CHAPTER 4 CULTURE OF EUROPE COUNTRIES IN THE XVI-XVII centuries "The culture of the Renaissance entails not only a number of external discoveries, its most important merit is that she first reveals the entire inner world of man and calls him to a new life." German scientist

She and Elizavet tried to drag into Catholicism. All this strained the life of the young princess in the most decisive way. The Protestant society of the country pinned hopes just on Elizabeth, which was actually the heir of the throne. Passion sometimes flared up just Shakespeare scale. Once Maria concluded her sister in Tower on suspicion of participation in conspiracy. However, she stayed to the ullation for a long time, and more than one - exactly there met the other "conspiratorist" - an externally perfect macho, but absolutely the talentless Count Leister, with whom he also related to his personal life for many years.
However, the personal life of Elizabeth Tudor remains secret for seven seals so far. Historians have a conviction that a certain physical or psychological barrier has always existed between her and men. Having the favorites and being the bride of the whole of Europe (in her grooms and Philip of the Second, and Heinrich Third, and Ivan Grozny himself almost himself), Elizabeth never allowed the "last intimacy." So the legend of the "queen-virgin" (with so many fans!) - Not myth! Somehow she said that not one, even closest, the soul would not open the secret. And even the prudent enemies, the Spaniards did not know exactly her secret
Like her father, Redhead Bess was to the brain of Bone Pragmatist. However, it is worth saying that she had a supergicial mind of a statesman - a certain exaggeration. She knew how to pick up servants and advisors - yes! Her Chancellor Lord Burley and her head of Outer Intelligence Walsingham were the genius of their business. But - I did not receive a penny from red, a penny beyond the salaries! All gifts were uniformly poured on Leters and other favorites. Even the fact that Elizabeth chose Protestantism, he had not only (and possibly not so much) a political reason as purely personal: Dad, following the real father, declared it illegitimate. Elizabeth did not have anything, as after such a spit to break with meticulous Catholics.
However, the Anglican Church is the least Protestant from all Protestant churches. Almost completely preserved a lush Catholic ritual (Elizabeth loved the pump), only the church came out from under the authority of the Roman high priest.
Naturally, this halform form did not suit the bourgeois, Puritan Roptali. Elizabeth collapsed on them the persecution, which did not receive from her and Catholics.
Elizabeth skillfully balanced between different forces. But even "the fate of Eugene kept". When in 1588, the storm was located a huge Spanish fleet with an expeditionary corps, heading for the shores of Britain ("Unbeatable Armada") of the fate of the queen and her kingdom hung literally in the hairs: there were only a few thousand soldiers in the English army.

The XVII century is the initial period in the formation of the bourgeois method of production. This is a complex and contrary to the epoch in the life of European states: the epoch of early bourgeois revolutions (Netherlands - 1566- 1609, England - 1640-1688) and the heyday of the absolutist monarchies (France, the "age of Louis XIV"); the time of the scientific revolution and the final stage of counter-processing; The era of the grand, expressive baroque and dry, rational classicism.

In industrial relations Europe XVII century. - This is Europe manufactory and water wheels - engine manufactory manufacturing. These are larger in comparison with handicraft workshops and more productive enterprises based on the separation and cooperation of manual labor. Manufactory prevailed in the production of glass, sugar, paper, cloth, silk in the Netherlands and England, developed in France. The main sources of energy remained water and wind, but since the beginning of the century, the transition to the use of coal in the production of stone coal is gradually carried out. The technical inventions are improved: in the typography and manufacture of coins, for example, the helical press began. Mining production, military equipment develops. The role of mechanisms increases; The main one still remains the clock mechanism, but it also touched the improvements - the spring and pendulum watches appeared.

Along with the manufactory, European life includes stock and commodity exchanges, banks, fairs and markets. The village (9/10 of the European population was employed in agriculture) in market relations. The land becomes a sale facility. The riches of colonial countries are involved in the European trade turnover. The colonial robbery system acquires such scales, which leads to the trade wars of the XVII - XVIII centuries. The social structure of the European Society is changing. The peasants who lost the land turn into tenants; Craftsmen - in employees of manuff. Part of the nobility is vague. So, in England, new nobles and farmers appear in England and farmers - representatives of capitalist defendant. The bourgeoisie class grows and strengthens its position in the economy and politics. The new capitalist lifestyle is manifested in the folding of the domestic market and the development of world trade, institutes of entrepreneurship and hired labor, displacement of the manufactory of the workshop building, the formation of a new bourgeois grouping of classes.

The political life of Europe XVII century is complex and inhomogeneous. The tone of political processes asks small, but very rich in the Netherlands, where the first bourgeois revolution and in the seven northern provinces, the largest of which was Holland, the bourgeois republic arises. Like all the early bourgeois revolutions, this was limited in order to, forms and results: proceeded under religious banners, freed from the feudal reaction only part of the country, had the form of a national liberation war against the Spanish crown. But a new class came to power for the first time - bourgeoisie. This event qualitatively changed European life in the field of international trade and colonial policy: the power and international prestige of Spain, the Queen of the XVI century, were undermined. Spain, corrupted by cheap colonial gold, exhausted by the struggle for the "purity of faith", turns into a secondary European state. In Germany, the tragic outcome of the peasant war for 100 years extended the existence of feudal orders, while maintaining the personal dependence of the peasants, the political fragmentation of the country.

But in the main political fate of Europe depended on the relationship between the two leading powers - England and France. It is difficult to overestimate the role played by the English bourgeois revolution in the life of the European Society (1640-1688). Coup 1688g. He led to the restoration of the monarchy, but it was already a limited monarchy with a strong parliament, which conducts laws that contribute to the development of capitalist defendant. Proclaimed by the British revolution, the principles of a political structure and economic order had an impact on all European countries. England has become an advanced industrial and mighty colonial power.

The period of the British revolution coincided in France with the flourishing of an absolute monarchy. It was a century of Louis XIV (1643-1715), Louis of the Great, the King of Sun, how flatly called his contemporaries. Versailles yard rattled - a standard of luxury and taste throughout Europe. Here they were given the balls of unheard of magnificence. France replaces Spain as a legislature of fashion and etiquette. Although absolutism as a form of government is approved in most European states, France has been a classic example of the absolutist state for two centuries. "One monarch, one law, one religion" - in accordance with this principle, the French kings were carried out by nothing. All economic, political and social life in the state was under the control of the monarch, and this situation suited all the estates. The nobility could no longer do without a monarch-benefactor; The need of challenged aristocrats under the royal banners. The courtyard, treasure and army guaranteed privilege protection, naked on their career. The French bourgeoisie also could not do without a sovereign, embodied the century-old struggle for the unity of the country, for suppressing separatism. Royal authorities often conducted protectionist policies in relation to manufactory. So the product of the decomposition of feudalism is absolutism - to a certain extent contributed to the development of capitalist relations. A strong absolutist state, which has clear national borders, restraining internecial wars, guaranteed the peaceful life and protection of the king to all the segments of the population.

Absolutism played a positive role in overcoming religious wars in Western Europe in the XVI-XVIII centuries. (Detention of Germany's thirty-year-old war, the War of Calvinist Huguenotov and Catholics in France in the end of the XVI-early XVII centuries, with a rugged Wartholomevian Night; Puritan's constant clashes with supporters of the "high" church in the English history of the XVII century). Absolutism sought to rely on the church, to strengthen the religious foundations: the church proclaimed that the monarch is anointed of God, and his domination on earth is like heavenly autocracy.

But still the role of religion in the worldview falls. Religious wars, the split of Western Christianity as a result of the reformation, the persecution of dissents testified to the inability to the Church to provide the public world. The organic inclusion of the Christian Church into socio-political feudal structures with their ideological-semantic center "God - Pope - King" undermined her authority in the era of the overthrow of the old order. Finally, the progress of science, experienced knowledge gradually convinced the scientific painting of the universe in the truth.

The development of the bourgeois production method generated the need for applied sciences. Starting from the Renaissance, the role of natural sciences in culture was increased. The leading place in natural science was taken by mechanics. Science has ceased to be the cabinet class of single scholars. New forms of research work - Scientific societies, Academy of Sciences. In 1635, the French Academy was created, and in 1660 - the London Royal Society. The scientific revolution was based on a fundamentally new assessment of the possibilities of human mind and sources of knowledge. Even before René Descartes (1596-1650) in "reasoning about the method" announced the human mind to the main instrument of knowledge of the world, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) proclaimed that knowledge is power, its source - experience, and not divine revelation, and Meril value - bringing practical benefits. Experiment (Galilee, Bacon, Newton), mechanical hypothesis, mechanical model (Deskarten) were announced the most important methods of scientific knowledge.

Antonio Van Lewengo microscope allowed us to study the structure of living organisms up to the smallest physiological processes. And the telescope was able to Galileo Galileo (1564- 1642) and Johann Kepleru (1571-1630) to develop the heliocentric teachings of Nikolai Copernicus, open the laws of the motion of the planets. Applying a 30-fold magnification designed by him, Galilee found volcanoes and crater on the moon, saw Jupiter satellites. The Milky Way appeared in front of him countless stars, confirming the thought of Jordano Bruno on the inexhaustibility of worlds in the universe. All this brought Galileo deserved glory "Columbus Sky" and turned the biblical picture of the universe.

Development of earthly mechanics (Galilee, Torricelli, Boyle, Descartes, Pascal, Leibniz) showed the inconsistency of the medieval understanding of nature, making himself on the physics of Aristotle. In the writings of Isaac Newton (1643-1727), mathematical science reached its vertex. Newton's opening in the field of optics (light dispersion) was made possible by designing a more powerful reflective telescope. Newton (simultaneously with a leibyman and independently of it) opens differential and integral calculus. He also formulates a number of major laws in physics. The predecessor of Newton Rene Descartes is one of the creators of mechanics, algebra and analytical geometry. He combined the genius of the naturalist and philosopher. He was carried away by physiology, he was able to understand and evaluate the meaning of blood circulation. He examined the laws of optics deeply, he opened the refraction of light. Blaze Pascal (1623-1662), based on the assumptions of torrchelli, firmly proved the presence of atmospheric pressure. In the works of Pascal, Farm and Guygens received the development of probability theory. William Garvey (1578-1657) opened the secret of blood circulation and the role of the heart, approached the disclosure of the mystery of the origin of human life.

In the XVII century A huge amount of discoveries and inventions were made, and this allows us to talk about the scientific revolution of the "century of geniuses", as sometimes called the XVII century. But the main outcome of the scientific revolution was to create a new image of the universe. Geocentric space collapsed, and the Earth took its true place in the picture of the universe. The world appeared the result of the evolution of matter managed by mechanical laws, and not divine providence, ceased to be a physical emanation of the spiritual fishery of God.

But the scientific worldview in the XVII century. It did not break the bonds that bind it with more ancient - esoteric and religious - ideas. Speakers of the scientific revolution were deeply religious people. Faith was the source of their creative inspiration. The laws of nature opened by naturalists appeared as a new acquisition of divine knowledge, lost at the time of the fall. The mechanical models of the world, created by scientists, found a logical addition in the ideas about the impersonal Creator, which began the beginning of the world, who attached it to him the finished shape and harmony, and then eliminated from it. And Decartes, and Newton built their universe systems based on the Divine originated. Newton believed that the matter could not be explained from her the most that the "the most sophisticated compound of the Sun, planets and comet could not happen otherwise, as the intention and power of the powerful and wise creature." The greatest harmony, the consistency and beauty of the Universum, "said Gotfried Wilhelm Leibniz," there is a consequence of the miracle that has occurred when creating things, "it is an indifferent miracle to the same as much as many natural things." Benedict Spinoza speaks of God as the primancy of being, the root cause of all things, as well as the root cause of himself.

But despite the "assumptions" of divine intervention, the image of the Copernikov-Newtonian universe was simple and accessible to understand compared with the bulky Ptolemyevskaya system.

The principles of knowledge of nature tried to apply to the sphere of social life. That is what the doctrine of Newton D. Lokk and French enlighteners: the outdated structures of feudalism with their class, church hierarchies should be given to the place of rationality of a mutually beneficial public device and recognizing the rights of the individual. So the natural-legal theories of the new time appear, which turned soon in the instrument of combating feudal-class privileges. The priests of the theories of the natural law were Hugo Grotia (1583-1645), Thomas Hobbs (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), which made the transition to the position of human behavior and vital interest and put the beginning of utilitarianism and pragmatism. The abstracted mind of rationalists turned into common sense of the bourgeois.

The initial passage of natural legal theory of Hobbes is the concept of human nature. The nature of man evil and selfish: "Man is a man - wolf." Natural condition - the initial stage of human history - characterized by the "war of everyone against all", in which a person is guided by the "natural right" - the right of force. Natural law is opposed by "natural laws" - reasonable and moral principles of human nature. Among them are the law of self-preservation and the law of satisfaction of needs. Since "War of all against all" threatens to a self-optical man, there is a need to change the "natural state" to civilians, which people do through the conclusion of a public contract, voluntarily inferior to the state part of their rights and freedoms and extending the observance of laws. The natural law of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws, gaining real life in the state. Hobbes considers the state as human hands, the most important of the artificial bodies created by him. The state is a necessary condition for culture, outside it - war, fear, abomination, barbarism, poverty, ignorance. In the state - peace, security, wealth, dominion of the mind, decency, knowledge. The practical basis for such ideas was infinite wars between feudal possessions and the emptying, fear for their lives and for the life of their loved ones, who carried these wars with them. XVII century Permeated by the feeling of tragic loneliness in the world of a person - toys in the hands of fate. Of these feelings and sentiments, the ideas of the need for a strong state that can protect their citizen has grown.

Locke believed that the state was not concluded by the truth of public life, but in the Individual itself. People unite into society to guarantee the individual of his natural rights. The main natural rights of Locke considered not the right of force, but the right to life, freedom and property. The state through its laws protects the natural rights, the free private life of every person. The best personality rights are provided by the principle of separation of the authorities. The philosopher considered it necessary to consolidate the legislative power behind the parliament, federal (relations with other states) - behind the king and ministers, and the executive branch - for the court and the army.

The theory of natural law had antitheological and anti-refortional orientation. Stressing the "naturalness" of the origin of the right, she opposed the theory of "Divine" law, which turned God into the source of the laws of the feudal-absolutist state. Insisting on the integralness of the most important "natural rights" of the individual, this theory opposed and the practice of their constant violation in the feudal society, being an instrument of his criticism.

XVII century Rich with utopians, in which criticism of the feudal absolutism is combined with the development of projects of perfect society. So, the fan of the philosophy of Descartes Sirano de Bergerac in his fantastic novels developed ideas of progress. Summerly sick of ridicule to his society, he enriched the tradition of Humanism Rabel. The Utopic Programs of the Italian Campanella ("City of the Sun") and French author Denis Veras ("The History of Sevarabov") focused public consciousness to search for a harmonious public building. Utopists discovered it on distant islands, other planets, or refer to a distant future, without seeing opportunities to change the position of things in the modern world.

From these utopia is distinguished by the techno- and cognition of "New Atlantis" Francis Bacon, which absorbed the spirit of the scientific revolution. The wise men sitting in the "Solomon House" are scientists, high priests, political figures, they know perfectly well that "in knowledge - power." Scientific and technical achievements are regarded as the main wealth of the nation, their secrets are carefully protected. Bensalemitsa can desalinate water and condition air, regulate the weather and simulate human behavior, they produce synthetic food and know the secret of eternal life. Similar ideas in Europe XVII century. They carried in the air (in the way, the dream about the collective organization of the activities of scientists, soon realized in the activities of the London royal society, the Paris Academy, etc.) in part these fantasies can be viewed and as a kind of mind: in the culture of this serious scientific, sometimes the tragic century is significant Game component. As I. Hasing, the XVII century is passionate about the game of baroque forms.

Culture XVII century. Created the necessary prerequisites for the cultures of subsequent era. The XVII century is the beginning of the formation of a bourgeois society, the development of a new bourgeois worldview, the foundation of which Newtonian-Cartesian cosmology became. The land stopped being the center of the Universe and turned into one of the planets moving around the Sun, which in turn turned into only one of the great set of stars. The universe gained the appearance of a complex system consisting of material particles subordinate to mechanical laws. A public life has become an integral part of this system; The propagation of Newtonian-Cartesian conclusions has generated natural-legal theories of the new time. The role of God in this worldview was still essential: since the world is similar to the giant hourly mechanism, he must have his master. The creator, created the world and then eliminated from it, appeared in the images of the divine architect, mathematics and watchmaker.

The power of a person is that he can penetrate the power of his mind into the heart of the universal order and then turn the knowledge gained to its benefits. Realizing itself as a knowledgeable subject and creator of culture, a person masters the role of the Lord of the world. The slogan of the new world was the mind (as the slogan of the old world was God). Rationalism has become a dominant of culture; Science is the main intelligence instrument - found worldview status, knowledge - social orientation.

Questions

1. Name the background of the culture of revival. What ideas were the basis of the creative of great writers and the artists of the Renaissance?

Prerequisites for the occurrence of the culture of the revival of steel:

The flourishing of the Italian cities - republics,

The emergence of new estates that did not participate in feudal relations: craftsmen and artisans, merchants, bankers. All of them was an alien hierarchical system of values, created by the medieval, largely church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit,

The emergence of culture of humanism, glorifying a man-creator who considered man, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as a higher value,

Typography development

University activities and secular education.

At the heart of the creativity of writers and artists of Renaissance lay the idea of \u200b\u200ba person - as the highest creation of nature, as the center of the Universe. The philosophy of humanism argued the idea that the measure of all things is a person with his earthly joys and the sorrows

2. How did the art of Italian revival affected the culture of other European countries?

The art of Italian revival greatly influenced the culture of other European countries. The ideas of humanism, the artistic principles of the culture of the revival crossed the borders of Italy and spread in many countries of Western Europe. Thanks to the embodiment in the work of great Masters of Renaissance, the humanistic vision of the world penetrated the palaces of rulers, in the walls of universities, on Wednesday formed citizens.

3. Name the characteristic features of Baroque, Rococo and Classicism. Give examples of artworks of these styles.

For the Baroque style (the name happened from the Italian word, meaning "fancy", "strange") was characterized by the gradation, lifestyness and subtraction of forms, the creation of spatial illusion, optical effects. Examples of Baroque style:

in painting: Sicastinskaya Madonna of the artist Rafael, the work of the Flemish artist P.P.rubens, the work of the Dutch artist Rembrandt ("Return of the Produal Son", "Holy Family", "Night Watch", etc.);

in architecture and sculpture - colonnade on the square in front of the Cathedral of St. Peter Rome architect J.L. Bernini, the sculpture "Ecstasy St. Teresa";

literature and theater - work W. Shakespeare.

The new direction approved in Catholic countries was a kind of aesthetic response to the Reformation. Baroque architecture and painting should have glorify the greatness of God and approve the power of the Roman Church. However, the art of Baroque was not limited exclusively to religious motifs.

For Rococo style (in the lane. From French means "decoration in the shape of a sink") is characterized by cord, decorativeness, splendor and luxury. But unlike Baroque Rococo more lightly, chamber, aristocratic. Especially characterized in this regard, the decoration of the interiors of the palaces of French nobility. Elegant, light furniture with twisted legs, sofas, armchairs, tables, cabinets, beds under the canopies were decorated with stucco asymmetric details, inlay. Sofas and armchairs were awaited by elegant tapestries. The art of Rococo reflected the tastes of the Versailles aristocracy.

"The Galant Century" was reflected in the French painting of the XVIII century. It is characterized by escape from reality, appeal to human feelings, erotica. These topics are present in the works of Antoine Watto artists and Francois Bush.

For the style of classicism, the main thing was the image of majestic and noble deeds, the glorification of the sense of debt to society and the state. In the imitation of the ancient Greeks and the Romans, cultural figures were to depict beautiful and sublime.

artistic art - works by Nikola Poussin. He lived for a long time in

literature - Pierre Cornel, the great poet and the created French theater.

architecture - Country Royal Palace and Park in Versailles

4. What evidenced that in the XVII-XVIII centuries. France became the center of the artistic life of Europe?

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. France became the center of the artistic life of Europe, which indicates that it is here that two styles arise - classicism and rococo. France had a significant impact on painting, architecture, fashion all over Europe. An example of the classic palace ensemble was Versailles. The French industry specialized in the production of luxury items: tapestries, furniture, lace, gloves, jewelry were exported to all European countries from France. Monthly in England, Italy, Holland, Russia sent two dolls dressed in the last Parisian fashion. It is in France that the first fashion magazine appears.

TASKS

1. What do you see the difference in the art of the Italian Renaissance and the art of France XVIII century?

And Italian revival and art of France XVIII century. It was drawn to the ancient heritage. However, the main idea of \u200b\u200bItalian revival was humanism and the image of Christian and mythological plots. The art of France XVIII century wore a more secular character. The main for the artist was the image of majestic and noble actions, the glorification of the sense of debt to society and the state.