpieces of world culture were created.

For time flows, and Latin language remains.

Lesson 1 Latin alphabet. Rules of pronunciation, reading and stress.

In the Latin alphabet (how it has developed to a new time)

NB! Examples are given by the teacher in the process of occupation

Notes:

1. The letter K is found only in a few words: Kalendae [Calénde] calends; Kaeso [CEZO] Name Own; Karthago [Cartoom] Carthage. These words can also be written: Calendae, Caeso, Carthago.

2. The letters V andj are introduced into the alphabet in the XVI century. In the classic Latin they were replaced by the letters andi. Therefore, you can find a different writing of the same words, for example: IAM, JAM.

3. The letters Y andz were used only in the words of Greek origin.

4. From the capital letters, the names of their own, geographical names, names of peoples and derivatives from them adjectives are written.

Vowels and difong

The vowels A, E, I, O, U, Y are long and brief. Brevity

In cases where two vowels need to pronounce separately, a sign of longitude [-], or short, or two points: Aer [Aer] - Air, Poēma [Poem] - poem, coēmo [Coethumen] - buy.

All diftones are long.

Consonants

C readed as Russians front, I, Y, Ae, OE, as Russian in other cases, i.e. Before, O, U, in front of all the consonants and at the end of the word: Cicero [Cicero] - Cicero, CIPRUS [Tsipruc] - Cyprus, Caelum [COMPUT] - Sky, SOEPTUM [CEAPTUM] - start. Color [Color] - Color, Credo [Credo] - I believe, Cantus [Cantus] - singing.

nGU is pronounced as Russian: Lingua [Lingva] - Language .Qu Clause Kakv: Aqua [Aqua] - water.

sU is pronounced as ambosso in some words: Suavis [Svavis] is nice, but: suus [SUUS] - his own.

s between vowels pronounced Kakz: Rosa [Rosa] - Rosa.CH is read like: Schola [Skol] - School

pH is read by Kak: Philosophus [Philosophus] - philosophically read by CAT: Theatrum [Theater] - Theater

rH Reads Crack: Rhenum [Renum] - Rhine

ti is read by Kaktsi in the position before vowels: Ratio [Razio] - Mind in Scheyiahsti, XTI, TTI is read by KTTI: Bestia [Bestia] - Beast.

Society

The stocked site passes:

1. Between two vowels: De-us.

2. Between vowels (diphthongom) and solitary consonants: Lu-Pus, Cau-SA.

3. Between two consonants: FRUC-TUS, SANC-TUS.

4. Before two consonants if the second of themr, L: TEM-PLUM, PA-TRI-A.

Longitude and shortness of syllables

The syllable is long if:

1) contains difthong: CAU-SA;

2) contains long vowel sound: Lū-Na, Fortū-Na;

3) it is a closed syllable, i.e. For vowels follows a group of consonants or lettersx andz: Ma-Gis-Ter.

AND c clues make cases when the vowels shouldqU, or the second consonant will be, l, r. Such a syllable is considered brief: Re-Lĭ-QUI, Sto-Mă-Chus, Lo-Cŭ-Ples, AR-Bĭ-TROR.

The syllable is brief if:

1) contains a brief vowel sound: Fe-Mĭ-Na;

2) it is an open syllable, followed by a vowel: Ra-Ti-O.

Emphasis

The score of the syllables in Latin is conducted from the end of the word.

The emphasis is placed on the second syllable from the end, if he is a long: amáre; If the second syllable of the brief, the emphasis is placed on the third syllable from the end:

íncola, scríbĭmus.

It should be remembered that in Latin, the emphasis is never put on the last syllable.

Exercises

Read the words below using the reading and stress rules. Translate.

Recitate! (read out loud).

Rector, decānus, professor, magister, Sicilia, Massilia, Rhodănus, Rhenus, Sequăna, Londinium, Vindobona, Athēnae, Lugdūnum, Mediolānum, Lutēcia Parīsiōrum, Tacĭtus, Juppĭter, Rōmŭlus, Mārcus Tullius Cicĕro, Ptolemaeus, Capitōlium, Graecia, Aegyptus, Spartacus , Hannĭbal.

Actor, Scaena, Circus, Schola, Universĭtas, Medĭcus, Aqua, Fortūna, Res Publĭca Polōnia, Lingua Graca.

Consul, Praetor, Quaestor, Aedīlis, Tribūnus, Cēnsor, Dictātor, Imperātor,

Mēnsis Mārtius, Aprīlis, Maius, Jūnius, Quīntīlis, Sextīlis, September, Octōber, November, Deceptber, Jānuārius, Fabruārius.

P.S. Find the current meaning of geographic names and months of the year.

Lesson 2.

The verb system, the present time of the expressive inclination of the actual pledge of the verbs of the I-II of the Huments

(Praesens Indicativi Activi)

Translate:

Laboro. Bene Laborāmus. AMO. ARAS. Delectat. Educāmus. Laudant. Narra. Orāte. Ornātis. Putātis. SERVAT. Vitupĕrant. AMA, Spera, Tolĕra. Cur Pugnātis? Non Orat. Nolite Vituperāre. Noli Male Laborāre. Valēte. Augeo. Habes. Nocet. Parēmus. Praebent. TACE. Noli Dormīre. Sedent et Tacent. Leniunt. Venītis. Punītis. Scitis. Non Debes Ridēre. Debet parēre. Debēmus docēre et educāre. Noctu Dormīmus. Cur Tacētis? Non Munītis, Sed Delētis. Saepe venis. Debeo Punīre. Noli TERRēre. Non Reperītis.

Exercises

1. Form in form 1st l. units Infinitives of the following verbs: Amo 1, Clamo 1, Debeo 2, Erro 1, Dokeo 2, Habeo 2, Labōro 1, Moveo 2, Monstro 1, Studeo 2, Curo 1, Video 2.

2. Form infinitive 1st units and 2nd MN.ch.

the following verbs: Portāre, Sedēre, Valēre, Sperāre, Mutāre, Respondēre, Florēre.

3. Determine the form of an infinitive, which type of hidness belongs to each of the following verbs; Write it the basis and 1st

units of the present (Amāre - 1; amā-; amo): clamāre, debēre, errāre, laudāre, Tenēre, vidēre, movēre, docēre.

4. Translate to Latin: I'm working. You decorate. He tells. We bring. You guard. They fight. We do not like. They think. You hope. Think and work. Always hope. Do not praise. Do not ask. If you love, you hope. Look and think. They sing well. I have. You deliver. He likes. We know. Do not sleep. Why are you always laughing? Obey. At night we do not see. We often come. You should not harm. They should not destroy, but to strengthen. I'm silent. If you work, you have. Come.

Lesson 3.

PRAESENS INDICATIVI ACTIVI WORKS III-IV LOOKINGS

Translate:

AGO. Credis. Defendit. Discĭmus. Discĭtis. Legunt. Ludĭmus. Quaare! Scribĭtis. Audi et Tace. Vincunt. Quid Legis? QUIS SCRIBIT? Male Discit. Ita Docēre Debes, UT Putas. Si Quaeris, Reperis. QUOMŏDO VALES? Crede, Ama, Spera. Dum Vivo, Spero. Si Dicis, Putāre Debes. Quis Quaerit, REPĕRIT. Discĭte, dum vivĭtis.

Latin, despite the fact that he is dead, still represents a living interest in various fields of human activity, including for lingivilists.

About Latin

Latin language belongs to the Italian branch of Indo-European languages. Despite the fact that Latin is a dead language, interest in his history and study does not fuss in our time.

The languages \u200b\u200bof the Italian branch treated Falskiy, Osksky, Umbra and Latin, but over time the latter outstretched the rest. People who spoke on Latin called Latins, and their area of \u200b\u200bliving was called Lati. The center of it in 753 BC. e. Was Rome. Therefore, Latins called themselves the Romans, the founders of the Great Roman Empire and its culture, which further influenced all areas of the lives of Europe and the world.

Characteristic of grammar

All parts of speech on Latin are divided into variable and immutable. The variable includes a noun, adjective, verb, sacrament, pronoun, gerundium, genth. Unbavnable include adverbs, particles, unions and prepositions. For variable parts of speech, there is a decline system in Latin.

Unchanging parts of speech

The immutable parts of speech include the Union, particle, pretext and interjections.

Changeable parts of speech

The variable parts of the speech are inclined by childbirth, numbers and cases and are hidden on persons, numbers, times, collateral and inclination.

Language should know that in Latin - three kinds (male, female and medium), two numbers (only and multiple), six cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, efficient and charming) and five forms of decline.

Consider a detail of the decline system in Latin. When declining the word form changes, that is, the ending is changing.

Cade and declination

What is interesting to decline in Latin? For nouns there are five forms of decline, and for adjectives - three.

The first declination includes nouns and adjectives of female genus, having ending-and in the nominative and ending in parental case. For example, Agua - Aguae (water).

The second decline includes nouns and adjective male sodes with the end of -us and the middle kind of C - UM in the nominative case and the end - I in the parent. For example, Albus-Albi (white), Oleum-Olei (oil).

The third declination includes nouns and adjectives, the endings of which are not listed not higher, not lower. This is the largest group of words, as this includes nouns and adjectives of all three clans.

So, in the nominative end of the end in words from:

• male kind - -er, -os. OE, OR.
• female genus - -x, -io, -is;
• middle kind --ur, -n, -ma, -i, -c, -E.

In the parental case, they all have ending -ips, -icis, -tis, -cis, -inis, -is, -eris, -oris, onis.

The fourth declination includes nouns male genus, having the ending -us and not changing in the parental case. For example, Spiritus (Spirit).

The fifth decline includes nouns of female clan with the end of -es in the nominative case and the end of -EI in the parent. For example, Species-Speciei (collection).

Adjective, pronoun and noun in Latin varies 6 cases:

• nominative (who? What?) - In the sentence takes the role of the subject or registered part of the facility;
• pivietary (whom? What?) - In the sentence, it is an inconsistent definition, addition or a logical subject;
• current (to whom?) - The proposal takes the role of an indirect addition, an object or person contributing to action;
• accusative (who? What?) - in the sentence is an object;
• certificate and proposed (by whom? What?) - In the sentence, the role of circumstances adopt;
• the point is not a question, the proposal does not take care of any member of the sentence.

Hiding and times

The verb in Latin has the following characteristics:

• The inclination is imperative, subjunctive and conditional.
• Time - preserved, past (perfect and imperfect), present, pre-imaginary and future.
• Pledge - valid (active) and suffering (passive).
• The number is the only and multiple.
• Face is the first, second and third.
• Hiding, defined by the final sound of the base. Only 4 hides - I - -ā, II - -ē, III - -ĭ, -ŭ, consonant, IV ---ī. Exception - verbs ESSE, VELLE, FERRE, EDERE, NOLLE, who have their own features of the touch.

The preserved time tells about the event that happened earlier than the action that happened in the past. For example, Gracil Loco, Quo Hostem Superaverant, Trophaea Statuebant. - Greeks set trophies (monuments) in the place where the enemy won.

Pre-first time talks about an event that will happen earlier than the person talks about. For example, Veniam, QUōcumque Vocāveris. - I'll go wherever you call.

When determining the surgery of the verb, the form of an infinitive is used in the present time of the actual collateral, which has ending -re and the letter that stands before the specified ending, determines the surgery of the verb. For example, LaboRe refers to the first hiddenness, since before -re the letter a.

Numeral

The numeral in Latin can be ordinal, quantitative, separating and narenly. The endings of ordinal chipping are the same as the adjectives and are consistent with nouns in childbirth, numbers and cases.

Latin has its own system of numbers, which are denoted by the letters of the alphabet.

Proponation

In the Latin pronouns are divided into:

• personal;
• returns;
• assigning;
• index;
• relative;
• questioning;
• indefinite;
• negative;
• determinant;
• placement adjectives.

Nashia

Adcharations in Latin are divided into independent and derivatives and show the features of the process or action.

Latin in medicine

Latin language is required to explore in any medical university, as it is the basic language of medicine around the world. Why? The fact is that in Greece before the conquest of its Romans existed a developed medical system with its terminology of which laid hippocrates. These terms have reached our time without change. The words Derma, Gaster, Bronchus, Dispnoe, Diabetes are familiar to any man Greek. But over time, the Latinization of medical terminology occurred and today it is a pure latin, and a mixture with Greek. There are several objective reasons why Latin does not give up its position:

Grammar Latin language

Latin, like Russian, is predominantly synthetic. This means that grammatical categories are expressed by the word-byfection (declination, hide), and not by official words.

In Latin, there are 6 pelvices:

Nominal (nominative, Nominativus)

PAGITIVE (genitive, genitivus)

CONTENTS (Dativ, Dativus)

Accusative (accumulative, accusativus)

Description (Ablative, Ablativus)

Quiet (Vocative, Vocativus)

Three kinds, as in Russian:

Male (Genus Masculinum)

Female (Genus Femininum)

Middle (Genus Neutrum)

They are divided into 5 decons.

Latin verbs have 6 time forms, 3 inclination, 2 pledge, 2 numbers and 3 persons.

Latin verb times:

Present time (Praesens)

Last time imperfect (imperfectum)

Past time perfect form (Perfectum)

Plussumperfect, or preserved (Plusquamperfectum)

Future time, or future first (Futurum Primum)

Previous time, or future second (Futurum Secundum)

Laying:

Remitable (modus Indicativus)

MODUS IMPERATIVUS)

Subjunctive (modus conjunctivus)

Activum)

Passivum)

Singular (Singularis)

Multiple (pluralis)

First (Persona Prima)

Second (Persona Secunda)

Third (Persona Tertia)

In Latin, there are nouns (lat. Nomen substantivum), numeral and pronouns, inclined by cases, persons, numbers and childbirth; Adjective names other than those listed by comparison degrees; verbs, hidden in times and collateral; Supin - the exclusive noun; Adcharations and prepositions.

Latin and science

Latin language has a large general education, as it helps to analyze the Russian language better and deeper, in which many Latin roots switched, creating a number of new words, for example: communism, presidium, concilium, quorum, university, etc.

Many Greek words included in Latin, which have so far, mainly in the medical names - anatomical, therapeutic, pharmacological, etc. Greek terms, while maintaining their foundation, laminated and received gradually international recognition and distribution, for example: ARTERIA - Artery, Aorta - Aorta, etc.

More than one and a half years, the Latin language was the language of culture and writing, the only language of science and philosophy in Western Europe. In Latin, the foundations of scientific terminology of almost all disciplines were laid. Even after the national languages \u200b\u200bgradually displaced the Latin language from the scientific literature, it still remained for a long time as the main knowledge of the knowledge.

This is the unity of terminology underlying the modern scientific terminology of the row of sciences, facilitates the understanding and communication of people in the field of science, the translation of scientific literature from one language to another, and this value of Latin language has not lost so far. The preservation of scientific Latin terminology attaches special importance to the study of the Latin language, as necessary in practical work, and not only as a language of one of the most ancient crops. Therefore, although Latin and Greek languages \u200b\u200bare called "dead", however, for health workers, these are living languages \u200b\u200bnecessary for everyday work.

In Russia, Latin language has long been a language of science. In Moscow, in the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, the first scientific institution of Russia, all sciences were studied in Latin. In this language, many scientific works were written by M. V. Lomonosov, as well as some works of N. I. Pirogov, M. Ya. Mudrov and other Russian scientists.

Latin language in biology can be viewed as an independent scientific language that occurred from the Latin language of the Renaissance, but enriched with many words borrowed from Greek and other languages. In addition, many words of Latin language are used in biological texts in a new, special sense. Grammar in the Latin biological language is noticeably simplified. The alphabet is supplemented: unlike classical Latin, the letters "j", "u", "w" are used.

Modern codes of biological nomenclature require that the scientific names of living organisms are in the form of Latin, that is, they were written by the letters of the Latin alphabet and submitted to the rules of Latin grammar, regardless of what language they are borrowed.