The history of the development of scientific ethnopsychological ideas in Europe and America. History of ethnopsychology Founder of a new psychological branch of ethnopsychology

Moving from legend to story, or from one story to another. If you start telling a story all of a sudden, you will not be understood. Judge for yourself: you drew yourself like that, said that you were going to a meeting, that you and the girl seemed to be on the way and that it was more fun to walk together, and suddenly began

CHAPTER I. ETHNOPSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS IN EUROPEAN SCIENCE

1.1. The origin of ethnopsychology in history and philosophy

Grains of ethnopsychological knowledge are scattered in the works of ancient authors - philosophers and historians: Herodotus, Hippocrates, Tacitus, Pliny, Strabo. Already in Ancient Greece, the influence of the environment on the formation of psychological characteristics was noticed. The physician and founder of medical geography Hippocrates (460 BC - 377 or 356 BC) put forward a general position according to which all differences between peoples - including their behavior and mores - are related to the nature and climate of the country.

Herodotus (born between 490 and 480 - d. C. 425 BC) is the "father" of not only history, but also ethnography. He himself wandered willingly and a lot and talked about the amazing features of the peoples he met during his travels. In the History of Herodotus, we meet with one of the first attempts etic approach, since the scientist seeks to explain the features of the life and character of different peoples that interest him by their natural environment and at the same time compares them with each other:

"Just as the sky in Egypt is different than anywhere else, and as their river differs in natural properties from other rivers, so the customs and customs of the Egyptians are in almost all respects opposite to those of other peoples." (Herodotus, 1972, p. 91).

Rather, it is pseudo-etican approach, because any people Herodotus compares with their compatriots - the Hellenes. The best example of an ethnographic sketch by Herodotus is considered to be a description of Scythia, made on the basis of personal observations: it tells about the gods, customs, rituals of twinning and funeral rites of the Scythians, retells the myths about their origin. He does not forget about character traits, highlighting their severity, inaccessibility, cruelty. Herodotus tries to explain the attributed qualities both by the features of the environment (Scythia is a plain rich in grass and well irrigated by deep rivers), and by the nomadic way of life of the Scythians, thanks to which "no one can overtake them, unless they themselves allow it." (Herodotus, 1972, p. 198). In the "History" of Herodotus, we meet with many interesting observations, although he often gives absolutely fantastic descriptions of supposedly existing peoples. In fairness, it should be noted that the historian himself does not believe in stories about people with goat legs or about people who sleep six months a year.

In modern times, the first attempts to make peoples the subject of psychological observations were made in the 18th century. Again, it was environment and climate that were seen as the factors underlying the differences between the two. So, discovering differences in intelligence, they explained them by external (temperature) climate conditions. The supposedly temperate climate of the Middle East and Western Europe is more conducive to the development of intelligence, and with it civilization, than the climate of tropical regions, where "the heat stifles human efforts."

But it wasn't just intelligence that was studied. The French enlighteners of the eighteenth century introduced the concept of "the spirit of the people" and tried to solve the problem of its being conditioned by geographic factors. The most prominent representative of geographical determinism among French philosophers is C. Montesquieu (1689-1755), who believed that “many things govern people: climate, religion, laws, principles of government, examples of the past, manners, customs; as a result of all this, a common spirit of the people is formed " (Montesquieu, 1955, p. 412). But among many factors, he put climate in the first place. For example, "the peoples of hot climates", in his opinion, are "timid like old people", lazy, incapable of feats, but endowed with a vivid imagination. And the northern peoples are "courageous like young men" and are not very sensitive to pleasures. At the same time, the climate affects the spirit of the people not only directly, but also indirectly: depending on climatic conditions and soil, traditions and customs are formed, which in turn affect the life of peoples. Montesquieu believed that in the course of history, the direct influence of climate weakens, while the action of other causes increases. If "nature and climate rule over the savages almost exclusively," then "the Chinese are ruled by customs, in Japan the tyrannical power belongs to the laws" and so on. (Ibid .: 412).

The idea of ​​the folk spirit penetrated into the German philosophy of the history of the 18th century. One of its most prominent representatives, a friend of Schiller and Goethe, I. G. Herder (1744-1803) considered the spirit of the people not as something disembodied, he practically did not share the concepts of "national spirit", "soul of the people" and "national character". The soul of the people was not for him something all-encompassing, containing all his originality. Herder mentioned the “soul” among other signs of the people, together with language, prejudices, music, etc. He emphasized the dependence of mental components on climate and landscape, but also admitted the influence of lifestyle and upbringing, social structure and history. Realizing how difficult it is to reveal the mental characteristics of a particular people, the German thinker noted that "... one must live with one feeling with the nation in order to feel at least one of its inclinations." (Herder, 1959, p. 274). In other words, he groped for one of the main characteristics emic approach - the desire to study the culture from the inside, merging with it.

The soul of the people, according to Herder, can be recognized through their feelings, speech, deeds, i.e. it is necessary to study his whole life. But he put oral folk art in the first place, believing that it is the fantasy world that reflects the folk spirit in the best way. As one of the first European folklorists, Herder tried to apply the results of his research in describing the features inherent in the "soul" of some of the peoples of Europe. But when he moved to the psychological level, the characteristics he distinguished turned out to be little connected with the peculiarities of folklore. So, he described the Germans as a people of courageous morals, noble valor, virtuous, bashful, able to deeply love, honest and truthful. Found Herder and the "disadvantage" of his compatriots: cautious, conscientious, not to say a slow and clumsy character. We are especially interested in the traits that Herder attributed to the neighbors of the Germans - the Slavs: generosity, hospitality to the point of extravagance, love of "rural freedom." And at the same time, he considered the Slavs to be easily obedient and obedient (Ibid .: 267).

Herder's views are just one example of the close attention of European philosophers to the problem of national character or popular spirit. The English philosopher D. Hume and the great German thinkers I. Kant and G. Hegel also contributed to the development of knowledge about the character of peoples. All of them not only spoke out about the factors influencing the spirit of peoples, but also offered "psychological portraits" of some of them.

1.2. Study of the psychology of peoples in Germany and Russia "

The development of a number of sciences, primarily ethnography, psychology and linguistics, led in the middle of the 19th century to the birth of ethnopsychology as an independent science. It is generally accepted that this happened in Germany, in which at that time there was a surge of general German self-consciousness, due to the processes of uniting numerous principalities into a single state. The "founding fathers" of the new discipline are the German scientists M. Lazarus (1824-1903) and G. Steinthal (1823-1893), who in 1859 began publishing the "Journal of the Psychology of Peoples and Linguistics." In the programmatic article of the first issue of "Thoughts on folk psychology" the need for development psychology of peoples- a new science that is part of psychology - they explained by the need to investigate the laws of mental life not only of individual individuals, but also of whole communities in which people act "as a kind of unity." Among such communities (political, socio-economic, religious) stand out peoples, those. ethnic communities in our understanding, since it is the people, as something historical, always Given is for any individual absolutely necessary and the most essential of all communities to which he belongs. Rather, to which he refers himself, because according to La Tsarus and Steinthal, people there is a collection of people who look at themselves as one people, consider themselves to be one to the people. And spiritual kinship between people does not depend on origin or language, since people define themselves as belonging to a certain nation subjectively.

All individuals of the same people have "similar feelings, inclinations, desires", they all have the same folk spirit, which German thinkers understood as the mental similarity of individuals belonging to a particular nation, and at the same time as their self-consciousness, i.e. what we would call ethnic identity. It is the spirit of the people, which * is manifested first of all in the language, then in the morals and customs, regulations and deeds, in traditions and chants. " (Steinthal, 1960, p. 115), and is designed to study the psychology of peoples. Lazarus and Steintal considered the main tasks of the new science: 1) cognition of the psychological essence of the national spirit; 2) the discovery of the laws by which the internal activities of the people are carried out in life, art and science; 3) identification of the main reasons for the emergence, development and destruction of the characteristics of any people.

The allocation of these tasks indicates that Lazarus and Steintal considered the psychology of peoples as an explanatory science, reducing the general laws of language, religion, art, science, morals and other elements of spiritual culture to a psychological essence. It should only be borne in mind that apart from historical psychology of peoples, explaining the spirit of peoples as a whole, German scientists distinguished the descriptive part of the psychology of peoples - a specific psychological ethnology, designed to give characteristics of the spirit of individual peoples.

The concept of Lazarus and Steinthal cannot be regarded as a socio-psychological theory in the proper sense of the word. The psychology of peoples, from their point of view, is a continuation of individual psychology, since the spirit of the people lives only in individuals and the same processes that are studied by individual psychology take place in it. And yet, the founders of ethnopsychology warned against a complete analogy between individual psychology and the psychology of peoples, emphasizing that many individuals make up a people only when the spirit of the people unites them into a single whole. Like individual psychology, the psychology of peoples is called upon to study, first of all, imagination, reason, morality, but not an individual individual, but an entire people, discovering them in his work, practical life and religion.

The ideas of Lazarus and Steinthal immediately found a response in the scientific circles of the multinational Russian Empire. Already in 1859, a Russian translation of the presentation of their programmatic article appeared, and in 1864 it was published in full. This interest is largely due to the fact that by that time in Russia an attempt had already been made to collect ethnopsychological data in essence, although a conceptual model of a new science was not built.

In our country, the birth of ethnopsychology is associated with the activities of the Russian Geographical Society, whose members considered "mental ethnography" as one of the sections of ethnography. NI Nadezhdin (1804-1856), who proposed this term, believed that psychic ethnography should study the spiritual side of human nature, mental and moral abilities, willpower and character, a sense of human dignity, etc. As a manifestation of folk psychology, he also considered oral folk art - epics, songs, fairy tales, proverbs.

In 1847, the collection of materials began on the program for studying the ethnographic identity of the population of different provinces of Russia, proposed by Nadezhdin. Seven thousand copies of the program were sent to the branches of the Russian Geographical Society, located throughout the Russian Empire, which offered to describe the peoples inhabiting a particular area. For many years, several hundred manuscripts were brought to St. Petersburg annually from amateur collectors - landowners, priests, teachers, officials ... .e. about all the phenomena of spiritual culture from family relations and upbringing of children to "mental and moral abilities" and "national characteristics". Several manuscripts were published, reports were compiled containing psychological sections. But the work was not completed, and most of the materials, apparently, are still gathering dust in the archives of the Russian Geographical Society.

Later, in the 70s. of the last century, and in Russia, following Germany, an attempt was made to "build" ethnopsychology into psychology. These ideas arose from the lawyer, historian and philosopher KD Kavelin (1818-1885), who in the 40s. participated in the implementation of the program of ethnographic research of the Russian Geographical Society. Not satisfied with the results of collecting subjective descriptions of the "mental and moral properties" of peoples, Kavelin suggested the possibility of an "objective" method of studying folk psychology based on the products of spiritual activity - cultural monuments, customs, folklore, beliefs. In his opinion, the task of the psychology of nations is to establish general laws of mental life based on a comparison of homogeneous phenomena and products of spiritual life among different nations and among the same nation in different periods of its historical life.

Between KD Kavelin and I.M.Sechenov (1829-1905) - the founder of the natural science trend in Russian psychology - a discussion arose about what should be considered an objective method in scientific psychology, for which they both advocated. Recognizing the mental as a process, Sechenov considered it impossible to study the psyche from the products of spiritual culture. As a matter of fact, he denied the possibility of holding emic research in psychology, believing that "every psychologist, meeting with any monument of human mental activity and thinking about analyzing it, if necessary, must put the inventor of the monument and his own measure of observation and his own ideas about the ability to use analogies, draw conclusions, etc." (Sechenov, 1947, p. 208). In other words, having correctly noted the great difficulties faced by researchers emic directions, he found these difficulties insurmountable.

In Russia, the first were victorious in a dispute between supporters of Sechenov's natural-scientific psychology and Kavelin's humanitarian psychology. And together with the defeat of Kavelin, the first attempt to create a scientific ethnopsychology within the framework of psychology ended in failure. But this does not mean that ethnopsychological ideas have not been developed at all in our country. It's just that the interest in them, as before, was shown by philosophers, historians, linguists.

And above all, the analysis of the folk - mainly Russian - character continued. Most of the Russian thinkers of the 19th and 20th centuries were more or less concerned with the problem of revealing the originality of the "Russian soul", isolating its main characteristics and explaining their origin. It is impossible even to list the authors who touched upon this problem, from P. Ya. Chaadaev to P. Sorokin, including A. S. Khomyakov and other Slavophiles, N. Ya. Danilevsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, V. S. Soloviev, N. A. Berdyaev, N. O. Lossky and many others. While some authors only described the features of the Russian national character, others tried to systematize the descriptions of their predecessors, to determine the significance of each of the factors under study. There are several ways to explain the "Russian soul" as a whole. Thus, the historian Klyuchevsky inclined towards geographical determinism, believing that "a living and peculiar participation in the structure of life and concepts of the Russian man" was taken by "the basic elements of the nature of the Russian plain" - forest, steppe and river (Klyuchevsky, 1956, p. 66). The philosopher Berdyaev emphasized "the correspondence between the immensity, the infinity of the Russian land and the Russian soul, between physical geography and spiritual geography." (Berdyaev, 1990 a, p. 44). He noted that the Russian people "did not design" these huge spaces because of their most dangerous flaw - the lack of "courageous character and temper of personality." (Berdyaev, 1990 b, p. 28).

Russian linguistics also contributed to the development of ethnopsychological ideas. A.A. Potebnya (1835-1891) developed an original concept of language based on the study of its psychological nature. According to the scientist, it is the language that determines the methods of mental work, and different peoples with different languages ​​form their thoughts in their own way, different from others. It is in language that Potebnya sees the main factor uniting people into a “nationality”. For him, a nationality is more likely not an ethnos, but an ethnic identity, a sense of community on the basis of everything that distinguishes one people from another, constituting its originality, but above all on the basis of the unity of the language. Associating the nationality with the language, Potebnya considers it to be a very ancient phenomenon, the time of origin of which cannot be determined. Therefore, the most ancient traditions of the people should be looked for mainly in the language. As soon as the child masters the language, he acquires these traditions, and the loss of the language leads to denationalization.

1.3. W. Wundt: the psychology of peoples as the first form of socio-psychological knowledge

As already noted, in Russia, supporters of natural science and humanitarian psychology fought among themselves, in which there were winners and losers, but there was no place for ethnopsychology among other psychological disciplines. And in Germany, both orientations crossed in the work of one researcher - W. Wundt (1832-1920), the creator of not only the experimental psychology of consciousness built on the model of physiology, but also the psychology of the peoples as one of the first forms of socio-psychological knowledge.

Wundt published his first ethnopsychological article in 1886, then transformed it into a book, which was translated into Russian and published in 1912 under the title Problems of the Psychology of Nations. The last twenty years of his life, the scientist devoted entirely to the creation of a ten-volume "Psychology of Nations". Wundt's predecessors in the creation of a new science were Lazarus and Steinthal. At first, his disagreements with the latter were subtle, but then he seriously deviated from their proposed path.

Firstly, as we remember, for Lazarus and Steinthal, the study of the national spirit is reduced to the study of the same psychological phenomena as the study of the individuals who make up the people. Wundt agrees with them that soul of the people is not at all an incorporeal entity, independent of individuals. Moreover, it is nothing outside of the latter. But he consistently pursues the idea, fundamental for social psychology, that the joint life of individuals and their interaction with each other should generate new phenomena with peculiar laws, which, although they do not contradict the laws of individual consciousness, are not reducible to them. And as these new phenomena, in other words, as the content of the soul of the people, he considers the general ideas, feelings and aspirations of many individuals. From this, only one conclusion can be drawn: the psychology of peoples for the German scientist is an independent science. He emphasizes that she not only uses the services of individual psychology, but she herself assists the latter, providing material about the spiritual life of individuals and thus influencing the explanation of individual states of consciousness.

Secondly, Wundt seeks to narrow down the program of study of the psychology of peoples proposed by Lazarus and Steinthal. Although, according to him, in real research it is impossible to completely distinguish between description and explanation, the science of the soul of the people is designed to explain the general laws of its development. And ethnology, which is an auxiliary discipline for the psychology of peoples, should describe the mental properties of individual peoples. Incidentally, Steinthal, in his later writings, agreed with Wundt's point of view on this issue and left descriptive psychological ethnology at the mercy of ethnographers.

B-third, on According to Wundt, the general ideas of many individuals are manifested primarily in language, myths and customs, and the rest of the elements of spiritual culture are secondary and are reduced to them. So, art, science and religion for a long time in the history of mankind have been associated with mythological thinking. Therefore, as a subject of study, they should be excluded from the psychology of peoples. True, in his multivolume work, Wundt is not always consistent, for example, quite often he considers religion and art as part of the psychology of peoples.

But in the early works of the German researcher, we find a clear structure of the products of the creative spirit of the peoples:

• language contains the general form of ideas living in the soul of the people and the laws of their connection;

• myths, understood by Wundt in a broad sense as the entire primitive world outlook and even the beginnings of religion, conceal the original content of these ideas in their conditioning of feelings and drives.

• customs include actions arising from these ideas, characterized by general directions of will and the rudiments of a legal order.

“Language, myths and customs are general spiritual phenomena, so closely intertwined with each other that one of them is unthinkable without the other ... Customs express in actions the same life views that are hidden in myths and become common property thanks to language. And these actions, in turn, make them more durable and develop further the ideas from which they flow. " (Wundt, 1998, p. 226).

Having got acquainted with the ideas of Wundt, it is easy to guess that the main method of the psychology of peoples he considers the analysis of concrete historical products of spiritual life, i.e. language, myths and customs, which, in his opinion, are not fragments of the creativity of the folk spirit, but this spirit itself.

Wundt notes that the products of spiritual culture are also studied by other, in particular historical, sciences. Moreover, psychological and historical research go hand in hand. But the psychology of peoples - as an explanatory science - analyzes them from the side of the general laws of spiritual development expressed in them. She strives to psychologically explain the laws that objectively appear in language, myths and customs. If a psychologist studies the cult of tree spirits, which exists among the Germanic and Slavic peoples, he needs to answer the question of what psychological reasons lie at the basis of this cult and related ideas, and how psychologically justified changes in ideas with the development of culture.

1.4. G. G. Shpet on the subject of ethnic psychology

In the 20s. XX century in Russia, taking into account the achievements and miscalculations of German predecessors, another attempt was made to create ethnic psychology, and it is under this name. In 1920, the Russian philosopher G. G. Shpet (1879-1940), in a memorandum on the establishment of an office of "ethnic and social psychology" at the historical and philological faculty of Moscow University, defined this area of ​​knowledge as a branch of psychology, covering the study of such manifestations of human mental life as a language, myths, beliefs, customs, art, i.e. the same products of spiritual culture that called for the study of Lazarus and Steintal, Kavelin and Wundt.

He presented his views in more detail in the book "Introduction to Ethnic Psychology", the first part of which was published in 1927. In this work, Shpet conducts a detailed methodological analysis of the concepts of Lazarus - Steinthal and Wundt. From his point of view, ethnic psychology is not at all explanatory, on which Wundt insisted, but a descriptive science, the subject of which is typical collective experiences. This is the first time we meet this concept, so we should dwell on how the Russian scientist interprets it.

In polemicizing with the Bund the volume for which the products of spiritual culture are psychological products, Shpet argues that the cultural-historical content of folk life itself is not psychological. Psychologically different - attitude to the products of culture, to the meaning of cultural phenomena. Shpet believes that all of them - language, myths, customs, religion, science - cause certain experiences among cultural bearers: “no matter how individually people are different, there is a typically common in their experiences, as“ responses ”to what is happening in front of their eyes, minds and hearts " (Shpet,1996, With. 341). Trying to relate a person to the world of culture, Shlet understands this general not as an average, not as a set of similarities, but as a “type” that is a “representative” of a particular historical community (type of Chinese, type of bourgeois). According to the concept of the Russian thinker, analyzing the products of culture, ethnic psychology should identify typical collective experiences, in other words, answer the questions: What does the people like? What is he afraid of? What is he worshiping?

The first part of Shpet's book is a philosophical foundation of a new science - ethnic psychology, and we will not find in it examples of typical collective experiences of any people. We will never know how GG Shpet would have concretized his program settings: in the early 30s. he was repressed and in 1940 he died in the Stalinist camps.

But the ideas of the Russian philosopher, stated in the first part of his book. "" Sound extremely modern. Firstly, this refers to the concept he introduced collective experiences, which he does not reduce only to emotions or only to cognitions. Rather, this is what modern science calls mentality, when they understand it not just as social representations, but as an emotionally colored system of world outlook inherent in one or another community of people. G. G. Shpet proposes to study not the products of culture as such, but precisely the feelings of people about them, emphasizing that "perhaps nowhere is the psychology of the people so vividly reflected as in their relations to their own" created "spiritual values" (Shpet,1996, With. 341). He talks about the same thing that modern science has come to: the need to study in psychology subjective culture.

Secondly, his statement that a person's belonging to a people is determined not by biological heredity, but deliberate involvement to those cultural values ​​and shrines that form the content of the history of the people: “A person, indeed, spiritually defines himself, refers himself to a given nation, he can even“ change ”the people, enter the composition and spirit of another people, but again not“ arbitrarily ", But by means of long and persistent work of re-creation of the spiritual structure that determines it" (Shpet, 1996, p. 371).

But at the same time, Shpet notes a very important feature of ethnic identity, which many researchers of our day do not pay attention to: the unity of a person with a people is determined by a mutual act of recognition. In other words, in order to be a member of an ethnic community, the awareness of one's belonging to it is not enough, it is also necessary to recognize the individual as a group.

The ideas of Lazarus and Steinthal, Kavelin, Wundt, Shpet in most cases remained at the level of bare explanatory schemes, and their conceptual models were not implemented in specific psychological studies. But the enduring value of the psychology of the peoples of the XIX - early XX centuries lies in the fact that its creators tried to correlate the world of the individual not with the world of nature, but with the world of culture. Social psychology, which in the 20th century developed as an experimental science, rejected the psychology of peoples, along with other first socio-psychological theories for the "speculativeness" of methods and means of analysis. But the ideas of the first ethnopsychologists, primarily the ideas of W. Wundt, were taken up by another science - cultural anthropology. F. Boas, who was born in Germany and became the ancestor of cultural anthropology in the United States, transferred the ideas about the ties of culture with the inner world of man to American soil.

LITERATURE TO READ

E. A. Budilova Socio-psychological problems in Russian science. M .: Nauka, 1983.S. 112-148.

Introduction to Ethnic Psychology / Ed. Yu. P. Platonov. SPb .: Publishing house of St. Petersburg University, 1995.S. 5-34.

Wundt W. Problems of the psychology of peoples // Crime crowd. Moscow: Institute of Psychology RAS; Publishing house "KSP +", 1998. S. 201-231.

Let us remember these qualities, we will meet many of them in other "portraits" of Slavic peoples, in particular the Russian people.

Another concept of linguistic determinism - the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis - we will analyze in the third chapter. There we will also consider studies that tested this idea empirically.

He uses this very concept, and not the term spirit of the people, as his predecessors, but we will not delve into terminological disagreements.

Let us remember this, since general (or collective, or social) ideas are one of the central concepts of modern social psychology in general and social ethnopsychology in particular.

At the same time, he uses the term "type" in a meaning similar to the use of this word to characterize the heroes of literary works and familiar to everyone from literature lessons.

1. Historical conditions and theoretical
preconditions for the emergence of ethnopsychology

I. Herder's position on the people and their internal character and the use of the concept of “spirit of peoples” by W. Humboldt. I. Kant's work "Metaphysics of Morals" and its significance for the study of "the psychology of peoples". Anthropology of I. Kant and the development of problems of ethnopsychology in the treatise “Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view”. The ratio of character, personality, gender, people, race and gender (person). The place of empirical features of ethnopsychology of peoples (peculiarities of national character) in the theoretical anthropology of I. Kant.

The study of the subjective spirit in the philosophical system of GVF Hegel. "Psychology of the people" as a form of manifestation of the subjective spirit. The structure of anthropological knowledge in Hegel's "Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences". The problem of the relationship between "natural spirits" and local spirits (national character). Factors influencing the specifics of the national character and its characteristics among Italians, Germans, Spaniards, French and British. The problem of interaction between religion, ethnos (culture) and personality in Hegel. The elements

ethnopsychology in Hegel's Philosophy of History. The significance of the “anthropology” of Hegel and Kant for the subsequent development of ethnopsychology.

2. From the "spirit of peoples" to the psychology of peoples

The first representatives of the psychological trend in cultural anthropology. A. Bastian and one of the first attempts at a psychological explanation of history. Bastian's work “Man in history” (vol. 1 “Psychology as a natural science”, vol. 2 “Psychology and mythology”, vol. 3 “Political psychology”). T. Weitz and his study "Anthropology of Natural Peoples" (6 volumes). Anthropology is the general science of man, synthesizing anatomy, physiology, human psychology and the history of culture. The central problem according to T. Weitz is the study of "mental, moral and intellectual characteristics of people."

The programmatic article by M. Latsarus and G. Steinthal "Introductory Discourses on the Psychology of Nations" (in the journal "Psychology of Nations and Linguistics"). The idea of ​​Lazarus and Steinthal about two ethnopsychological disciplines - ethnohistorical psychology and psychological ethnology. Ethnopsychology as an explanatory and interdisciplinary science of the people's spirit, as a doctrine of the elements and laws of the spiritual life of the people.

The psychology of peoples V. Wundt. Intersubjective reality as the basis of the psychology of the spirit of nations. V. Wundt's development of the principles of psychology II and a critical attitude to the principle of psychophysical parallelism. W. Wundt is the founder of the cultural-historical approach in the psychology of peoples.

The importance of research in "group psychology" for the development of ethnopsychology (G. Tarde, G. Le Bon). The role of mechanisms of transmission of ethnopsychological stereotypes (imitation, suggestion, infection) for research

psychology of cultures. “The psychology of the people (races)” by G. Le Bon is an example of the manifestation of a positivist-biological tendency in ethnopsychology.

3. Historical features of development
ethnopsychology in Russia in the XIX - early XX century.

Study of the peculiarities of the "soul of the people" in the works of historians (Klyuchevsky and others). Russian literature of the 19th century (A. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky) as a source for ethnopsychological analysis. Elements of ethnopsychology in the works of Russian philosophers of the 19th century. Creation by G. Shpet of the course "Introduction to Ethnic Psychology" in the 10-20s of the XX century. Development of ethnopsychological problems and principles of cultural-historical research in the “Moscow School of Cultural-Historical Psychology” (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, etc.). Analysis of the peculiarities of the national character in the works of Berdyaev, Lossky, Ilyin.

4. Theoretical sources of ethnopsychology
(late 19th - first third of the 20th century)

Philosophy of life in Germany as the most important theoretical source of ethnopsychology (and cultural anthropology in general). The role of V. Dilthey in substantiating the qualitative uniqueness of psychology in general and the psychology of peoples in particular. Dilthey's radical revolution in the sciences of culture and historical knowledge, from collecting facts to understanding them in an integrative integrity.

The significance of Z. Freud's psychoanalysis for the development of ethnopsychology. The combination of the inner experiences of the individual with the external manifestations of culture is the most important position (of Freud and Dilthey) for the subsequent development of ethnopsychology. The role of gestalt psychology

and behaviorism for the first ethnopsychologists (the “culture-and-personality” direction in the cultural anthropology of the United States). The influence of K. Jung's analytical psychology on ethnopsychology.

5. Ethnopsychology of the United States: from the "main personality"
and “national character” “to the analysis of ethnic
identity "in the modern world

F. Boas and his role in “understanding” the problem of “psychology in ethnology”. The importance of the psychological factor in cultures and the reflection of this circumstance in the concepts of cultural anthropologists. Understanding the role of psychology in cultures by Rivers, Radcliffebraun, and other early-century anthropologists. Substantiation of “cultural psychology” by A. Kroeber.

The first studies by R. Benedict and M. Mead. The principle of configurationism as the first form of integrative cultural and historical ethnopsychological research.

A cycle of ethnopsychological research interpreted by A. Kardiner. Features of this area of ​​research in US ethnopsychology. Differences between A. Kardiner's approach and the cultural and historical principles of research. “National character” as a model of personality, reconstructed on the basis of the peculiarities of the history of the people, their way of life, norms of everyday life, norms of interpersonal communication, religion and traditions. “National character” is the main form of ethnopsychological research in the 1940s and 1950s.

New paradigms in ethnopsychology. Problems of “ethnic” identity and cultural pluralism. Model of multidimensional personality by J. De Boca. Study of the peculiarities of the national-cultural "I". Application of the interactionist model of personality of JG Mead in the analysis of the nationally special “I”.

6. Historical ethnopsychology

Psychological differences between written and preliterate peoples. Historical features of the mentality of different eras (primitive, antique, middle ages, modern times). Features of the mentality of the post-industrial era. The problem of reconstruction of the "spirit" of the era. The work of A. Ya. Gurevich "Categories of medieval culture".

Development of the concept of "social character" (E. Fromm). A study of the character of the industrial era in Fromm's To Have or To Be. The linguistic aspect of the functioning of the social nature (market) of the industrial era. The problem of the worldview in the West and the East. Analysis of the influence of the confessional factor on ethnopsychological personality traits by E. Fromm. The problem of "ethnos-religion-personality" in Hegel and Fromm. The value of M. Weber's concept for understanding historical ethnopsychology.

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… ... 3

The history of the development of ethnopsychology …………………………………………… 6

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .15

References ………………………………………………………… .... 17

INTRODUCTION

The problem of ethnic differences, their influence on the life and culture of peoples, on the life of people has long been of interest to researchers. Hippocrates, Strabo, Plato and others wrote about this.

The first researchers of ethnic differences associated them with the climatic conditions of different geographic environments. So, Hippocrates in his work "On Air, Water, Localities" wrote that all differences between peoples, including in psychology, are due to the location of the country, climate and other natural factors.

The next stage of deep interest in ethnic psychology begins in the middle of the 18th century. and is due to the development of social relations, economic progress, deepening political and national independence, as well as strengthening intra-national ties. At the same time, the national specificity of the way of life, national culture and psychology acquired clearer outlines. Questions of the unity of the culture of the people, its spiritual and psychological community - have taken a certain place in science. Interesting coverage of these issues was found in the works of Montesquieu, Fichte, Kant, Herder, Hegel, and others.

Montesquieu, perhaps, most fully expressed the general methodological approach of that period to the essence of ethnic differences in spirit (psychology). He, like many other authors, adhered to the principles of geographical determinism and believed that the spirit of the people is the result of the influence of climate, soil and terrain. Moreover, such an impact can be direct and indirect. The direct impact is characteristic of the first stages of the development of the people. Indirect influence occurs when, depending on climatic conditions, a people develops special forms of social relations, traditions and customs, which, along with geographical conditions, affect its life and history. Thus, the geographical environment is the primary basis of the spiritual traits of the people and their socio-political relations.

Other representatives of the French enlightenment, in particular Helvetius, also addressed the problems of a national character. In his book "On Man" there is a section "On the changes that have occurred in the character of peoples, and the causes that caused them", which examines the characteristic features of peoples, the reasons and factors of their formation.

According to Helvetius, character is a way of seeing and feeling, this is something that is characteristic of only one people and depends more on the socio-political history, on the forms of government. Changes in the forms of government, that is, changes in socio-political relations, affect the content of the national character.

The position of the English philosopher Hume, reflected in the work "On National Characters", is also interesting. The author identifies the main factors that form the national character, in particular physical factors. By the latter, Hume understands the natural living conditions of the community (air, climate), which determine the character, temperament, traditions of work and life. However, according to Hume, the main factors in the formation of the national traits of psychology are social (moral) factors. These include everything related to socio-political relations in society.

Considering the history of the formation of ethnic psychology, one cannot ignore the German philosophy of the 18th century. - the first half of the 19th century. First of all, it is necessary to remember such names as Kant and Hegel.

The legacy of Kant occupies an important place in the history of ethnopsychological research. In his work "Anthropology from a Practical Point of View" Kant defines concepts such as "people", "nation", "character of the people." According to Kant, a people is a multitude of people united in one locality or another, constituting one whole. Such a multitude (or part of it), which, due to their common origin, recognizes itself as united into one civil whole, is called a nation. Each nation has its own character, manifested in emotional experience (affectation) in relation to and perception of another culture. Kant criticizes those who do not recognize the differences in the characters of peoples, and argues that the refusal to recognize the character of this or that people is recognition only of the character of their people. The main manifestation of national character, according to Kant, is the attitude towards other peoples, pride in state and public freedom. The estimated content of the national character is determined by the fact that Kant attaches great importance to the relationship of peoples in their historical development. He does not consider in detail the determinants of national character. In a somewhat scattered form, they are revealed when describing the psychological traits of various peoples of Europe. While recognizing the influence of geography on the national character, he argues that climate and soil, as well as mode of government, are not the basis for understanding the character of a people. Such a basis, from the point of view of Kant, is the innate traits of the ancestors, that is, that which is inherited from generation to generation. This is confirmed by the fact that when the place of residence, forms of government change, the character of the people most often does not change, there is an adaptation to new conditions, in the language, occupation, clothing, traces of origin are preserved, and, consequently, the national character. 1

HISTORY OF ETHNOSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

In the second half of the XIX century. there is a formation of ethnic psychology as an independent discipline. It is associated primarily with the names of Steinthal, Lazarus, Wundt, Le Bon.

In 1859, a book by German scientists, the philologist Steinthal and the philosopher Lazarus "Thoughts on folk psychology" was published. The authors divided the sciences into those who study nature and those who study the spirit. The condition for the separation was that in nature there are mechanical principles, the laws of rotation, and in the field of spirit there are other laws, progress is characteristic of the spirit, since it constantly produces something different from itself. Ethnic, or folk, psychology is called one of the sciences that study the spirit.

In the concept of Steinthal and Lazarus, the spirit of the people (the psychology of the people) is vague, semi-mystical. The authors cannot determine the relationship between the dynamic and the statistical in folk psychology, they cannot solve the problem of continuity in its development. Despite this, there is a lot of positive in their views, especially in the formulation and solution of methodological problems of the science they create.

For example, the way they define the tasks of folk psychology:

a) to understand the psychological essence of the national spirit and its activity;

b) discover the laws by which the internal spiritual activity of the people is carried out;

c) determine the conditions for the emergence, development and disappearance of representatives of a particular people.

Folk psychology, according to Steinthal and Lazarus, consists of two parts: an abstract one that answers the question of what the national spirit is, what are its laws and elements, and a pragmatic one that studies concrete peoples. Thus, Steinthal and Lazarus were the first to try to build a system of folk psychology as a science. However, the idealization of the people's spirit, ignoring the impact on it of objective, external, social factors made the people's spirit an extra-historical formation of a substantial nature that determines the entire spiritual and historical process. We can say that in the interpretation of the basic concept of ethnic psychology as a science, they took not the best from their predecessors Kant, Fichte, and Hegel.

The most developed is Wundt's ethnopsychological concept. It was the work of this German scientist in the field of the psychology of peoples that served as the basis for psychological studies of large social groups. The theory of the psychology of the peoples of Wundt arose from his idea of ​​the irreducibility of general psychological processes to individual psychology and the need to study the socio-psychological laws of the functioning of social communities and society as a whole.

Wundt saw the task of folk psychology in the study of those mental processes that underlie the general development of human communities and the emergence of common spiritual products of universal value. By the folk spirit, which constitutes the subject area of ​​the new science, he understood the higher mental processes that arise during the joint life of many individuals. That is, the soul of the people is a connection of psychological phenomena, the aggregate content of emotional experiences, general ideas, feelings and aspirations. The soul of the people (ethnic psychology), according to Wundt, does not have an invariable substance. Thus, Wundt lays down the idea of ​​development and does not accept the reduction of socio-psychological processes to a certain being (substance) behind them. Mental processes, according to Wundt, are determined by the activity of the soul, which he calls apperception or collective creative activity.

In general, Wundt made a significant contribution to the formation of ethnopsychology, more specifically defined the subject of this science, and made a distinction between folk (social) and individual psychology. 2

Among the authors adhering to the direction of folk psychology, one cannot fail to name the French scientist Le Bon. The origin of his system, which is a somewhat vulgarized reflection of the ideas of previous authors, is most likely associated with two factors of the late 19th century. - the beginning of the XX century: the development of the mass labor movement and the colonial aspirations of the European bourgeoisie. Le Bon considered the purpose of ethnopsychological research to describe the mental structure of historical races and to determine the dependence of the history of a people and its civilization on it. He argued that the history of every nation depends on its mental structure, the transformation of the soul leads to the transformation of institutions, beliefs, art.

Development of Western Ethnic Psychology in the XX century. caused two most important factors: the desire to reduce all the problems relating to various structural levels of ethnic communities, primarily to the individual and personal aspect and the manifestation of philosophical and methodological predilections; this or that researcher. The main trend has become a combination of psychology focused on "microproblems".

In the works of such famous American ethnologists as Benedict and Mead, aspects of the ethnic are considered with a significant bias in psychoanalysis and experimental psychology. The methodological concept of these works is largely borrowed from the studies of the Austrian psychiatrist Freud, and the methodology - from German experimental psychology, in particular from the works of Wundt. This is primarily due to the fact that anthropological field methods of studying individual behavior were found unsuitable for detailed study of individuals in a specific cultural context. Thus, ethnologists needed a psychological theory focused on the study of the anthropological characteristics of the origin, development and life of the individual and based on the psychological methods of its study. Such a theory and method at that time was psychoanalysis, which was used by ethnopsychologists along with methods borrowed from psychiatry and clinical psychology. A whole block of methods used in research in this area is distinguished: in-depth interviewing, projective techniques and means, dream analysis, detailed recording of autobiographies, intensive long-term observation of interpersonal relationships in families representing different ethnic groups.

Another direction of Western ethnopsychology is associated with the study of personality in various cultures. A number of comparative studies of ethnic groups using a variety of psychological tests (Rorschach, Blecky, etc.) allowed researchers to conclude that there is a kind of "modal personality" reflecting the national character.

From the point of view of the American ethnopsychologist Honiman, the main task of modern ethnopsychology is to study how an individual acts, thinks, and feels in a specific social environment. He distinguishes two types of phenomena associated with culture: socially standardized behavior (actions, thinking, feelings) of a certain group and the material products of the behavior of such a community. Honiman introduces the concept of "behavior model", which defines as a fixed by the individual way of active thinking or feeling (perception). The "model" can be universal, real, or ideal. Desired stereotypes of behavior, which, however, have not been realized in a particular life, are considered as an ideal model. By analyzing ethnocultural models of personality behavior and socially standardized patterns of behavior, he formulates the following main question of ethnopsychology: how does the personality enter culture? Honiman identifies a number of factors determining this process: innate behavior; groups of which the individual is a member; role behavior; various kinds of service circumstances; geographic environment, etc.

Further development of this direction is associated with the works of Hsu, who proposed to rename the direction "culture and personality" in "psychological anthropology", since this name to a greater extent, in his opinion, reflects the content of ethnopsychological research.

American ethnopsychologist Spiro formulates the main problem of modern ethnopsychological research as the study of psychological conditions that increase the stability of social and cultural ethnic systems. At the same time, he proposes to focus on the study of the role of the individual, both in changing and preserving entire cultures and ethnic communities. Therefore, the primary task of psychological anthropology is to describe individual behavior as a microphenomenon.

There is also an opposite position. It is occupied by the American culturologist Wallace, who continues the tradition of reducing all ethnocultural diversity to personality traits. It is these two types of orientation - on social and individual psychological theories and their mutual influence that currently determine the directions of the general theoretical development of psychological anthropology.

Thus, the most important areas of modern Western ethnopsychological research are associated with the modification of theoretical orientations or types of psychological theories based on the metatheoretical foundations of various philosophical systems (existentialism, neopositivism, non-behaviorism, etc.).

Their influence is manifested in a different understanding of a person, personality, culture, in relation to the unconscious, in explaining the mechanisms of personality activity. At present, the research problems of Western ethnopsychologists are largely mediated by the specifics of such sciences as social geography and landscape science, biology and physiology, sociology and political science, ethnology and ethology. In recent decades, there has been a penetration into ethnopsychology of methodological principles and research methods of these sciences. 3

In Russia, ethnopsychological research was originally the work of writers, ethnographers and linguists.

The object of cognitive interest was the ethnic self-awareness of the Russian people in the era of the Russian Enlightenment. The upbringing of national pride in compatriots was the leitmotif of the works of M.V. Lomonosov, who laid the foundation for a tradition that was picked up and developed by the enlighteners of the second half of the 18th century. The desire to form public opinion, to educate national dignity, to oppose the "Frenchization" of the Russian nobility can be seen in the publications of Fonvizin, Karamzin, Radishchev.

The successors of the ideas of the enlighteners at the beginning of the X I X century. became the Decembrists. In the programs for the transformation of the Russian state, especially after the Patriotic War of 1812, they took into account the importance of the ethnopsychological factor of influence on Russian society.

The successor of the humanistic traditions of the Russian Enlightenment was Chaadaev, without taking into account whose work it is impossible to comprehensively assess the features of the development of Russian rational self-consciousness in the first half of the 19th century. His name is associated with the beginning of two most important socio-political trends, within which the issue of the originality of the Russian people was discussed. In "Philosophical Letters" P. Ya. Chaadaev for the first time not abstractly, but substantively raised the problem of the significance of the Russian nationality, its features. In Chaadaev's views, skepticism and rejection of the historical past of the Russian people were combined with faith in its special destiny, the messianic role of Russia in the future of Europe.

The idea of ​​the messianic role of Russia formed the basis of the theoretical constructions of the Slavophiles as representatives of a special trend in Russian social thought. This movement acquired the greatest activity in the 30-50s of the XIX century. The founders of the Lyubomudrov society Venevitinov, Khomyakov, Kireevsky considered the formation of Russian national self-awareness as the most pressing problem in Russia, which is possible through the achievement of national identity, the creation of their own literature and art.

Slavophiles of the second generation Aksakov, Samarin, Tyutchev, Grigoriev in their artistic and publicistic works also sought to draw the attention of the nascent Russian intelligentsia and the reading public in general to the problems of the national identity of Russians as an ethnos with a unique history and geography of settlement. Slavophiles of the second generation, unlike their predecessors, did not talk about the folk foundations of national revival, but concretized that in post-Petrine Russia only the peasantry and partly the merchants act as keepers of the eternal distinctive features and traditions, in the words of I. S. Aksakov, "the independence of the Russian outlook."

Another direction of Russian social thought is Westernism associated with the orientation towards the entry of Russia as a European state into the world community of civilized Western states. The ideologists of this trend were Herzen, Ogarev, Belinsky, Botkin, Dobrolyubov. The Westernizers, unlike the Slavophiles, were not inclined to idealize either the historical past or the moral qualities of the Russian people. But at the same time, they opposed the leveling of the national, especially in the upper social strata of Russian society, the loss of a sense of national dignity by part of the nobility.

The importance of Russian ethnography in the formation of ethnic psychology is also great. Expeditions equipped by the Academy of Sciences, starting in the 18th century, brought a variety of materials from the north of Russia and from Siberia.

To develop materials for expeditions and further study the country in 1846, the Russian Geographical Society was established. Its creation was associated with the implementation of not only, and even not so much scientific as social tasks. The society's program included a comprehensive study of Russia, its geography, natural resources and peoples. One of the main tasks was the study of the Russian peasantry to resolve the issue of serfdom. State interests also demanded information about the peoples of Siberia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. This left an imprint on the activities of the society and its ethnographic department, which organizes ethnopsychological research.

In connection with the program of complex ethnographic research, Nadezhdin compiled an Ethnographic Instruction in 1846, which suggested describing: material life, everyday life, moral life, language.

Moral life included all the phenomena of spiritual culture, and among them "folk characteristics", that is, the mental makeup; this also included a description of mental and moral abilities, family relationships and the characteristics of raising children. Thus, in the ethnographic department of the Russian Geographical Society at the end of the 1840s, the beginning of a new branch of psychology - folk psychology - was laid. 4

CONCLUSION

Historically, ethnic, or folk, psychology has developed in Russia in two directions. One was the collection of ethnographic material, and psychological problems were included in general descriptions of the life of different peoples. Another direction was associated with linguistics; here language acted as the basis for the unity of the mental makeup of a particular people. The idea was supported and developed that language is the basis of folk psychology and that it determines the existence of ethnic communities. This idea influenced the formation of the psychological trend in linguistics, dating back to the works of the German scientist Humboldt. And the main feature of folk psychology was its connection with linguistics.

The theory of national psychology, which was developed by Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, served the purposes of psychologizing the socio-historical problem of nations and nationalities, and practical conclusions were drawn from it for national politics. The author believed that the main issue of national policy comes down to the issue of language. Treating language as an instrument of ethnic identification, he saw in it a factor of national self-determination of the individual. Following the psychologization of social phenomena, Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky took another step, biologizing them, introducing the concept of the pathology of nationality, “diseases” of the national psyche, such as nationalism and chauvinism. According to his views, the hypertrophy of social interethnic characteristics in some cases causes an atrophy of national traits, the phenomenon of "denationalization", but its consequence may also be an increase in national feeling, leading to national vanity and chauvinism.

In the pre-revolutionary years, a course on ethnic psychology was introduced at Moscow University, read by the philosopher Shpet. In 1917, his article on ethnic psychology was published in the journal "Psychological Review", and in 1927, a book on the subject and tasks of this science called "Introduction to Ethnic Psychology". This book was written back in 1916, later only comments were added to the foreign literature published during this time. 5

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ananiev B.G. Essays on the history of Russian psychology XVIII - XIX centuries - M., 1947.
2. Dessouard M. Essay on the history of psychology. - S.-Pb., 1912.

1 Yakunin V.A. History of Psychology: Textbook. - S.-Pb., 2001.

2 Dessouard M. Essay on the history of psychology. - S-Pb., 1912.

3 Martsinkovskaya T.D. History of Psychology. - M., 2004.

4 Zhdan A.N. History of Psychology: Textbook. - M., 2001.

5 Ananiev B.G. Essays on the history of Russian psychology in the 18th - 19th centuries. - M., 1947.

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