History itself proves that classical art is eternal. His ideals originated in the ancient world. Time passed, empires collapsed, generations succeeded generations. After the Middle Ages, which was considered a decadent period, European art turns to the ideals of the past and begins to draw them precisely from the ancient heritage. The beginning of a new stage in culture, and in particular in architecture and decor, was laid in the 16th century by the Italian Renaissance. In the interiors of palaces, a hitherto unseen luxury and decorativeness appeared, represented by individual elements that came from antique era... The 17th century was the heyday of the classics. It achieved its striking embodiment in the interiors of French palaces during the reign of Louis XVII. It was then that the magnificent Versailles was created. The same century gave various stylistic directions of the classics - baroque, rococo, empire, etc.

Classics and classicism in the interior

By the way, in the description of interior art, the terms "classic" and "classicism" are often used. If there is a fundamental difference between them? Without going into theoretical reasoning, let us designate: there is a point of view that classicism differs from the classics in that it is not a qualitative, but a functional concept that reflects a special type of artistic thinking based on the desire for integrity, clarity, simplicity, balance and consistency. In architecture and interior art, the concept of classicism is often used even when it comes about the interpretation of the ancient heritage. And the concept of "classic" generalizes various branches classical art- baroque, French classicism, rococo, empire style, etc. For the sake of justice, it should be noted that the very concept of "classicism" appeared only in the 19th century, when this era was already at its end and adherents of the romantic trend began their irreconcilable struggle with it.

Baroque in the interior

The Baroque style originated during the time of one of the most amazing masters of the Italian Renaissance - Michelangelo Buonarroti in the 16th century. Baroque fully revealed itself in France and existed until mid XVIII century. Solemnity, dynamism, picturesqueness are what characterizes the baroque. His favorite shapes are curved, oval, twisted. They appear in both architectural elements and in furniture, accessories, individual parts. No wonder the word "baroque" comes from the Portuguese perola barroca - "a pearl of a bizarre shape." The interior decoration is deliberately overloaded with decor: stucco molding, gilded carved baguettes, inlays, etc. Luxury is rioting in all its manifestations.

Rococo in the interior

Rococo appeared in France at the beginning of the 18th century and existed almost until the end of this century. Some considered it a "thinning" of the Baroque. But in essence, their aesthetics are not strikingly different. Rococo, like baroque, promotes luxury and decorative richness of the interior. Effectiveness is what Rococo used all the familiar elements of the Baroque for. But the Rococo ornament chooses the vector of his artistic thought. This style is characterized by complex fractional asymmetric patterns, the favorite motifs of which are plant curls, cupids, rocailles, etc. The graceful stucco molding in the form of lush garlands of flowers, curved branches, birds, etc. is also used.

English classics

English classics, or Victorian style - this double name is due to the fact that the English classics took shape during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). It all started with the fact that the emerging style began to try on all the existing before this direction - Rococo, Empire, neoclassicism, etc., there was even a movement of the "Gothic Renaissance". Such eclecticism, perceived by some scholars as proof of the conventionality of the Victorian style (there are suggestions even to encapsulate this definition in quotation marks), nevertheless gave the English classics their individual character. The furnishings of the English house correspond to the aspirations of the English aristocracy of that time for a prosperous and measured life. The rooms are also filled with various decorative details. The furniture is massive and made of natural materials. Wood in the form of panels was also used in wall decoration. Popular accessories were antiques, china sets, paintings of dogs and horses, and sculptures. The favorite colors of the English classics are yellow, beige, red, brick, green. In the decor of such an interior, you cannot do without floral patterns on curtains, upholstery and tablecloths, as well as a laconic bright check on a traditional English blanket. The obligatory piece of furniture in this era was a bookcase, or a library. And of course, a fireplace that warms the inhabitants of Foggy Albion. Interior in English style it may seem heavy to many, the past seems to have frozen in it, only the grandfather clock, loudly beating every hour (one of the key subjects of English classics), reminds of the incessant passage of time.

Text - Natalia Novikova

Introduction …………………………………………………………………

Baroque……………………………………………………………

Classicism………………………………………………………..

Romanticism…………………………………………………………

Realism…………………………………………………………….

Bibliography………………………………

Introduction.

The history of art is characterized by a change in different styles and trends.

Under artistic style understand the totality of all means artistic expression, all creative techniques, which in general form a certain figurative system.

Style as one figurative system based on unity ideological content, which gives rise to the unity of all elements of the artistic form, all artistic and expressive means. Thus, the word "style" denotes that visible, tangible originality that catches the eye first of all and by which one can immediately determine the difference between one phenomenon in art from others.

These phenomena themselves are infinitely diverse: we can talk about the style of an individual work or group of works, about the individual style, the author's style, about the style of certain countries, peoples, geographic regions.

However, most often the concept of "artistic style" denotes large, "historical" styles of certain epochs, when the unity of socio-historical content determines the stable unity of artistic-figurative principles, means, techniques.

In the field of art in second half of the 17th century... style flourished baroque, which was closely associated with the ecclesiastical and aristocratic culture of the time. It manifested tendencies to glorify life, all the wealth of real life. Painting, sculpture, architecture, baroque music sang and exalted monarchs, the church, the nobility.

A different kind of aesthetics, opposite to the artistic means of the Baroque, was canonized in European art and literature. classicism... Closely related to the culture of the Renaissance, classicism turned to the ancient norms of art as to perfect models, it was characterized by rationalistic clarity and rigor.

First half of the 19th century became a time of intensive development of spiritual culture. Among its diverse manifestations, romanticism characterized by exceptional versatility. In the field of artistic creation, he was vividly imprinted as a trend in literature, fine arts, music, theater. At the same time, romanticism represented a certain worldview: the romantic direction developed in the field of philosophical and aesthetic ideas, historical science, arose romantic type personality and behavior.

In the 30-40s of the XIX century. along with romanticism in fiction and painting, realism. The works of realist writers Balzac, Stendhal, Dickens, Thackeray, and others are distinguished by an exceptionally wide coverage of reality and the predominance of social problems. The life of society in its most diverse manifestations, life, customs, psychology of people belonging to different classes, have never received such a multifaceted reflection in the literature.

Historical and cultural processes of the New Age - the development of capitalism, scientific and technological progress, a social system built on liberal-democratic principles, the ideas and values ​​of the Enlightenment and positivism, the aesthetics of the great styles of the 17th-19th centuries (baroque, rococo, sentimentalism, classicism, romanticism, realism) - had a decisive influence on the formation of the modern world.

Baroque.

Baroque (Italian barocco - "vicious", "licentious", "prone to excesses", port. perola barroca - "pearl of irregular shape" (literally "pearl with vice"); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - a characteristic culture of the XVII-XVIII centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal march of "Western civilization". Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music).

The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock, which were in the XVI century. Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The concept of the world as a rational and permanent unity, which was established in antiquity, changed, as well as the Renaissance view of man as the most intelligent being. Man began to recognize himself as "something in between everything and nothing" in the words of Pascal, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end."

The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - a promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - "carousels" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place of icons was taken by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.

The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. Everything is true that is "clearly and distinctly" thought or has a mathematical expression, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word "baroque" is sometimes taken to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco. The first European park appears in Versailles, where the idea of ​​a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. For the first time, the Baroque armies dressed in uniforms pay great attention to "drill" - the geometric correctness of the formations on the parade ground.

Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, arrogance, tyranny, brutality and ignorance - all that in the era of romanticism will become a virtue. A Baroque woman values ​​the pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, pretentious hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.

And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the gentleman - from the English. gentle: "soft", "gentle", "calm". Initially, he preferred to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume, and wear powdered wigs. Why force, if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket. In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the state of nature is a state characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.

Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​ennobling nature on the basis of reason. Not to endure the need, but "it is good to offer in pleasant and courteous words" (Yunost honest mirror, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives are no longer the content of sin, but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is shaped in an exquisite table etiquette(it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); interest in the opposite sex - in polite flirting, quarrels - in a refined duel.

The Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​a sleeping God - deism. God is not thought of as a Savior, but as Great Architect who created the world just like a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe in any way. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true keepers of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1689), and Carl Linnaeus systematizes biology "System of Nature" (1735). Throughout European capitals ah Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are being established.

The diversity of perception raises the level of consciousness - something like this says the philosopher Leibniz. Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek discovers tiny living organisms under a microscope (1675). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers: Captain Gulliver and Baron Munchausen became the literary symbols of the era.

Athenais de Montespan

Baroque style in painting characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.

Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio by his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's modern life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light snatch the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggians, and the movement itself caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) in the early 17th century studied in Italy, where he learned the style of Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing a course in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, learning and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, van Dijk (1599-1641), achieved international recognition. With the work of Rubens, the new style came to Holland, where it was taken up by Frans Hals (1580 / 85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velazquez (1599-1660) worked in the manner of Caravaggio, and in France - Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid in his work the foundations of a new trend - classicism.

For baroque architecture(L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, BF Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) are characterized by spatial scope, cohesion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on the facades and interiors, volutes, a large number of rivets, bow facades with ripping in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. Domes acquire complex shapes, they are often multi-tiered, like the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. Typical baroque details are telamon (atlant), caryatid, mascaron.

In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman Church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces in the new style date from around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona made significant contributions. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late baroque appeared - the Sicilian baroque.

The Coranaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652) is considered the quintessential Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture.

The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or according to the local Churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread in Latin America... Its most popular monument is the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain. In Latin America, Baroque has mixed with local architectural traditions, this is the most elaborate version of it, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the Baroque style is more modest than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop at all here, and the baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Nowadays, the Palace of Versailles along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are ranked among the French Baroque. They do have some of the features of classicism. Characteristic feature The Baroque style is a regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the Park of Versailles.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century. the French developed their own style, a kind of baroque - rococo. It manifested itself not in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was spread throughout Europe and Russia.

In Belgium an outstanding monument Baroque is the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels. Rubens' house in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has baroque features.

In Russia, baroque appeared in the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine Baroque” (more restrained) developed in St. Petersburg and the suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini, and the works of SI Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli reached their prime during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.

In Germany, an outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - J.G.Buring, H.L. Munter) and the Summer Palace there (G.V. von Knobelsdorf). The largest and most famous baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria). In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Sarmatian Baroque and Vilna Baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative being Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among his famous projects- rebuilt Church of the Ascension of the Lord (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.

Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Classicism.

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and consistency of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism there was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of planning and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. For classicism, symmetric-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning are characteristic.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the close of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians made the principles of ancient temple architecture so absolute that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed the Palladian precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scotsman Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam's interpretation, classicism appeared as a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which earned him popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French counterparts, Adam preached a complete rejection of details lacking a constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his projects foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late classicism. In Russia, he moved in the same direction as Soufflot Bazhenov... The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Bull went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was in little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.

Music of the period of classicism or the music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music between about 1730 and 1820. The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of the further development of musical composition.

The impetus for the development of classic sculpture in the middle of the 18th century, the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities served, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. Sculptors such as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxitel). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military valor and wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which contradicted accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, contemporary figures were initially depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov in the form of Mars, and Pauline Borghese in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by switching to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche (1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)

Differences between baroque and classicism.

In the era of classicism, which followed the era of baroque, the role of polyphonic polyphony diminished and came to the fore homophonic polyphony
( from the Greek. "homos" - "one", and "background" - "sound", "voice")

Unlike polyphony, where all voices are equal, in homophonic polyphony stands out one, performing main theme and the rest play the role accompaniment(escorts). Accompaniment is usually a chord (harmony) system. Hence the name of the new way of composing music - homophonic-harmonic.

There is less ornamentation and decoration in music. The works have become more harmonious, clear in structure, especially those written in sonata form.

In the era baroque in a piece of music, each of the parts focused on expressing and revealing one, brightly traced the senses, which was solved using the presentation one topic that changed (varied) throughout the part, and in the era classicism in one part of the work was revealed lots of emotions, which were expressed through presentation and development two or more topics of different imaginative content.

Early Baroque Music (1600-1654)

The development of Italian opera by the Italian composer can be considered a conditional transition point between the Renaissance and Baroque eras. Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643).

The composer was born in the Italian city of Cremona in the family of a doctor. As a musician, Monteverdi developed in his youth. He wrote and performed madrigals; played organ, viola and other instruments. Composing music, Monteverdi studied with well-known composers at that time. In 1590 he was invited as a singer and musician to Mantua, to the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga; he later headed court chapel... In 1612 Monteverdi left the service in Mantua and in 1613 settled in Venice. Largely thanks to Monteverdi, the world's first public opera house was opened in Venice in 1637. There, the composer headed the chapel of the Cathedral of San Marco. Before his death, Claudio Monteverdi was ordained.

Having studied operatic creativity the composers of the Renaissance Peri and Caccini, Monteverdi created his own operatic works. Already in the first operas - "Orpheus" (1607) and "Ariadne" (1608) - the composer succeeded musical means convey deep and passionate feelings, create a tense dramatic action... Monteverdi is the author of many operas, but only three have survived - "Orpheus", "Return of Ulysses to the Homeland" (1640; based on the plot of the ancient Greek epic poem "Odyssey") and "The Coronation of Poppea" (1642).

In Monteverdi's operas, music and text are harmoniously combined. Operas are based on monologue - recitative (from Italian recitare - "to recite"), in which recited every word, and music flexibly and subtly conveys shades of mood. Monologues, dialogues and choral episodes smoothly flow into each other, the action develops slowly (in Monteverdi's operas three or four acts), but dynamically. The composer assigned an important role to the orchestra. In Orpheus, for example, he used almost every instrument known at the time. Orchestral music not only accompanies the singing, but she herself talks about the events taking place on the stage and the experiences of the characters. First appeared in "Orpheus" overture(French ouverture, or Latin apertura - "opening", "beginning")- instrumental introduction to a major piece of music. Claudio Monteverdi's operas had a significant impact on Venetian composers, laid the foundations of the Venetian opera school .

Monteverdi wrote not only operas, but also sacred music, religious and secular madrigals... He became the first composer who did not oppose polyphonic and homophonic methods - the choral episodes of his operas include polyphonic techniques.
In the work of Monteverdi, the new combined with the old - the traditions of the Renaissance.

By the beginning of the 18th century. formed opera school in Naples... The peculiarities of this school are the increased attention to singing, the dominant role of music. It was in Naples that vocal style bel canto(it. bel canto - "beautiful singing"). Bel canto is famous for its extraordinary beauty of sound, melody and technical perfection. The performer of the bel canto style must be able to reproduce many shades of the timbre of the voice, as well as masterfully convey numerous rapid sequences of sounds superimposed on the main melody - coloratura (Italian coloratura - "decoration").

In the 18th century opera became the main species musical art in Italy, facilitated by a high professional level singers trained in conservatories(Italian conservatorio, err lat. conserve - "I protect") - educational institutions that trained musicians. By that time, four conservatories each had been created in the centers of Italian opera art - Venice and Naples. The popularity of the genre was also served by the opera houses that opened in different cities of the country, accessible to all strata of society. Italian operas were staged in theaters in major European capitals, while composers from Austria, Germany and other countries wrote operas based on Italian texts.

A significant figure of the early Baroque period, whose position was on the side of Catholicism, opposing the growing ideological, cultural and social influence of Protestantism, was Giovanni Gabrieli (1555-1612). His works belong to the "High Renaissance" style (the heyday of the Renaissance). However, some of his innovations in the field of instrumentation (assignment to a certain instrument of its own, specific tasks) clearly indicate that he was one of the composers who influenced the emergence of a new style.

One of the requirements of the church for the composition of sacred music was that texts in works with vocals were picky... This required a shift from polyphony to musical techniques, where words came to the fore. The vocals have become more complex, florid compared to the accompaniment.

He made a great contribution to the spread of new techniques and German composer Heinrich Schütz (1585-1672), studied in Venice. He is the most famous German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach and one of the most important composers of the early Baroque period along with D. Gabrieli and C. Monteverdi. He used new techniques in his work while serving as a choirmaster in Dresden.

Mature Baroque Music (1654-1707)

The period of centralization of supreme power in Europe is often called Absolutism... Absolutism reached its climax under the French king Louis XIV. For all of Europe, the court of Louis was a role model. Including the music performed at the court. Increased availability musical instruments(this especially applied to keyboards) gave impetus to the development chamber music (from it. camera - "room") performed in small rooms or at home.

Mature baroque is different from the early ubiquitous dissemination of the new polyphonic style ( free letter) and increased separation musical forms especially in opera. As in the literature, the emerging possibility of large-circulation print musical works led to an expansion of the audience; increased exchange between the centers of musical culture.

In the theory of music, the mature baroque is defined by the composers' focus on harmony and on attempts to create coherent systems of musical education.
In subsequent years, this led to the emergence of many theoretical works. A remarkable example of this activity is the work of the late Baroque period - "Gradus ad Parnassum" (Russian. Steps to Parnassus), published in 1725 by Johann Joseph Fuchs(German Johann Joseph Fux) (1660-1741), Austrian theoretician and composer. This essay, which systematized the theory of counterpoint, was, almost until the end of the 19th century, the most important tool for the study of counterpoint.

An outstanding representative of the court composers of the court of Louis XIV was Giovanni Battista Lully (1632-1687). (Jean-Baptiste)... Already at the age of 21 he received the title of "court composer of instrumental music". Lully's creative work has been closely associated with the theater from the very beginning. Following the organization of court chamber music and the composition "airs de cour" (court arias), he began to write ballet music. Louis XIV himself danced in ballets, which were then the favorite entertainment of the court nobility. Lully was an excellent dancer. He had a chance to participate in productions, dancing with the king. He is known for his joint work with Moliere, for whose plays he wrote music. But the main thing in Lully's work was still writing operas... Surprisingly, Lully created a complete type of French opera; the so-called lyrical tragedy in France (fr. tragedie lyrique), and reached undoubted creative maturity in the very first years of his work in opera house... Lully often used the contrast between the majestic sound of the orchestral section, and simple recitatives and arias. Lully's musical language is not very difficult, but certainly new: clarity of harmony, rhythmic energy, clarity of articulation of form, purity of texture speak of the victory of the principles of homophonic thinking. To a large extent, his success was also promoted by his ability to select musicians for the orchestra, and his work with them (he himself conducted rehearsals). An integral part of his work was attention to harmony and the solo instrument.

Composer and Violinist Arcangelo Corelli(1653-1713) known for his work on the development of the genre of concherto grosso (concerto grosso - "big concert")... Corelli was one of the first composers whose works were published and performed throughout Europe. Like JB Lully's operatic compositions, the genre of concerto grosso is built on a contrasting juxtaposition of the sound of small solo groups of an orchestra and the sound of a full orchestra. The music is built on abrupt transitions from loud-sounding parts to quiet ones, fast passages are opposed to slow ones. Among the followers of Arcangelo Corelli was Antonio Vivaldi, who later composed hundreds of works written in Corelli's favorite forms: trio sonatas and concerts.

V England mature baroque marked by a flamboyant genius Henry Purcell(1659-1695). He died young, at the age of 36, having written a large number of works and became widely known during his lifetime. Purcell was familiar with the work of Corelli and other Italian composers of the Baroque era. During his short life, Purcell wrote many vocal, instrumental, musical and theatrical works, the most significant of which was opera "Dido and Aeneas"(1689). This is the first English national opera... She was commissioned by a dance teacher from a boarding school for noble maidens. The private nature of the order influenced the appearance of the work: in contrast to the monumental operas of Monteverdi or Lully, the work of Purcell small in size, the action is developing rapidly... The opera libretto by Nicholas Tate was based on the heroic epic "Aeneid" by the Roman poet Virgil.

Virgil has one of the defenders of Troy - Aeneas, after the fall of the city, goes to wander. A storm drives his ship to the shores of Africa; here he meets Dido, queen of Carthage. Dido fell in love with Aeneas and, when the hero left her at the behest of the gods, she took her own life. In Purcell's opera, the messenger who separated the heroes is sent not by the gods, but by the forest witches ( popular characters English folklore). Aeneas took deception for a sacred duty to the gods and ruined the most valuable thing - love.

A distinctive feature of Purcell's art is harmony... The composer had an amazing gift for creating perfect melodies - calm, majestic and impeccable in form. After Henry Purcell in English music until the 20th century. it is hardly possible to name such outstanding masters.

Unlike the above composers Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707) was not a court composer. Buxtehude worked organist, first in Helsingborg (1657-1658), then in Elsinore (1660-1668), and then, starting in 1668, in the church of St. Mary in Lubeck. He made money not by publishing his works, but by performing them, and preferred to the patronage of the nobility to compose music for church texts and perform his own organ compositions. this composer. Buxtehude's music is largely built on the scale of ideas, wealth and freedom of imagination, a tendency to pathos, drama, a few oratorical intonation. His work had a strong influence on such composers as J.S.Bach and G.F. Telemann.

Music of the late Baroque (1707-1760)

The exact line between mature and late baroque is a matter of debate; she lies somewhere in between 1680 and 1720. To a considerable degree of complexity of its definition is the fact that in different countries the styles were replaced asynchronously; innovations, already accepted as a rule in one place, were fresh finds in another. Italy thanks to Arcangelo Corelli and his students Francesco Geminiani and Pietro Locatelli becomes the first country in which Baroque transitions from mature to late period... The almost absolute supremacy of tonality as a structuring principle of composing music. This is especially noticeable in the theoretical works of Jean Philippe Rameau, who took the place of Lully as the main French composer... At the same time, the appearance of Johann Joseph Fuchs' major work "Degree hell Parnassum" (1725), dedicated to the polyphony of a strict style, testified to the presence in music two writing styles - homophonic-harmonic and polyphonic.

Forms opened by the previous period, have reached maturity and great variability; concert, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet no longer had a pronounced national characteristics... The generally accepted schemes of works are widely accepted: the repeating two-part form (AABB), the simple three-part form (ABC) and the rondo.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)- Italian composer, born in Venice.
In 1703 he was ordained Catholic priest... On the first of December of the same year, he became a maestro di violino at the Pio Ospedale della Pieta, a Venetian orphanage for girls. Vivaldi's fame was not brought by concert performances or connections at court, but by the publications of his works, which included his trio sonatas, violin sonatas and concerts. They were published in Amsterdam and widely distributed throughout Europe. It is in these instrumental genres still developing at that time (baroque sonata and baroque concert), Vivaldi made his most significant contribution. Certain techniques are characteristic of Vivaldi's music: a three-part cyclical form for the concert grosso and the use of ritorneli in fast parts. Vivaldi has composed over 500 concerts. He also programmed titles for some of his works, such as the famous Seasons. Vivaldi's career shows an increased opportunity for a composer to exist independently: on income from concert activities and the publication of his works.

Domenico Scarlatti(1685-1757) was one of the leading keyboard composers and performers of his time. He began his career as a court composer; first in Portugal, and since 1733 in Madrid, where he spent the rest of his life. His father, Alessandro Scarlatti, is considered the founder of the Neapolitan opera school. Domenico also composed operas and church music, but fame (after his death) provided him works for keyboards... He wrote some of these works for his own pleasure, some for his noble customers.

The most famous court composer of the Baroque era was Georg Frideric Handel(1685-1759). He was born in Germany, studied in Italy for three years, but left London in 1711, where he began his brilliant and commercially successful career as an independent opera composer carrying out orders for the nobility. With tireless energy, Handel reworked the material of other composers, and constantly altered their own compositions. For example, he is known for revising the famous Messiah oratorio so many times that there is now no version that can be called the original. Despite the fact that his financial condition improved and fell into decline, his fame, based on published works for keyboards, ceremonial music, operas, concerts grosso and oratorios, continued to grow. After his death, he was recognized as a leading European composer, and was studied by musicians of the era of classicism. During his life, Handel wrote about 50 operas ("Almira" "Agrippina", "Rinaldo", "Julius Caesar", etc.), 23 oratorios ("Messiah", "Samson", "Judas Macovei", "Hercules"), countless church chants, organ concerts, as well as a number of entertainment pieces ("Music on the Water", "Music for Royal Fireworks").

One of the greatest composers of the Baroque era - Johann Sebastian Bach was born
March 21, 1685 in the city of Eisenach, Germany. During his life, he composed more than 1000 works in various genres, except for the opera... But during his lifetime he did not achieve any meaningful success. Moving many times, Bach changed one not too high position after another: in Weimar he was the court musician for the Weimar Duke Johann Ernst, then became the inspector of the organ in the church of St. Boniface in Arnstadt, a few years later accepted the position of organist in the church of St. Blasius in Mühlhausen, where he worked for only about a year, after which he returned to Weimar, where he took the place of the court organist and organizer of concerts. He stayed in this position for nine years. In 1717, Leopold, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, hired Bach as Kapellmeister, and Bach began to live and work in Köthen. In 1723 Bach moved to Leipzig, where he remained until his death in 1750.

J.S.Bach was well known in Germany during his lifetime as a composer, performer, teacher and father of the Jr. Bachs, primarily Karl Philip Emanuel. But in last years life and after the death of Bach, his fame as a composer began to wane: his style was considered old-fashioned in comparison with the burgeoning classicism.

In 1802, Johann Nikolai Forkel published the first most complete biography of Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1829, 79 years after the death of JS Bach, Felix Mendelssohn performed Bach's Matthew Passion in Berlin. The success of this concert revived interest in the work of J.S.

JS Bach is now one of the most popular composers of all time: for example, in the "Best Composer of the Millennium" vote, held on Cultureciosque.com, Bach took first place.

Baroque and classicism

palace versailles culture artistic

In the 17th century, in the context of the active development of the economy and the arts, France acquired the status of an exemplary country of absolutist forms of government and practical economic policy... Thanks to the Counter-Reformation movement, Rome in cultural space territorially fragmented Italy took on a new meaning. As a result, the construction of religious buildings received a strong impetus. Started under these conditions at the end of the 17th century new stage construction contributed to the fact that the German princes were guided in their needs by foreign models. To a large extent, they were influenced by the French absolutism of Louis XIV. Each feudal lord - no matter how small the territory that belonged to him - copied his residence from Versailles, this pearl of the royal domain.

Despite the fact that for European architecture XVII - XVIII centuries uniformity and integrity are not characteristic, it is customary to unite it general concept"baroque". The princely castles and religious buildings became the priority objects during the construction and personified the resistance to the Reformation. In the 1730s, the influence of the Enlightenment began to be felt, which was immediately reflected in the strengthening of the intimacy of the buildings. Small elegant castles surrounded by parks became the favorite places of residence of the princes. This is one of the brightest distinctive features baroque.

The new style called for help in conducting urban planning activities beauty the environment, or, more simply, a landscape. The landscape has become one of the main components of the urban ensemble. The square, having lost its functional and democratic content, has become a ceremonial part of the city, its decoration. Baroque architecture is distinguished by grandeur, splendor and dynamics, spectacularity and a strong contrast of scales and rhythms.

Thanks to the bizarre plasticity of the facades, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, the baroque palaces and churches have acquired some picturesqueness and dynamism. They seemed to grow into the space around them. Baroque interiors were decorated with multicolored sculptures, stucco moldings, carvings; mirrors and paintings were necessary for the illusory expansion of the space, and the painting of the plafonds created the illusion of vaults opening up over the viewer.

In baroque painting and sculpture, the dominant position belonged to decorative multifaceted compositions of a religious, mythological or allegorical nature, as well as ceremonial portraits. When depicting a person, states of tension, exaltation and heightened drama were preferred. In painting, the emotional, rhythmic and coloristic unity of the whole, often the unconstrained freedom of the stroke, has acquired great importance; in sculpture - a picturesque fluidity of form, a wealth of aspects and impressions.

The characteristic features of the Baroque are the complexity of plans, rich interior design with unexpected and spectacular spatial and light solutions, many curves, plastically curving lines and surfaces, contrast, tension and dynamism of images, affectation, striving for luxury and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, to the fusion of the arts. The baroque style contrasted the simplicity of classical forms with sophistication in shaping. Elements of painting and sculpture, painted wall surfaces were widely used in architecture.

The ideological foundations of the Baroque were formed under the conditions of the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The concept of the world as a rational and permanent unity characteristic of the philosophy of antiquity and the Renaissance view of man as the crown of creation changed. Man began to realize himself as "something in between everything and nothing" in the words of Pascal, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end."

The emergence of the Baroque was facilitated to some extent by the lack of funds for the construction of the palazzo among the representatives of the nobility. In search of a way out of this situation, they turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. Partly due to this, in the 16th century, the Baroque arose on the territory of Italy.

The architectural forms of the Baroque were based on the Italian Renaissance, but surpassed it in complexity, diversity and picturesqueness. Facades with profiled cornices, columns, colossal for several floors, semi-columns and pilasters, luxurious sculptural details, often fluctuating from convex to concave, give the structure itself movement and rhythm. Not a single detail of such a structure was independent, unlike the Renaissance period. All parts of the ensemble are subordinate to the general architectural concept, which is complemented by the design and decoration of the interiors, as well as the landscape gardening and urban architectural environment.

In France, the Baroque style is expressed somewhat more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was generally accepted that the baroque style did not develop here at all, and the baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes it is appropriate to use the term "baroque classicism" in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Nowadays, the Palace of Versailles along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris and other works of architecture are ranked among the French Baroque. They do have some of the features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape gardening art, the clearest example which is the Parc de Versailles, the pinnacle of creativity of the talented master André Le Nôtre.

German art critic and historian antique art Johann Joachim Winkelmann wrote in 1755: "The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients." With this slogan, he called on his contemporaries to renew art, using the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, as a basis, and found active support in European society. Ancient architecture was perceived by him as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The progressive public perceived classicism as a necessary opposition to the court baroque. The rise of classicism coincided in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions - English in 1688 and French - 101 years later. Thus, the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance became one of the most important features of classicism.

The fine arts of classicism sought to embody the idea of ​​a harmonious structure of society. About complexity visual arts classicism is clearly evidenced by the conflicts of personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by the features of strict organization, poise, simplicity and harmony of images.

The desire to embody the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art in construction led the masters of the era to strive to completely copy the ancient building. Thus, what the German architect Gilly had left at the stage of the project of the monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Valhalla - "Hall of the Dead".

In Germany, the princely palaces - residences became centers of construction in the classical style, among them the Marktplatz (shopping area) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam also preferred classicism during construction. However, by this time the palaces had already lost the status of the main construction projects, the villas and country houses looked no less impressive and impressive. The sphere of state construction included social buildings - hospitals, houses for the blind and deaf, as well as prisons and barracks. Public buildings such as theaters, museums, universities and libraries were soon added to these. The picture was supplemented by the country estates of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages. The construction of churches was no longer a primary task, but wonderful structures appeared in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a discussion about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for Christianity. monastery.

In painting, the leading role belonged to the logical development of the plot, the clear balance of the composition, the clear transfer of volume and the light and shadow modeling of the form, the use of local colors.

A clear delimitation of plans in landscape painting was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground must have been painted in brown, the second in green, and the third in blue.

The architecture of classicism is characterized by the regularity of the layout and the clarity of the volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of the classical style was the order, which is close in proportions and form to antiquity. Classicism is distinguished by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration and a regular system of city planning.

The great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi formulated the architectural language of classicism at the close of the Renaissance. The Venetians made the principles of ancient temple architecture so absolute that they found application even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones transported Palladianism to England, where local Palladian architects from varying degrees fidelity followed the precepts of Palladio until the middle of the 18th century.

By this time, the satiety of the luxury of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. For the solution of large urban planning problems, this aesthetics of the Baroque and Rococo was decidedly of little use. Already under Louis XV, urban planning ensembles in the "ancient Roman" style were erected in Paris, among them the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and Louis XVI this "noble laconicism" has already become the main architectural trend.

During the construction of the Church of Saint-Genevieve in Paris, the French architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflot. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullet were able to move even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with a bias towards abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was not in demand.

The architects of Napoleonic France sought inspiration from images of military glory that have survived from the time of imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of the emperor, they were transferred to Paris in the form triumphal arch Carrousel and the Vendome Column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, it is customary to use the term "imperial style" - Empire. In Russia, outstanding masters of the Empire style were such masters as Karl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

The most significant classic-style interiors were completed by Scottish architect Robert Adam after returning from Rome in 1758. The archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi made a huge impression on him. In Adam's interpretation, classicism appeared to be a style that was hardly inferior in sophistication to Rococo interiors. This earned him fame both among the democratically minded circles of society and among the aristocracy. Like his French counterparts, Adam preferred a complete rejection of parts devoid of constructive function. The aesthetics of classicism contributed to large-scale urban planning projects and, to a certain extent, contributed to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities.

In Russia, the majority of provincial and almost all county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Authentic museums of classicism under open air such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and some others have turned. Throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language has been established, dating back to Palladio. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism existed simultaneously with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with a revival of interest in the Middle Ages and a fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discovery of the Rosetta Slab by Champollion, the Egyptian theme gained popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture gradually gave way to reverence for everything ancient Greek, which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin, respectively, with grandiose museums and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism was thinned by free borrowing from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

Conclusions for Chapter 1

Baroque and classicism styles developed in artistic culture Western Europe in the period of the XVII-XVIII centuries. These two trends in art have successfully coexisted for two centuries, developing in parallel and alternately occupying a leading position or fading into the background.

The classicist style in artistic culture called for the use of the art of the ancient world as a standard. The birth of classicism took place at the stage of bourgeois revolutions - English and French - which affected the nature of its formation and was reflected in the characteristics of the characteristics within the framework of the national style.

V fine arts classicism pursued the goal of embodying the idea of ​​a harmonious arrangement of the social side of life. Artistic forms classicism are marked by features of strict organization, poise, simplicity and harmony of images.

The characteristic features of the Baroque style are the complexity of plans, the magnificent interior decoration with spectacular spatial and light solutions, many curves, plastically curving lines and surfaces, contrast and vivid dynamics of images, the desire for luxury, the combination of illusion and reality, and the fusion of arts. In defiance of the classical forms, the Baroque style promoted sophistication in shaping. In architecture, the use of elements of painting and sculpture, painted wall surfaces was widespread.

In the ideology of the Baroque, a man appeared as "something between everything and nothing" in the words of Pascal, "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end."

Le style c "est l" homme("Style is a person"). This maxim by Buffon can be likened to a mathematical expression linking two variables. The independent variable, the argument, is a person, and style, as a certain ordered sequence of expressive practices, is a function. What a person is - so is a style. For all the universality of this definition, it is necessary to take into account the historical context of the moment of its appearance - the age of the Enlightenment, with its concept of “natural man”. The latter, as you know, is a direct development of the ideas of the 17th century, this beginning of the New Time, and its characteristic styles - classicism and baroque. We can say that these styles, their combinations, contain the project of the entire New Age, right up to the present.

The very concept style(from lat. stylus- stick) and a related concept stimulus(from lat. stimulus, letters. - a sharp-pointed stick, which was used to drive animals) are etymologically perfectly matched with the principles of classicism. The preference for the straight line over all others is characteristic of Cartesian rationalism. The circle lost its ontological status along with Aristotelianism and gave way to the infinite, the qualityless, the absolutely countable. “God,” asserts Descartes, is the only creator of all movements existing in the world, since they exist in general and because they are straightforward. However, different positions of matter turn these motions into irregular and curvilinear ones. Likewise, theologians teach us that God is the creator of all our actions, since they exist and because there is something good in them, but the different inclinations of our wills can make these actions vicious ”( Descartes R. Compositions: In 2 vols. M .: Mysl, 1989. Vol. 1. P.205). This statement should not be taken as an attempt to put on the mask of orthodox theology on Galileo's inertial principle. It is not by chance that Descartes touches on the fundamental question of the problem of evil and free will, and he does so completely in accordance with the views of St. Augustine. According to A.-I. Marroux, "about the paramount place that Augustine occupied in the French consciousness of the 17th century, nothing testifies better than the role he played in the development of Cartesianism" ( Marru A.-I. Saint Augustine and Augustinianism. Dolgoprudny: Vestkom, 1999. S. 185). So between the rigorism of the "inner man" of St. Augustine, mystically and intellectually striving towards God along the shortest path, during which he is not allowed to be distracted, and by the rigorism of Descartes' "inner man" there is a community. It consists, firstly, in the constant need to overcome doubt by means of reason, led by the Almighty. Cartesian thesis "God is not a deceiver" guarantees the truth of the Method. Secondly, in the ability to only approximately achieve the goal. For St. Augustine, this was the comprehension of God, for Descartes - the achievement of mastery over nature through construction. Hence, a plurality of possible options arises and probabilism Cartesianism ( Gaidenko P. The history of modern European philosophy in its connection with science. M .: University book, 2000.S. 130). Undoubtedly, the most good example the implementation of the Cartesian project of domination over nature can serve as the layout of the park of Versailles by A. Le Nôtreux ( Likhachev D.S. Selected works: In 3 vols. M .: Art. lit., 1987.T.3. P. 488). It is both a man-made Eden and a visible embodiment of the laconic formula of absolutism, which belonged to Francis I: “Un roi, une foi, une loi”. The triad "one king, one faith, one law" turns out to be consonant with the three-ray park composition, as well as the principle of the unity of time, place and action from N. Boileau's "Poetic Art" with its strict hierarchy of genres.

The long coexistence of classicism and baroque can hardly be considered an accident. Such a synchronicity indicates their interconnection, which, naturally, does not eliminate significant differences in the traits and genesis of the two styles. The Baroque was a direct heir to the Renaissance, but a clearly disappointed heir. Here is what, for example, A.F. Losev about Montaigne: "His" Experiments "are devoid of any system,<…>are sprinkled with antique quotations, although from antiquity only the Stoics were close to him at first, and then only skeptics became close "( Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. M .: Mysl, 1978.S. 597). Montaigne was the predecessor of Descartes, but here it is worth noting the mention of stoicism and skepticism as directly related to the Baroque style. If classicism proceeded from Augustianism in the form of a secularized dualism between nature and man, which must be removed by the monism of subordination to some single (but not the only possible) form, then baroque proceeded from the universality of the Stoic Logos, unity in the form of an organism saturated with the breath of pneuma. In the context of all the same Augustianism, it emphasized the psychological complexity of the individual personality. In the world view, instead of the rigid monophonic hierarchy of universalism inherent in classicism, a polyphonic universalism of plasticity arose, declaring the possibility of multiple variations of the same form or theme. The non-stop running of the Bach fugue accompanies the "Faustian" man. As a historical phenomenon, the Baroque preceded classicism, but in terms of the further prospects for changing styles, it should be recognized as the heir rather than the predecessor of classicism. It is well known that the emergence of the Baroque is associated with the Counter-Reformation. The canons and goals of the Jesuit Order found their expression precisely in the Baroque style. Suffice it to recall the main Jesuit temple of Il Gesu in Rome (1568-1584), built according to the project of G. Vignola. This may be the first typical project in the history of architecture, implemented in areas from Paraguay to Livonia. The main feature of the Baroque - its deceit, simulativeness gave it the opportunity to turn into its admirers and enemies "soldiers of Jesus" - Protestants, with their inherent cult of labor. “The Baroque, as noted by J. Deleuze, invents an endless production or an endless process of work. The problem is not how to complete the fold, but how to continue it, cross the ceiling with it, direct it to infinity ”( Deleuze J. Fold, Leibniz and Baroque. M .: Logos, 1997.S. 63). Therefore, complex forms and counterpoint, behind which the symmetry of numbers and functions is hidden, were able to glorify the virtues of the Puritans (for example, GF Handel's oratorio “Judas Maccabee”). The use of Old Testament subjects is also characteristic of Baroque literature. Paradise Lost by J. Milton and The Greatest Monster in the World by P. Calderon. The theme of catastrophe arising from the clash of free will and the Law dominates the tragic genre of the era. At the same time, the understanding of the Law is very eclectic: it can be Old Testament, Gnostic and rationalistic. V the latter case a coincidence with classicism is found. The Gnostic features of the Baroque found their manifestation in the passion for astrology and alchemy, as evidenced not only by the literature of the era. So I. Kepler never concealed his adherence to astrology, she even served him as a means of earning a living. I. Newton preferred to remain silent on this score, as well as on his anti-Trinitarianism. However, the Newtonian physics program is saturated not only with mathematics (in its rationalistic Cartesian understanding), but also with the spirit of alchemy, from which its creator was able to extract a lot scientific ideas (Dmitriev I.S. Unknown Newton. Silhouette on the background of the era. SPb .: Aleteya, 1999). His famous answer to the absolutely just reproaches of the Cartesians for the revival of the magical principle - "I do not invent hypotheses" - is nothing more than a truism.

The striving for contrast and external believability through the use of various technologies, characteristic of the Baroque, stems from its deepest pessimism. “No matter how beautiful the comedy is in the rest of the parts, - wrote Pascal - the last act is always bloody. Throw earth on your head - and the end forever! " ( Pascal B. Thoughts. M .: REFL-book, 1994.S. 256). Hence the passion for still life and the hypertrophied vitality of Rubens' nude. The irony and the temptation of the artificial try to speak to death and take over the world in a roguish way. In this sense, our modernity with its passion for contrast and synthetic (up to cloning) continues the trend of the Baroque. “Stucco molding can be thought of - notes J. Baudrillard - as a triumphant rise of science and technology, but it is also, and above all, associated with the baroque<…>Here the whole technology and technocracy is already laid down - the presumption of the ideal falsity of the world, which finds expression in the invention of a universal substance and in the universal combinatorics of substances "( Baudrillard J. Symbolic exchange and death. M .: Dobrosvet, 2000.S. 116).

The combination of the rigid principles of classicism and flexible baroque can be seen in all subsequent styles. The dominance of some over others is determined only by tactical considerations that should ensure the greatest efficiency. “Do you know,” says Balzac's Vautrin, this “Napoleon of hard labor”, addressing the young Rastignac, “how they make their way here? It is necessary to crash into this mass of people with a cannonball or penetrate like a plague. " Classicism can be compared with the first, baroque - with the second. Both of them were the tools of the New Age for the formation of the New Man. So the dominant of classicism can be seen in modernity with his projects of the futurists and Le Corbusier, his pathos of the serious. Postmodernity prefers baroque techniques. Moves to the language of binary codes and deterministic chaos. Shows concern for the environment and covers the world with a web of information networks, simulating “ unbearable lightness being ".