Music of Austria and Germany of the 19th century Romanticism and musical art. Analysis of the category of the tragic in German romanticism The musical language of romantic composers

Zweig was right: Europe has not seen such a beautiful generation as romantics since the Renaissance. Wonderful images of the world of dreams, naked feelings and striving for sublime spirituality - these are the colors that paint the musical culture of romanticism.

The emergence of romanticism and its aesthetics

While an industrial revolution was taking place in Europe, the hopes pinned on the Great French Revolution were crumbling in the hearts of Europeans. The cult of reason, proclaimed by the era of the Enlightenment, was overthrown. The cult of feelings and the natural principle in man has ascended to the pedestal.

This is how romanticism appeared. In musical culture, it existed for a little more than a century (1800-1910), while in related fields (painting and literature), its term expired half a century earlier. Perhaps, this is the "fault" of music - it was she who was at the top among the arts among the romantics as the most spiritual and freest of the arts.

However, the romantics, unlike representatives of the eras of antiquity and classicism, did not build a hierarchy of arts with its clear division into types and. The romantic system was universal, the arts were free to pass into each other. The idea of ​​the synthesis of arts was one of the key ones in the musical culture of romanticism.

This relationship also related to the categories of aesthetics: it was perfectly combined with the ugly, the high with the base, the tragic with the comic. Such transitions were connected by romantic irony, it also reflected a universal picture of the world.

Everything that had to do with beauty took on a new meaning among romantics. Nature became an object of worship, the artist was idolized as the highest of mortals, and feelings were exalted over reason.

Spiritual reality was opposed to a dream, beautiful but unattainable. The romantic, with the help of his imagination, built his new world, unlike other realities.

What themes did the artists of romanticism choose?

The interests of the romantics were clearly manifested in the choice of themes they chose in art.

• Loneliness theme... An underappreciated genius or a lonely person in society - these themes were the main themes of the composers of this era ("The Love of a Poet" by Schumann, "Without the Sun" by Mussorgsky).
• The theme of "lyrical confession"... Many opuses by romantic composers have a touch of autobiography (Schumann's Carnival, Berlioz's Fantastic Symphony).
• Love theme. Basically, this is the theme of unrequited or tragic love, but not necessarily ("Love and the Life of a Woman" by Schumann, "Romeo and Juliet" by Tchaikovsky).
• Path theme. She is also called the theme of wanderings... The soul of a romantic, torn apart by contradictions, was looking for its own path ("Harold in Italy" by Berlioz, "Years of Wanderings" by Liszt).
• Death theme. Basically it was spiritual death (Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony, Schubert's "Winter Way").
• Nature theme. Nature in the eyes of a romantic and protective mother, and empathic friend, and punishing fate ("Hebrides" by Mendelssohn, "In Central Asia" by Borodin). The cult of the native land (polonaises and Chopin's ballads) is also connected with this theme.
• Science fiction theme. The imaginary world for romantics was much richer than the real one (The Magic Shooter by Weber, Sadko by Rimsky-Korsakov).

Musical genres of the era of romanticism

The musical culture of romanticism gave impetus to the development of the genres of chamber vocal lyrics: ballad("The Forest King" by Schubert), poem("The Lady of the Lake" by Schubert) and songs often combined into cycles("Myrtles" by Schumann).

Romantic opera was distinguished not only by the fantastic plot, but also by the strong connection between words, music and stage action. The symphonization of the opera takes place. Suffice it to recall Wagner's Ring of the Nibelungs with a developed network of leitmotifs.

Among the instrumental genres, romance is distinguished piano miniature. To convey one image or a momentary mood, a small piece is enough for them. Despite its scale, the play seethes with expression. She can be "song without Words" (like Mendelssohn), mazurka, waltz, nocturne or pieces with program names (Schumann's "Impulse").

Like songs, plays are sometimes combined into cycles (Schumann's Butterflies). At the same time, the parts of the cycle, brightly contrasting, have always formed a single composition due to musical connections.

Romantics loved programmatic music that combined it with literature, painting, or other arts. Therefore, the plot in their writings often ruled. One-part sonatas (Liszt's sonata in B minor), one-part concertos (Liszt's First Piano Concerto) and symphonic poems (Liszt's Preludes), a five-part symphony (Berlioz's Fantastic Symphony) appeared.

The musical language of romantic composers

The synthesis of arts, celebrated by romantics, influenced the means of musical expression. The melody has become more individual, responsive to the poetics of the word, and the accompaniment has ceased to be neutral and typical in texture.

The harmony was enriched with unprecedented colors to tell about the experiences of the romantic hero. Thus, the romantic intonations of longing perfectly conveyed altered harmonies that intensify the tension. Romantics loved the effect of chiaroscuro, when the major was replaced by the minor of the same name, and the chords of the side steps, and beautiful juxtapositions of tonalities. New effects were also found in, especially when it was required to convey folk spirit or fantastic images in music.

On the whole, romantics' melody strove for continuity of development, rejected any automatic repetition, avoided the regularity of accents and breathed expressiveness in each of its motives. And texture has become such an important link that its role is comparable to that of a melody.

Hear what a wonderful mazurka Chopin has!

Instead of a conclusion

The musical culture of romanticism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries experienced the first signs of a crisis. The "free" musical form began to disintegrate, harmony prevailed over melody, the lofty feelings of the romantic's soul gave way to painful fear and base passions.

These destructive tendencies brought romanticism to an end and paved the way for modernism. But, having ended as a direction, romanticism continued to live in the music of the 20th century, and in the music of the present century in its various components. Blok was right when he said that romanticism appeared "in all epochs of human life."

For all the differences from realism in aesthetics and method, romanticism has deep inner connections with it. They are united by a sharply critical position in relation to epigone classicism, the desire to free themselves from the fetters of classicist canons, to break out into the open space of life's truth, to reflect the wealth and diversity of reality. It is no coincidence that Stendhal, in his treatise "Racine and Shakespeare" (1824), which puts forward new principles of realistic aesthetics, appears under the banner of romanticism, seeing in it the art of modernity. The same can be said about such an important, programmatic document of romanticism as Hugo's Preface to the drama Cromwell (1827), which openly voiced a revolutionary call to break the rules set by classicism, outdated art norms and ask advice only from life itself.

Around the problem of romanticism there have been and continue to be a great controversy. This controversy is due to the complexity and contradictions of the very phenomenon of romanticism. There were many delusions in solving the problem, which resulted in underestimating the achievement of romanticism. The very application of the concept of romanticism to music was sometimes questioned, while it was in music that he gave the most significant and enduring artistic values.
In the 19th century, romanticism is associated with the flourishing of the musical culture of Austria, Germany, Italy, France, the development of national schools in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and later in other countries - Norway, Finland, Spain. The greatest musicians of the century - Schubert, Weber, Schumann, Rossini and Verdi, Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner and Brahms, right up to Bruckner and Mahler (in the West) - either belonged to the romantic movement or were associated with them. Romanticism and its traditions have played a big role in the development of Russian music, in their own way manifested in the work of the composers of the “mighty handful, both by Tchaikovsky, and further - by Glazunov, Taneev, Rachmaninov, Scriabin.
Soviet scientists have revised much in their views on romanticism, especially in the works of the last decade. A tendentious, vulgar-sociological approach to romanticism as a product of feudal reaction, an art that leads away from reality into the world of the artist's arbitrary fantasy, that is, anti-realist in its essence, is being eliminated. The opposite point of view, which places the criteria for the value of romanticism entirely in dependence on the presence in it of elements of another, realistic method, did not justify itself either. Meanwhile, a truthful reflection of the essential aspects of reality is inherent in romanticism itself in its most significant, progressive manifestations. Objections are also raised by the unconditional opposition of romanticism to classicism (after all, many advanced artistic principles of classicism had a significant impact on romanticism), and the exclusive emphasis on the pessimistic features of the romantic worldview, the idea of ​​"world sorrow", its passivity, reflection, subjectivist limitation. This angle of view influenced the general concept of romanticism in the musicological works of the 1930s-1940s, expressed, in particular, in article II. Sollertinsky "Romanticism, its general and musical aesthetics". Along with the work of V. Asmus "The Musical Aesthetics of Philosophical Romanticism" 4, this article is one of the first significant generalizing works on romanticism in Soviet musicology, although some of its main provisions have been significantly corrected by the time.
At present, the assessment of romanticism has become more differentiated, its various tendencies are considered in accordance with historical periods of development, national schools, types of art and major artistic personalities. The main thing is that romanticism is evaluated in the struggle of opposite tendencies within itself. Particular attention is paid to the progressive aspects of romanticism as the art of a subtle culture of feeling, psychological truth, emotional wealth, art that reveals the beauty of the human heart and spirit. It is in this area that romanticism created immortal works and became our ally in the struggle against the anti-humanism of modern bourgeois avant-gardeism.

In interpreting the concept of "romanticism" it is necessary to single out two main, interconnected categories - artistic direction and method.
As an artistic trend, romanticism emerged at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and developed in the first half of the 19th century, during a period of acute social conflicts associated with the establishment of the bourgeois system in Western Europe after the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794.
Romanticism went through three stages of development - early, mature and late. At the same time, there are significant temporary differences in the development of romanticism in different Western European countries and in different types of art.
The earliest literary schools of romanticism emerged in England (lake school) and Germany (Viennese school) at the very end of the 18th century. In painting, romanticism originated in Germany (F.O. Runge, KD Friedrich), although its true homeland is France: it was here that the general battle of classicist painting was fought by the heralds of romanticism Kernko and Delacroix. In music, romanticism received its earliest expression in Germany and Austria (Hoffmann, Weber, Schubert). Its beginning dates back to the second decade of the 19th century.
If the romantic trend in literature and painting basically completes its development by the middle of the 19th century, then the life of musical romanticism in the same countries (Germany, France, Austria) is much longer. In the 30s, he entered only the period of his maturity, and after the revolution of 1848-1849, his last stage began, lasting approximately until the 80s and 90s (late Liszt, Wagner, Brahms; the work of Bruckner, early Mahler). In some national schools, for example, in Norway, Finland, the 90s are the culmination of the development of romanticism (Grieg, Sibelius).
Each of these stages has its own significant differences. Particularly significant shifts took place in late romanticism — in its most complex and contradictory period, marked at the same time by new achievements and the emergence of crisis moments.

The most important socio-historical prerequisite for the emergence of the romantic trend was the dissatisfaction of various strata of society with the results of the French revolution of 1789-1794, that bourgeois reality, which, according to F. Engels, turned out to be "a caricature of the brilliant promises of the enlighteners." Speaking about the ideological atmosphere in Europe during the emergence of romanticism, Marx, in his famous letter to Engels (dated March 25, 1868), notes: “The first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment associated with it, naturally, was to see everything in the medieval, romantic light, and even people like Grimm are not exempt from it. " In the quoted passage, Marx speaks of the first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, which corresponds to the initial stage in the development of romanticism, when reactionary elements were strong in it (the second reaction, as is known, was linked by Marx with the direction of bourgeois socialism). They expressed themselves most actively in the idealistic premises of philosophical and literary romanticism in Germany (for example, among the representatives of the Viennese school - Schelling, Novalis, Schleiermacher, Wackenroder, the Schlegel brothers) with its cult of the Middle Ages, Christianity. The idealization of medieval feudal relations is inherent in literary romanticism in other countries (lake school in England. Chateaubriand, de Maistre in France). However, it would be wrong to extend the cited statement of Marx to all trends of romanticism (for example, to revolutionary romanticism). Generated by enormous social upheavals, romanticism was not, and indeed could not be, a unified trend. It developed in the struggle of opposite tendencies - progressive and reactionary.
L. Feuchtwanger recreated a vivid picture of the era, its spiritual contradictions in the novel "Goya or the Hard Path of Knowledge":
“Humanity is tired of the passionate efforts to create a new order in the shortest possible time. At the cost of the greatest exertion, the peoples tried to subordinate social life to the dictates of reason. Now the nerves were gone, from the blinding bright light of reason people ran back into the twilight of feelings. All over the world, old reactionary ideas were being spoken again. From the coldness of thoughts, everyone strove for the warmth of faith, piety, sensitivity. Romantics dreamed of the revival of the Middle Ages, poets cursed a clear sunny day, admired the magical light of the moon. " Such is the spiritual atmosphere in which the reactionary current within romanticism was ripening, the atmosphere that gave rise to such typical works as the novel by Chateaubrnack "Rene" or the novel by Novalis "Heinrich von Ofterdingen". However, “new ideas, clear and precise, already dominated the minds,” continues Feuchtwanger, “and it was impossible to root them out. Privileges, hitherto unshakable, were shaken, absolutism, the divine origin of power, class and caste differences, the preferential rights of the church and the nobility - everything was questioned. "
A. M. Gorky correctly emphasizes the fact that romanticism is a product of a transitional era, he characterizes it as “a complex and always more or less vague reflection of all shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional epochs, but its main note is the expectation of something. something new, anxiety before the new, a hasty, nervous desire to learn this new. "
Romanticism is often defined as a rebellion against the bourgeois enslavement of the human person / it is rightly associated with the idealization of extra-capitalist forms of life. It is from here that the progressive and reactionary utopias of romanticism are born. A keen sense of the negative sides and contradictions of the emerging bourgeois society, the protest against the transformation of people into "mercenaries of industry" 3 was the strong point of romanticism.! "Awareness of the contradictions of capitalism puts them (romantics. - N. N.) above the blind optimists who deny these contradictions," wrote V. I. Lenin.

The different attitude to the ongoing social processes, to the struggle between the new and the old gave rise to deeply fundamental differences in the very essence of the romantic ideal, in the ideological orientation of artists of different romantic trends. Literary criticism distinguishes between progressive and revolutionary currents in romanticism, on the one hand, and reactionary and conservative currents, on the other. Emphasizing the opposition of these two trends in romanticism, Gorky calls them “active; and "passive". The first of them "seeks to strengthen the will of man to live, to arouse in him a rebellion against reality, against any oppression of it." The second, on the contrary, "tries to or to reconcile a person with reality, embellishing it, or to distract from reality." After all, the dissatisfaction of the romantics with reality was twofold. “Disorder, discord, strife,” wrote Pisarev on this occasion. “My dream may outstrip the natural course of events, or it may be missed completely to the side, where no natural course of events can ever come.” Lenin to the address of economic romanticism: ". The plans of" romanticism are portrayed very easily realizable precisely because of the ignorance of real interests, which is the essence of romanticism. "
Differentiating the positions of economic romanticism, criticizing Sismondi's projects, V. I. Lenin spoke positively about such progressive representatives of utopian socialism as Owen, Fourier, Thompson: machine industry. They looked in the same direction as the actual development; they really were ahead of this development ”3. This statement can also be attributed to progressive, primarily revolutionary, romantics in art, among whom the figures of Byron, Shelley, Hugo, Manzoni stood out in the literature of the first half of the 19th century.
Of course, living creative practice is more complex and richer than a scheme of two currents. Each trend had its own dialectic of contradictions. In music, this differentiation is especially difficult and hardly applicable.
The heterogeneity of romanticism was sharply revealed in its attitude to the Enlightenment. Romanticism's reaction to enlightenment was by no means direct and one-sidedly negative. The attitude towards the ideas of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment was the knot of the collision of various directions of romanticism. This was clearly expressed, for example, in the opposite of the positions of the English romantics. While the poets of the lake school (Coleridge, Wordsworth and others) rejected the philosophy of the Enlightenment and the traditions of classicism associated with it, the revolutionary romantics Shelley and Byron defended the idea of ​​the French Revolution of 1789-1794, and in their work they followed the traditions of heroic citizenship, typical for revolutionary classicism.
In Germany, the most important link between enlightenment classicism and romanticism was the Sturm und Drang movement, which prepared the aesthetics and images of German literary (partly musical - early Schubert) romanticism. Educational ideas are heard in a number of journalistic, philosophical and artistic works of German romantics. So, "Hymn to Humanity" Fr. Hölderlin, an admirer of Schiller, was a poetic transposition of Rousseau's ideas. The ideas of the French Revolution are defended by Fr. Schlegel, the Jena romantics appreciated Goethe. In the philosophy and aesthetics of Schelling, the then generally recognized head of the Romantic school, there are connections with Kant and Fichte.

In the work of the Austrian playwright, contemporary of Beethoven and Schubert - Grillparzer - romantic and classicist elements (an appeal to antiquity) are closely intertwined. At the same time, Novalis, called by Goethe "the emperor of romanticism", writes treatises and novels sharply hostile to the educational ideology ("Christianity or Europe", "Heinrich von Ofterdingen").
In musical romanticism, especially in Austrian and German, continuity from classical art is clearly visible. It is known how significant the connections of the early romantics - Schubert, Hoffmann, Weber - with the Viennese classical school (especially with Mozart and Beethoven) are. They are not lost, but in some way and strengthened in the future (Schumann, Mendelssohn), up to its later stage (Wagner, Brahms, Bruckner).
At the same time, progressive romantics opposed academism, expressed an acute dissatisfaction with the dogmatic provisions of classicist aesthetics, criticized the schematism and one-sidedness of the rationalist method. The most acute opposition to the French classicism of the 17th century was marked by the development of French art in the first third of the 19th century (although here romanticism and classicism interbred, for example, in the work of Berlioz). The polemical works of Hugo and Stendhal, the statements of Georges Sand, Delacroix are permeated with hot criticism of the classicism aesthetics of both the 17th and 18th centuries. Among writers, it is directed against the rational-conventional principles of classicist drama (in particular, against the unity of time, place and action), the immutable delineation of genres and aesthetic categories (for example, the sublime and the ordinary), the limitation of the spheres of reality that can be reflected by art. In their desire to show all the contradictory versatility of life, to link together its most diverse aspects, romantics turn to Shakespeare as an aesthetic ideal.
The dispute with the aesthetics of classicism, going in different directions and with varying degrees of acuteness, also characterizes the literary movement in other countries (in England, Germany, Poland, Italy and very brightly in Russia).
One of the most important stimuli for the development of progressive romanticism was the national liberation movement, awakened by the French Revolution, on the one hand, and the Napoleonic wars, on the other. It gave rise to such valuable aspirations of romanticism, such as interest in national history, the heroism of popular movements, in the national element and folk art. All this inspired the struggle for a national opera in Germany (Weber), determined the revolutionary-patriotic orientation of romanticism in Italy, Poland, and Hungary.
The romantic movement that swept the countries of Western Europe, the development of national romantic schools in the first half of the 19th century gave an unprecedented impetus to the collection, study and artistic development of folklore - literary and musical. German romantic writers, continuing the traditions of Herder and the Sturmers, collected and published monuments of folk art - songs, ballads, fairy tales. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the collection The Wonderful Horn of the Boy, compiled by L. I. Arnim and K. Brentano, for the further development of German poetry and music. In music, this influence goes through the entire 19th century, right up to Mahler's song cycles and symphonies. The brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, collectors of folk tales, did a lot to study Germanic mythology and medieval literature, laying the foundation for scientific Germanic studies.
In the field of the development of Scottish folklore, the merits of V. Scott are great, the Polish - A. Mitskevich and Y. Slovatsky. In musical folklore, which was at the cradle of its development at the beginning of the 19th century, the names of composers G.I. Fogler (teacher of K.M. Weber) in Germany, O. Kohlberg in Poland, A. Horvat in Hungary, etc. are put forward.
It is known what a fertile soil folk music was for such brightly national composers as Weber, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt, Brahms. The appeal to this "inexhaustible treasury of melodies" (Schumann), deep comprehension of the spirit of folk music, genre and intonation foundations determined the power of artistic generalization, democracy, the enormous universal human impact of the art of these romantic musicians.

Like any artistic direction, romanticism is based on a certain creative method peculiar to it, the principles of artistic reflection of reality, an approach to it, and understanding it, typical for this direction. These principles are determined by the artist's worldview, his position in relation to contemporary social processes (although, of course, the connection between the artist's worldview and creativity is by no means direct).
Without touching on the essence of the romantic method, we note that some aspects of it find expression in later (in relation to the direction) historical periods. However, going beyond the framework of a specific historical direction, it would be more accurate to talk about romantic traditions, continuity, influences, or about romance as an expression of a certain elevated emotional tone associated with the thirst for beauty, with the desire to "live a life tenfold."
Thus, for example, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the revolutionary romanticism of early Gorky flared up in Russian literature; the romance of dreams, of poetic fantasy determines the originality of A. Green's work, finds its expression in the early Paustovsky. In Russian music of the beginning of the 20th century, the works of Scriabin and early Myaskovsky are marked by the features of romanticism, which at this stage merges with symbolism. In this regard, it is worth recalling Blok, who believed that symbolism "is associated with romanticism deeper than all other currents."

In Western European music, the line of development of romanticism in the 19th century was continuous until such late manifestations as Bruckner's last symphonies, Mahler's early work (late 80s-90s), some symphonic poems by R. Strauss (Death and Enlightenment , 1889; "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", 1896) and others.
In the characterization of the artistic method of romanticism, many factors usually appear, but they cannot give an exhaustive definition. There are disputes about whether it is possible at all to give a generalizing definition of the method of romanticism, because, indeed, it is necessary to take into account not only opposite trends in romanticism, but also the specifics of the type of art, time, national school, and creative individuality.
And yet, I think, it is possible to generalize the most essential features of the romantic method B in general, otherwise it would not be possible to speak of it as a method in general1. It is very important to take into account the complex of defining features, since, taken separately, they can be present in another creative method.
Belinsky has a generalizing definition of the two essential aspects of the romantic method. "In its closest and most essential meaning, romanticism is nothing more than the inner world of a person's soul, the innermost life of his heart," writes Belinsky, noting the subjective-lyrical nature of romanticism, its psychological orientation. Developing this definition, the critic clarifies: "His sphere, as we said, is the entire inner soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from which all vague aspirations for the best and the sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy." This is one of the main features of romanticism.
Another fundamental feature of it is defined by Belinsky as "a deep inner discord with reality." II although Belinsky gave a sharply critical connotation to the last definition (the desire of romantics to go "past life"), he puts the right emphasis on the conflicted perception of the world by romantics, the principle of opposing the desired and the actual, caused by the conditions of the social life of the top era.
Similar provisions were encountered earlier in Hegel: “The world of the soul triumphs over the victory over the external world. and as a result of this, the sensory phenomenon is devalued. " Hegel notes the gap between striving and action, the “longing of the soul for the ideal” instead of action and implementation4.
It is interesting that A. V. Schlegel came to a similar description of romanticism, but from different positions. Comparing ancient and modern art, he defined Greek poetry as the poetry of joy and possession, capable of concretely expressing the ideal, and romantic as the poetry of melancholy and longing, incapable of embodying the ideal in its striving for the infinite5. Hence the difference in the character of the hero follows: the ancient ideal of man is inner harmony, the romantic hero is an inner split.
So, the striving for the ideal and the gap between dream and reality, dissatisfaction with the existing and the expression of the positive principle through the images of the ideal, the desired are another major feature of the romantic method.
The advancement of the subjective factor is one of the defining differences between romanticism and realism. Romanticism "hypertrophied the individual, the individual, and endowed his inner world with universality, tearing him away from the objective world," writes the Soviet literary critic B. Suchkov
However, one should not elevate the subjectivity of the romantic method to an absolute and deny its ability to generalize and typify, that is, ultimately, to objectively reflect reality. Significant in this respect is the very interest of romantics in history. “Romanticism not only reflected the changes that took place in the public mind after the revolution. Feeling and conveying the mobility of life, its variability, as well as the mobility of human feelings, changing with the changes taking place in the world, romanticism inevitably resorted to history in defining and understanding the prospects of social progress. "
The setting, the background of the action, appear in a bright and new way in romantic art, making up, in particular, a very important expressive element of the musical image for many romantic composers, starting with Hoffmann, Schubert and Weber.

The conflicting perception of the world by romantics finds expression in the principle of polar antitheses, or "double world". It is expressed in the polarity, two-dimensionality of dramatic contrasts (the real is the fantastic, the person is the world around him), in the sharp comparison of the aesthetic categories (the sublime and the everyday, the beautiful and the terrible, the tragic and the comic, etc.). It is necessary to accentuate the antinomies of romantic aesthetics itself, in which not only deliberate antitheses operate, but also internal contradictions - contradictions between its materialistic and idealistic elements. I mean, on the one hand, the sensualism of romantics, attention to the sensual-material concreteness of the world (this is strongly expressed in music), and on the other hand, the striving for some ideal absolute, abstract categories - “eternal humanity” (Wagner), “eternal femininity "(Sheet). Romantics strive to reflect the concreteness, individual originality of life phenomena and at the same time their "absolute" essence, often understood in an abstract-idealistic sense. The latter is especially characteristic of literary romanticism and its theory. Life, nature are presented here as a reflection of the "infinite", the fullness of which can only be guessed by the inspired feeling of the poet.
The theoretical philosophers of romanticism consider music to be the most romantic of all arts precisely because, in their opinion, it “has as its subject only the infinite” 1. Philosophy, literature and music, as never before, have united among themselves (a vivid example of this is the work of Wagner). Music took one of the leading places in the aesthetic concepts of such idealist philosophers as Schelling, the Schlegel brothers, Schopenhauer2. However, if literary and philosophical romanticism was most affected by the idealistic theory of art as a reflection of the “infinite”, “divine”, “absolute”, in music we will find, on the contrary, the objectivity of the “image” unprecedented before the romantic era, determined by the characteristic, sound-painting brilliance of images ... The approach to music as a "sensible realization of thought" 3 is at the heart of Wagner's aesthetic propositions, who, in spite of his literary predecessors, affirms the sensual concreteness of the musical image.
In assessing life phenomena, romantics are characterized by hyperbolization, which is expressed in the sharpening of contrasts, in a gravitation towards the exceptional, the unusual. “The commonplace is the death of art,” proclaims Hugo. However, in contrast to this, another romantic, Schubert, speaks in his music about "a man as he is." Therefore, summarizing, it is necessary to distinguish at least two types of romantic hero. One of them is an exceptional hero, towering above ordinary people, an internally divided tragic thinker, often coming into music from fear; literary works or epics: Faust, Manfred, Childe Harold, Wotan. It is characteristic of mature and especially late musical romanticism (Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner). The other is a simple person, deeply feeling life, closely connected with the life and nature of his native land. Such is the hero of Schubert, Mendelssohn, partly Schumann, Brahms. Here, romantic affectation is contrasted with sincerity, simplicity, and naturalness.
Equally different is the embodiment of nature, its very understanding in romantic art, which devoted a great deal of attention to the theme of nature in its cosmic, natural-philosophical, and, on the other hand, lyrical aspect. Nature is majestic and fantastic in the works of Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner and intimate, intimate in Schubert's vocal cycles or in Schumann's miniatures. These differences are also manifested in the musical language: the song of Schubert and the pathetically upbeat, oratory melodies of Liszt or Wagner.
But no matter how different the types of heroes, the range of images, language, in general, romantic art is distinguished by special attention to the personality, a new approach to it. The problem of personality in its conflict with the environment is fundamental to romanticism. This is precisely what Gorky emphasizes, saying that the main theme of 19th century literature was "the personality in its opposition to society, the state, nature", "the drama of a person for whom life seems cramped." Belinsky writes about the same in connection with Byron: “This is a human personality, revolted against the common and, in its proud rebellion, leaning on itself” 2. With great dramatic force, the romantics expressed the process of alienation of the human person in bourgeois society. Romanticism illuminated new aspects of the human psyche. He embodied the personality in the most intimate, psychologically multifaceted manifestations. A man from romantics, due to the disclosure of his individuality, appears more complex and contradictory than in the art of classicism.

Romantic art generalized many typical phenomena of its era, especially in the field of human spiritual life. In different versions and solutions, the "confession of the son of the century" is embodied in romantic literature and music - sometimes elegiac, like in Musset, sometimes heightened to the grotesque (Berlioz), sometimes philosophical (Liszt, Wagner), sometimes passionately rebellious (Schumann) or modest and at the same time tragic (Schubert). But in each of them there is a leitmotif of unfulfilled aspirations, "the longing of human desires," as Wagner said, caused by rejection of bourgeois reality and a thirst for "true humanity." The lyrical drama of the personality, in essence, turns into a social theme.
The central point in romantic aesthetics was the idea of ​​a synthesis of arts, which played a huge positive role in the development of artistic thinking. In contrast to classicist aesthetics, romantics argue that not only are there no impassable boundaries between the arts, but, on the contrary, there are deep connections and commonality. “The aesthetics of one art is the aesthetics of another; only the material is different, ”wrote Schumann4. He saw in F. Rückert "the greatest musician of word and thought" and strove in his songs to "convey the thoughts of the poem almost literally" 2. In his piano cycles, Schumann introduced not only the spirit of romantic poetry, but also forms, compositional techniques - contrasts, interruption of narrative plans, characteristic of Hoffmann's novellas. II, on the contrary, in the literary works of Hoffmann one can feel “the birth of poetry from the spirit of music” 3.
Romantics of different directions come to the idea of ​​synthesis of arts from opposite positions. For some, mainly philosophers and theorists of romanticism, it arises on an idealistic basis, on the idea of ​​art as an expression of the universe, the absolute, that is, some kind of unified and infinite essence of the world. For others, the idea of ​​synthesis arises as a result of the desire to expand the boundaries of the content of an artistic image, to reflect life in all its multifaceted manifestations, that is, in essence, on a real basis. This is the position, the creative practice of the greatest artists of the era. Putting forward the well-known thesis about the theater as a "concentrated mirror of life", Hugo asserted: "Everything that exists in history, in life, in a person must and can find its reflection in him (in the theater - N.N.), but only with the help of a magic wand of art. "
The idea of ​​a synthesis of arts is closely related to the interpenetration of various genres — epic, drama, lyricism — and aesthetic categories (sublime, comic, etc.). The ideal of modern literature is "drama, fusing in one breath the grotesque and the sublime, the terrible and the buffoonery, tragedy and comedy."
In music, the idea of ​​the synthesis of arts was developed especially actively and consistently in the field of opera. This idea is the basis of the aesthetics of the creators of the German romantic opera - Hoffmann and Weber, the reform of Wagner's musical drama. On the same basis (synthesis of arts), the program music of the romantics developed, such a major achievement of the musical culture of the 19th century as the program symphonism.
Thanks to this synthesis, the expressive sphere of music itself has expanded and enriched. For the premise of the primacy of the word, poetry in a synthetic work by no means leads to a secondary, complementary function of music. On the contrary, in the works of Weber, Wagner, Berlioz, Liszt and Schumann, music was the most powerful and effective factor, capable in its own way, in its "natural" forms, to embody what literature and painting bring with it. "Music is the sensory realization of thought" - this thesis of Wagner has a broad meaning. Here we come to the problem of s and n-thesis of the second order, the synthesis of the internal, based on a new quality of musical imagery in romantic art. With their creativity, romantics have shown that music itself, expanding its aesthetic boundaries, is able to embody not only a generalized feeling, mood, idea, but also to "translate" into its own language with minimal help of words or even without it, images of literature and painting, to recreate the development of literary plot, to be colorful, picturesque and picturesque, capable of creating a vivid characteristic, a portrait "sketch" (recall the amazing accuracy of Schumann's musical portraits) and at the same time not lose its fundamental property of expressing feelings.
This was realized not only by great musicians, but also by writers of that era. Noting the unlimited possibilities of music in revealing the human psyche, Georges Sand, for example, wrote that music “recreates even the appearance of things, without falling into petty sound effects, or into a narrow imitation of the noises of reality” i. The desire to speak and paint with music was the main thing for the creator of the romantic programmatic symphony of Berlioz, about which Sollertinsky said so vividly: “Shakespeare, Goethe, Byron, street battles, orgies of bandits, philosophical monologues of a lonely thinker, vicissitudes of a secular love story, storms and thunderstorms, exuberant fun carnival crowd, performances of farce comedians, funerals of heroes of the revolution, full of pathos funeral orations - all this Berlioz seeks to translate into the language of music. " At the same time, Berlioz did not attach such a decisive importance to the word, as it might seem at first glance. “I don’t believe that in terms of the strength and power of expressiveness, such arts as painting and even poetry could be equal to music!” - said the composer3. Without this inner synthesis of musical, literary and pictorial principles, the musical work itself would not have been Liszt's programmatic symphony, his philosophical musical poem.
The synthesis of expressive and pictorial principles, new in comparison with the classical style, appears in musical romanticism at all its stages as one of the specific features. In Schubert's songs, the piano part creates the mood and "outlines" the setting of the action, using the possibilities of musical painting and sound painting. Vivid examples of this are "Margarita at the Spinning Wheel", "Forest Tsar", many of the songs from "The Beautiful Miller Woman", "Winter Road". One of the most striking examples of precise and laconic sound writing is the piano part of The Double. Picture narrative is characteristic of Schubert's instrumental music, especially his symphony in C major, sonata in B major, fantasy “The Wanderer”. Schumann's piano music is permeated with a subtle "soundtrack of moods"; it is no coincidence that Stasov saw him as a brilliant portrait painter.

Chopin, like Schubert, who is alien to the literary program, in his ballads and fantasies in f-moll creates a new type of instrumental drama, which reflects the multifaceted content, dramatic action and picturesque images inherent in a literary ballad.
On the basis of the drama of antitheses, free and synthetic musical forms arise, characterized by the isolation of contrasting sections within a one-part composition and continuity, the unity of the general line of ideological-figurative development.
It is, in essence, about the romantic qualities of sonata drama, a new understanding and application of its dialectical possibilities. In addition to these features, it is important to emphasize the romantic variability of the image, its transformation. The dialectical contrasts of sonata drama acquire a new meaning among romantics. They reveal the duality of the romantic worldview, the above-mentioned principle of "double world". This finds expression in the polarity of contrasts, often created by transforming one image (for example, the single substance of the Faustian and Mephistophelian principles in Liszt). Here the factor of a sharp leap, a sudden change (even distortion) of the whole essence of the image, and not the regularity of its development and change, due to the growth of its qualities in the process of interaction of contradictory principles, as in the classics, and above all in Beethoven, is at work.
The conflict drama of romantics is characterized by its own, which has become typical, direction of the development of images - an unprecedented dynamic growth of a light lyrical image (side part) and a subsequent dramatic breakdown, a sudden interruption of the line of its development by the invasion of a formidable, tragic beginning. The typicality of such a "situation" becomes obvious if we recall Schubert's symphony in h-minor, Chopin's sonata in b-minor, especially his ballads, the most dramatic works of Tchaikovsky, with renewed vigor as a realist artist who embodied the idea of ​​a conflict between dream and reality, the tragedy of unfulfilled aspirations in conditions of a cruel reality hostile to man. Of course, one of the types of romantic drama is highlighted here, but the view is very significant and typical.
Another type of drama "- evolutionary - is associated with the romantics with a subtle nuance of the image, the disclosure of its multifaceted psychological shades, details. The main principle of development here is the melodic, harmonic, timbre variation, which does not change the essence of the image, the nature of its genre, but showing deep, outwardly barely perceptible processes of mental life, their constant movement, changes, transitions - this principle is the basis of the song symphonism born by Schubert with its lyrical nature.

The originality of the Schubert method was well defined by Asafiev: “In contrast to the dramatic development, there are those works (symphonies, sonatas, overtures, symphonic poems) in which a widely developed lyrical song line (not a general theme, but a line) generalizes and smooths out the constructive sections of the sonata-symphonic allegro. Undulating ups and downs, dynamic gradations, “swelling” and thinning of tissue - in a word, the manifestation of organic life in this kind of “song” sonatas prevail over oratorical pathos, over sudden contrasts, over dramatic dialogue and rapid disclosure of ideas. Schubert's Big B-clert "Sonata is a typical example of this trend."

Not all essential features of the romantic method and aesthetics can be found in every art form.
If we talk about music, then the most direct expression of romantic aesthetics was in opera, as a genre especially closely associated with literature. Here, such specific ideas of romanticism as the ideas of fate, redemption, overcoming the curse that gravitates over the hero, the power of selfless love are developed (Freischutz, The Flying Dutchman, Tannhäuser). The opera reflects the very plot basis of romantic literature, the juxtaposition of the real and the fantastic worlds. It is here that the fiction inherent in romantic art, elements of subjective idealism inherent in literary romanticism, are especially manifested. At the same time, for the first time, the poetry of the folk-national character cultivated by romantics flourishes so brightly in the opera.
In instrumental music, a romantic approach to reality is manifested, bypassing the plot (if it is a non-programmed composition), B the general ideological concept of the work, in the nature of its drama, embodied emotions, in the peculiarities of the psychological structure of images. The emotional and psychological tone of romantic music is distinguished by a complex and changeable range of shades, heightened expression, and the unique brightness of each experienced moment. This is embodied in the expansion and individualization of the intonation sphere of romantic melody, in the sharpening of the colorful and expressive functions of harmony. The discoveries of romantics in the field of orchestra and instrumental timbres are inexhaustible.
Expressive means, the actual musical "speech" and its individual components acquire an independent, brightly individual, and sometimes exaggerated development among romantics1. The importance of the phonism itself, the brilliance, the characteristic sound, especially in the field of harmonic and textured-timbre means, is extremely increasing. There are notions of not only a leitmotif, but also leitharmonies (for example, Wagner's stristan chord), leittembra (one of the striking examples is Berlioz's Harold in Italy symphony).

The proportional relationship of elements of the musical language observed in the classical style is giving way to a tendency towards autonomy (this tendency will be exaggerated in the music of the 20th century). On the other hand, among romantics, synthesis is intensifying - the connection between the components of the whole, mutual enrichment, and the mutual influence of expressive means. New types of melody emerge, born of harmony, and, on the contrary, there is a melodiousness of harmony, saturation of it with non-chord tones, exacerbating melodic gravities. A classic example of a mutually enriching synthesis of melody and harmony is Chopin's style, about which, to paraphrase Rolland's words about Beethoven, we can say that this is the absolute of melody, filled to the brim with harmony.
The interaction of opposing tendencies (autonomization and synthesis) encompasses all spheres - both the musical language and the form of romantics, who created new free and synthetic forms on the basis of sonata.
Comparing musical romanticism with literary romanticism in their meaning for our time, it is important to emphasize the special vitality, immortality of the former. After all, romanticism is especially strong in expressing the richness of emotional life, and this is precisely what music is most subject to. That is why the differentiation of romanticism not only by trends and national schools, but also by types of arts is an important methodological moment in revealing the problem of romanticism and in its assessment.

Content

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 3

XIXcentury ……………………………………………………………… ..6

1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism ……………………………… .6

   Peculiarities of romanticism in Germany …………………………………… ... 10

2.1. General characteristics of the category of the tragic ………………………… .13

Chapter 3. Criticism of Romanticism ……………………………………………… ... 33

3.1. Critical position of Georg Friedrich Hegel ………………………… ..

3.2. Friedrich Nietzsche's critical position ………………………………… ..

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………

Bibliography ……………………………………………………

Introduction

Relevance This study consists, firstly, in the foreshortening of the problem. The work combines the analysis of worldview systems and the work of two outstanding representatives of German romanticism from different spheres of culture: Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Arthur Schopenhauer. This, according to the author, is the element of novelty. The study attempts to combine the worldview foundations and works of two famous personalities on the basis of the predominance of the tragic direction of their thinking and creativity.

Secondly, the relevance of the chosen topic lies indegree of knowledge of the problem. There are many large studies on German romanticism, as well as on the tragic in various spheres of life, but the theme of the tragic in German romanticism is represented mainly by small articles and individual chapters in monographs. Therefore, this area has not been thoroughly studied and is of interest.

Thirdly, the relevance of this work lies in the fact that the research problem is considered from different positions: not only are representatives of the era of romanticism, who proclaim romantic aesthetics with their worldview positions and creativity, but also criticism of romanticism by G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche.

purpose research - to reveal the specific features of the philosophy of art of Goethe and Schopenhauer, as representatives of German romanticism, taking as a basis the tragic orientation of their worldview and creativity.

Tasks research:

To identify common characteristics of romantic aesthetics.

Reveal the specific features of German romanticism.

Show the change in the immanent content of the category of the tragic and its understanding in different historical epochs.

Reveal the specifics of the manifestation of the tragic in the culture of German romanticism on the example of comparing the worldview systems and creativity of the two largest representatives of the culture of GermanyXIXcentury.

Reveal the limits of romantic aesthetics, considering the problem through the prism of the views of G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche.

Research object is the culture of German romanticism,subject - the mechanism of constituting romantic art.

Sources of research are:

Monographs and articles on romanticism and its manifestations in GermanyXIXcentury: Asmus V., "Musical aesthetics of philosophical romanticism", Berkovsky N.Ya., "Romanticism in Germany", Vanslov V.V., "Aesthetics of romanticism", Lukas F.L., "Decline and collapse of the romantic ideal", "Musical aesthetics of GermanyXIXcentury ", in 2 volumes, comp. Mikhailov A.V., Shestakov V.P., Solleritinsky I.I., "Romanticism, its general and musical aesthetics", Teterian I.A., "Romanticism as an integral phenomenon."

Proceedings of the investigated persons: Hegel G.F. "Lectures on aesthetics", "On the essence of philosophical criticism"; Goethe IV, "The Suffering of Young Werther", "Faust"; F. Nietzsche, "The Fall of Idols", "Beyond Good and Evil", "The Birth of the Tragedy of Their Spirit of Music", "Schopenhauer as an Educator"; Schopenhauer A., ​​"The World as Will and Representation" in 2 volumes, "Thoughts".

Monographs and articles devoted to the investigated persons: AA Antyks, "The creative path of Goethe", Vilmont NN, "Goethe. The story of his life and work ", Gardiner P.," Arthur Schopenhauer. Philosopher of German Hellenism ", Pushkin V.G.," Philosophy of Hegel: the absolute in man ", Sokolov V.V.," Historical and philosophical concept of Hegel ", Fischer K.," Arthur Schopenhauer ", Eckerman I.P.," Conversations with Goethe in the last years of his life. "

Textbooks on the history and philosophy of science: Kanke V.A., "The main philosophical directions and concepts of science", Koir A.V., "Essays on the history of philosophical thought. On the influence of philosophical concepts on the development of scientific theories ”, Kuptsov VI,“ Philosophy and methodology of science ”, Lebedev SA,“ Fundamentals of the philosophy of science ”, Stepin VS,“ Philosophy of science. Common problems: a textbook for graduate students and applicants for the degree of candidate of sciences. "

References: Lebedev S.A., "Philosophy of Science: Dictionary of Basic Terms", "Modern Western Philosophy. Dictionary ", comp. Malakhov V.S., Filatov V.P., "Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary", comp. Averintseva S.A., “Aesthetics. Literature theory. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Terms ", comp. Borev Yu.B.

Chapter 1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism and its manifestations in Germany XIX century.

1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in European culture that embraced all types of art and science, the flowering of which falls at the endXviii- StartXIXcentury. The term "romanticism" itself has a complex history. In the Middle Ages, the word "romance"Meant the national languages ​​formed from the Latin language. The terms "enromancier», « romancar"And"romanz”Meant the writing of books in the national language or their translation into the national language. INXVIIcentury the English word "romance"Was understood as something fantastic, bizarre, chimerical, too exaggerated, and its semantics were negative. In the French language it was different “romanesque"(Also with negative coloration) and"romantique”, Which meant“ gentle ”,“ soft ”,“ sentimental ”,“ sad ”. In England, in this sense, this word was used inXviiicentury. In Germany, the word "romantisch"Was used inXVIIcentury in the sense of the French "romanesque", And from the middleXviiicentury in the meaning of "soft", "sad".

The concept of "romanticism" is also ambiguous. According to the American scientist A.O. Lovejoya, the term has so many meanings that it means nothing, it is irreplaceable and useless; and F.D. Lucas, in his book The Decline and Collapse of the Romantic Ideal, counted 11396 definitions of romanticism.

He was the first to use the term “romantisch"In the literature of F. Schlegel, and in relation to music - E.T. A. Hoffman.

Romanticism was generated by a combination of many reasons, both socio-historical and intra-artistic. Foremost among these was the impact of the new historical experience brought with it by the French Revolution. This experience required comprehension, including artistic, and forced to revise the creative principles.

Romanticism arose in the pre-storm environment of social storms and was the result of public hopes and disappointments in the possibilities of a rational transformation of society on the basis of the principle of freedom, equality and brotherhood.

The system of ideas became an invariant of the artistic concept of the world and personality for romantics: evil and death are inevitable from life, they are eternal and immanently contained in the very mechanism of life, but the struggle against them is also eternal; world sorrow is a state of the world that has become a state of mind; resistance to evil does not give him the opportunity to become the absolute ruler of the world, but it also cannot radically change this world and eliminate evil completely.

A pessimistic component appears in romance culture. "Moral of happiness", asserted by philosophyXviiicentury is replaced by an apology of heroes, deprived of life, but also draw inspiration from their misfortune. Romantics believed that history and human spirit move forward through tragedies, and they recognized universal variability as the basic law of being.

For romantics, the dualism of consciousness is characteristic: there are two worlds (the world of dreams and the world of reality), which are opposite. Heine wrote: "The world has split, and the crack has gone through the heart of the poet." That is, the consciousness of the romantic split into two parts - the real world and the illusory world. This duality is projected onto all spheres of life (for example, the characteristic romantic opposition of the individual and society, the artist and the crowd). Hence, the desire for a dream appears, which is unattainable, and as one of the manifestations of this, the desire for exoticism (exotic countries and their cultures, natural phenomena), unusualness, fantasy, transcendence, various kinds of extremes (including in emotional states) and the motive of wandering, wandering. This is due to the fact that real life, according to romantics, is in an unreal world, a world of dreams. Reality is irrational, mysterious and opposed to human freedom.

Another characteristic feature of romantic aesthetics is individualism and subjectivity. The creative person becomes the central figure. The aesthetics of romanticism put forward and for the first time developed the concept of the author and recommended the creation of a romantic image of the writer.

It was during the era of romanticism that a special emphasis on feeling and sensitivity appeared. It was believed that an artist should have a sensitive heart, compassion for his heroes. Chateaubriand emphasized that he strives to be a sensitive writer, addressing not the mind, but the soul, the feelings of the readers.

In general, the art of the era of romanticism is metaphorical, associative, symbolic and tends to the synthesis and interaction of genres, types, as well as to the connection with philosophy and religion. Each art, on the one hand, strives for immanence, but on the other, it tries to go beyond its own boundaries (this expresses another characteristic feature of the aesthetics of romanticism - the desire for transcendence, transcendence). For example, music interacts with literature and poetry, as a result of which program musical works appear, such genres as ballad, poem, later fairy tale, legend are borrowed from literature.

ExactlyXIXcentury, the genre of the diary (as a reflection of individualism and subjectivity) and the novel appeared in literature (according to romantics, this genre unites poetry and philosophy, eliminates the boundaries between artistic practice and theory, becomes a reflection in miniature of the entire literary era).

Small forms appear in music as a reflection of a certain moment of life (this can be illustrated by the words of Goethe's Faust: “Stop, moment, you are wonderful!”). In this moment, romantics see eternity and infinity - this is one of the signs of the symbolism of romantic art.

In the era of romanticism, interest in the national specifics of art arises: romantics saw a manifestation of the nature of life in folklore, and a kind of spiritual support in folk song.

In romanticism, the features of classicism are lost - in art, evil begins to be depicted. Berlioz made a revolutionary step in this in his Fantastic Symphony. It was in the era of romanticism that a special figure appears in music - a demonic virtuoso, of which Paganini and Liszt are vivid examples.

Summing up some of the results of the research section, the following should be noted: since the aesthetics of romanticism was born as a result of disillusionment with the Great French Revolution and similar idealistic concepts of the enlighteners, it has a tragic direction. The main characteristic features of romantic culture are the dualistic perception of the world, subjectivity and individualism, the cult of feeling and sensitivity, interest in the Middle Ages, the Eastern world and, in general, all manifestations of exoticism.

The aesthetics of romanticism manifested itself most vividly in Germany. Next, we will try to identify the specific features of the aesthetics of German romanticism.

1. Features of romanticism in Germany.

In the era of romanticism, when disillusionment with bourgeois transformations and their consequences became universal, the peculiar features of the spiritual culture of Germany acquired pan-European significance and had a strong impact on social thought, aesthetics, literature and art in other countries.

German romanticism can be divided into two stages:

Jena (circa 1797-1804)

Heidelberg (after 1804)

There are different opinions about the period of development of romanticism in Germany. For example: N. Ya. Berkovsky in the book "Romanticism in Germany" writes: "Almost all early romanticism is reduced to the affairs and days of the Jena school, which took shape in Germany at the very end of the XVIIIcenturies. The history of German romance has long been divided into two periods: heyday and decline. The heyday falls on the Jena season. " A.V. Mikhailov, in his book Aesthetics of German Romantics, emphasizes that the second stage in the development of romanticism was the heyday: “Romantic aesthetics in its central,“ Heidelberg ”period is a living aesthetics of the image."

One of the features of German romanticism is its versatility.

AV Mikhailov writes: “Romanticism claimed the universality of the view of the world, the comprehensive coverage and generalization of all human knowledge, and to a certain extent it really was a universal worldview. His ideas related to philosophy, politics, economics, medicine, poetics, etc., and always appeared as ideas of extremely general importance.

This versatility was presented in the Jena school, which united people of different professions: the Schlegel brothers, August Wilhelm and Friedrich, were philologists, literary critics, art critics, publicists; F. Schelling is a philosopher and writer, Schleiermacher is a philosopher and theologian, H. Steffens is a geologist, I. Ritter is a physicist, Gulsen is a physicist, L. Tik is a poet, Novallis is a writer.

The romantic philosophy of the arts received a systematic form in the lectures of A. Schlegel and the works of F. Schelling. Also representatives of the Jena school created the first examples of the art of romanticism: L. Teak comedy "Puss in Boots" (1797), "Hymns to the Night" lyric cycle (1800) and the novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" (1802) by Novalis.

The second generation of German romantics, the "Heidelberg" school, was distinguished by an interest in raligia, national antiquity, and folklore. The most important contribution to German culture was the collection of folk songs "The Boy's Magic Horn" (1806-1808), compiled by L. Arnim and C. Berntano, as well as "Children's and Family Tales" by the brothers J. and W. Grimm (1812-1814). Lyric poetry also reached high perfection at this time (as an example, the poetry of I. Eichendorf).

Based on the mythological ideas of Schelling and the Schlegel brothers, the Heidelberg romantics finally formalized the principles of the first deep scientific direction in folklore and literary criticism - the mythological school.

Another characteristic feature of German romanticism is the artistry of its language.

A.V. Mikhailov writes: “German romanticism is by no means reduced to art, literature, poetry, but in philosophy and sciences it never ceases to use the language of artistic symbolism. The aesthetic content of the romantic worldview is contained equally in poetic creations and in scientific experiments. "

In late German romanticism, motives of tragic hopelessness, a critical attitude towards modern society and a feeling of a discord between dreams and reality are growing. The democratic ideas of late romanticism found their expression in the works of A. Chamisso, the lyrics of G. Müller, and in the poetry and prose of Heinrich Heine.

Another characteristic feature related to the late period of German romanticism was the growing role of the grotesque as a component of romantic satire.

The romantic irony became more violent. The ideas of the representatives of the Heidelberg school often came into conflict with the ideas of the early stage of German romanticism. If the romantics of the Jena school believed in correcting the world with beauty and art, they called Raphael their teacher,

(auto-porter)

the generation that replaced them saw the triumph of ugliness in the world, turned to the ugly, in the field of painting perceived the world of old age

(elderly woman reading)

and decay, and at this stage they called Rembrandt their teacher.

(self-portrait)

The mood of fear of an incomprehensible reality intensified.

German romanticism is a special phenomenon. In Germany, the tendencies characteristic of the entire movement received a peculiar development that determined the national specifics of romanticism in this country. Having existed for a relatively short time (according to A.V. Mikhailov, from the very endXviiicentury until 1813-1815), it was in Germany that romantic aesthetics acquired its classic features. German romanticism had a strong influence on the development of romantic ideas in other countries and became their fundamental basis.

2.1. General characteristics of the category of the tragic.

The tragic is a philosophical and aesthetic category that characterizes the destructive and unbearable aspects of life, the insoluble contradictions of reality, presented in the form of an insoluble conflict. The clash between man and the world, personality and society, hero and fate is expressed in the struggle of strong passions and great characters. In contrast to the sad and terrible, the tragic as a form of impending or accomplishing destruction is not caused by random external forces, but stems from the inner nature of the perishing phenomenon itself, its insoluble self-doubling in the process of its realization. The dialectic of life turns to the tragic person in its pathetic and destructive side. The tragic is akin to the sublime in that it is inseparable from the idea of ​​man's dignity and greatness, manifested in his very suffering.

The first awareness of the tragic was the myths related to the "dying gods" (Osiris, Serapis, Adonis, Mithra, Dionysus). On the basis of the cult of Dionysus, in the course of its gradual secularization, the art of tragedy developed. Philosophical understanding of the tragic was formed in parallel with the formation of this category in art, in reflections on the painful and gloomy sides in private life and in history.

The tragic in the ancient era is characterized by a certain underdevelopment of the personal principle, over which the good of the polis rises (on its side are the gods, the patrons of the polis), and the objectivist-cosmological understanding of fate as an indifferent force dominating in nature and society. Therefore, the tragic in antiquity was often described through the concepts of fate and fate, in contrast to the modern European tragedy, where the source of the tragic is the subject himself, the depths of his inner world and the actions caused by it. (like, for example, Shakespeare).

Ancient and medieval philosophy does not know a special theory of the tragic: the doctrine of the tragic constitutes here an undivided moment of the doctrine of being.

The philosophy of Aristotle can serve as an example of understanding the tragic in ancient Greek philosophy, where it acts as an essential aspect of the cosmos and the dynamics of opposing principles in it. Summarizing the practice of Attic tragedies played out during the annual festivities dedicated to Dionysus, Aristotle singles out the following moments in the tragic: a warehouse of action characterized by a sudden turn for the worse (ups and downs) and recognition, the experience of extreme misery and suffering (pathos), purification (catharsis).

From the point of view of the Aristotelian doctrine of nusa (“mind”), the tragic arises when this eternal self-sufficient “mind” surrenders to the power of otherness and becomes from eternal temporary, from self-sufficient subordinate to necessity, from blissful to suffering and sorrowful. Then the human "action and life" begins with its joys and sorrows, with its transitions from happiness to unhappiness, with its guilt, crimes, retribution, punishment, desecration of the eternally blissful intactness of the "nusa" and the restoration of the scorned. This outlet of the mind to the power of "necessity" and "accident" constitutes an unconscious "crime." But sooner or later there is a recollection or "recognition" of the previous blissful state, the crime is caught and evaluated. Then comes the time of tragic pathos, caused by the shock of the human being from the contrast of blissful innocence and the darkness of vanity and crime. But this identification of the crime means at the same time the beginning of the restoration of the trampled, which takes place in the form of retribution, carried out through "fear" and "compassion." As a result, the passions are "purified" (catharsis) and the disturbed balance of the "mind" is restored.

Ancient Eastern philosophy (including Buddhism with its heightened consciousness of the pathetic essence of life, but a purely pessimistic assessment of it), did not develop the concept of the tragic.

The medieval worldview, with its unconditional belief in divine providence and ultimate salvation, overcoming the plexus of fate, essentially removes the problem of the tragic: the tragedy of the global fall, the falling away of created humanity from the personal absolute, is overcome in the atoning sacrifice of Christ and the restoration of the creature in its primordial purity.

The tragedy received a new development in the Renaissance, then gradually transforming into a classicist and romantic tragedy.

In the Age of Enlightenment, interest in the tragic in philosophy is revived; at this time, the idea of ​​a tragic conflict was formulated as a clash of duty and feeling: Lessing called the tragic "the school of morality." Thus, the pathos of the tragic was reduced from the level of transcendental understanding (in antiquity, the source of the tragic was fate, inevitable fate) to a moral collision. Analyzes of tragedy as a literary genre appear in the aesthetics of classicism and the Enlightenment - in N. Boileau, D. Diderot, G.E. Lessing, F. Schiller, who, developing the ideas of Kantian philosophy, saw the source of the tragic in the conflict between the sensual and moral nature of man (for example, the essay "On the tragic in art").

The isolation of the category of the tragic and its philosophical interpretation is carried out in German classical aesthetics, primarily in Schelling and Hegel. According to Schelling, the essence of the tragic lies in "... the struggle between freedom in the subject and the necessity of the objective ...", and both sides "... simultaneously appear to be both victorious and defeated, in complete indistinguishability." Necessity, fate makes the hero guilty without any intention on his part, but by virtue of a predetermined combination of circumstances. The hero must fight the necessity - otherwise, with a passive acceptance of it, there would be no freedom - and be defeated by it. The tragic guilt consists in "voluntarily bearing also punishment for an inevitable crime, so that by the very loss of one's freedom to prove this very freedom and perish, declaring one's free will." Schelling considered the work of Sophocles to be the pinnacle of the tragic in art. He put Calderon above Shakespeare, since the key concept of fate was mystical in nature.

Hegel sees the theme of the tragic in the self-division of moral substance as an area of ​​will and fulfillment. Its constituent moral forces and acting characters are different in their content and individual identification, and the deployment of these differences necessarily leads to conflict. Each of the various moral forces strives to achieve a certain goal, is overwhelmed by a certain pathos that is realized in action, and in this one-sided determination of its content inevitably violates the opposite side and collides with it. The death of these colliding forces restores the disturbed balance at a different, higher level and thereby moves forward the universal substance, contributing to the historical process of self-development of the spirit. Art, according to Hegel, reflects in the tragic a special moment in history, a conflict that has absorbed all the acuteness of the contradictions of a particular "state of the world." He called this state of the world heroic, when morality had not yet taken the form of established state laws. The individual bearer of tragic pathos is the hero who fully identifies himself with the moral idea. In the tragedy, the isolated moral forces are presented in a variety of ways, but they can be reduced to two definitions and the contradiction between them: "moral life in its spiritual universality" and "natural morality," that is, between the state and the family.

Hegel and the romantics (A. Schlegel, Schelling) provide a typological analysis and a new European understanding of the tragic. The latter proceeds from the fact that a person himself is guilty of the horrors and sufferings that have befallen him, whereas in antiquity he acted rather as a passive object of the fate he endured. Schiller understood the tragic as a contradiction between the ideal and reality.

In the philosophy of romanticism, the tragic moves into the area of ​​subjective experiences, the inner world of a person, above all of the artist, which is opposed to the falsity and inauthenticity of the external, empirical social world. The tragic was partly supplanted by irony (F. Schlegel, Novalis, L. Tieck, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. Heine).

For Solger, the tragic is the basis of human life, it arises between essence and existence, between the divine and the phenomenon, the tragic is the death of an idea in a phenomenon, the eternal in the temporal. Reconciliation is possible not in the ultimate human existence, but only with the destruction of existing existence.

Close to the romantic understanding of the tragic S. Kierkegaard, who connects it with the subjective experience of "despair" by a person who was at the stage of his ethical development (which is preceded by the aesthetic stage and which leads to the religious). Kierkugor notes a different understanding of the tragedy of guilt in antiquity and in modern times: in antiquity, tragedy is deeper, pain is less, in modern - on the contrary, since pain is associated with the awareness of one's own guilt and reflection about it.

If German classical philosophy, and above all the philosophy of Hegel, in its understanding of the tragic proceeded from the rationality of the will and the meaningfulness of the tragic conflict, where the victory of the idea was achieved at the cost of the death of its bearer, then in the irrationalist philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche there is a break with this tradition, since the very existence of any meaning in the world is called into question. Considering the will to be immoral and unreasonable, Schopenhauer sees the essence of the tragic in the self-confrontation of the blind will. In Schopenhauer's doctrine, the tragic lies not only in a pessimistic view of life, for misfortune and suffering constitute its essence, but rather in the denial of its higher meaning, as well as of the world itself: “the principle of the existence of the world has absolutely no foundation, that is, represents a blind will to live. " The tragic spirit therefore leads to a renunciation of the will to live.

Nietzsche characterized the tragic as the original essence of being - chaotic, irrational and formless. He called the tragic "pessimism of power." According to Nietzsche, the tragic was born from the Dionysian principle, the opposite of the "Apollonian instinct of beauty." But the “Dionysian underground of the world” must be overcome by an enlightened and transforming Apollonian force, their strict relationship is the basis of the perfect art of the tragic: chaos and order, frenzy and serene contemplation, horror, blissful delight and wise peace in images is tragedy.

INXXcentury, the irrationalist interpretation of the tragic was continued in existentialism; the tragic came to be understood as an existential characteristic of human existence. According to K. Jaspers, the truly tragic is the realization that "... a universal collapse is the main characteristic of human existence." L. Shestov, A. Camus, J.-P. Sartre associated the tragic with the groundlessness and absurdity of existence. The contradiction between the thirst for human life "of flesh and blood" and the evidence of reason about the finiteness of his existence is the core of M. de Unamuno's doctrine of the "Tragic sense of life among people and nations" (1913). Culture, art and philosophy itself are viewed by him as a vision of "dazzling Nothing", the essence of which is total randomness, the absence of lawfulness and absurdity, "the logic of the worst." T. Hadrono examines the tragic from the point of view of criticism of bourgeois society and its culture from the standpoint of "negative dialectics".

In the spirit of the philosophy of life, G. Simmel wrote about the tragic contradiction between the dynamics of the creative process and those stable forms in which it crystallizes, F. Stepun - about the tragedy of creativity as the activation of the inexpressible inner world of the individual.

The tragic and its philosophical interpretation became a means of criticizing society and human existence. In Russian culture, the tragic was understood as the futility of religious and spiritual aspirations, extinguished in the vulgarity of life (N.V. Gogol, F.M.Dostoevsky).

Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1794-1832) - German poet, writer, thinker. His work spans the past three decadesXviiicentury - the period of pre-romanticism - and the first thirty yearsXIXcentury. The first most significant period of the poet's work, which began in 1770, is associated with the aesthetics of "Storm and Onslaught".

Storm and Rush is a literary movement in Germany in the 70sXviiicentury, named after the drama of the same name by F. M. Klinger. The work of writers in this direction - Goethe, Klinger, Leisewitz, Lenz, Burger, Schubert, Foss - reflected the growth of antifeudal sentiments, was imbued with the spirit of rebellious rebellion. This movement, owing much to Rousseauism, declared war on aristocratic culture. In contrast to classicism with its dogmatic norms, as well as rococo manners, "tempestuous geniuses" put forward the idea of ​​"characteristic art", original in all its manifestations; they demanded from literature the portrayal of bright, strong passions, characters not broken by the despotic regime. The main area of ​​creativity of the writers of "storm and onslaught" was drama. They sought to establish a third-class theater, actively influencing public life, as well as a new dramatic style, the main features of which were emotional saturation and lyricism. Having made the inner world of a person the subject of artistic depiction, they developed new methods of individualizing characters and created a lyrically colored, pathetic and figurative language.

Goethe's poetry of the "storm and onslaught" period is one of the most brilliant pages in the history of German poetry. The lyrical hero Goethe appears as the embodiment of nature or in organic fusion with it ("The Traveler", "The Song of Mohammed"). He turns to mythological images, interpreting them in a rebellious spirit ("The Song of a Wanderer in a Storm", a monologue of Prometheus from an unfinished drama).

The most perfect creation of the "Storm and Onslaught" period is the novel in letters "The Sorrows of Young Werther", written in 1774, which brought the author world fame. This is a piece that appeared at the endXviiicentury, can be considered a forerunner and a symbol of the entire coming era of romanticism. Romantic aesthetics is the semantic center of the novel, manifesting itself in many aspects. Firstly, the very theme of the suffering of the individual and the derivation of the hero's subjective experiences are not the first plan, the special confessionality inherent in the novel is a purely romantic tendency. Secondly, in the novel there is a dual world characteristic of romanticism - the world of dreams, objectified in the form of a beautiful Lotte and faith in mutual love and a world of cruel reality, in which there is no hope for happiness and where a sense of duty and the opinion of the world are above the most sincere and deepest feelings. Thirdly, there is a pessimistic component inherent in romanticism, which grows to the gigantic proportions of tragedy.

Werther is a romantic hero who, with the final shot, challenges the cruel, unjust world - the world of reality. He rejects the laws of life, in which there is no place for happiness and the fulfillment of his dreams and prefers to die rather than give up the passion born of his fiery heart. This hero is the antipode of Prometheus, and yet Werther-Prometheus are the final links of one chain of Goethe's images of the "Storm and Onslaught" period. Their existence equally unfolds under the sign of doom. Werther empties himself in attempts to defend the reality of his fictional world, Prometheus seeks to perpetuate himself in the creation of "free" creatures independent of the power of Olympus, creates slaves of Zeus, people subordinate to standing above them, transcendental forces.

The tragic conflict associated with the Lotte line, in contrast to Werther's, is largely associated with the classicist type of collision - the conflict of feeling and duty, in which the latter wins. Indeed, according to the novel, Lotta is very attached to Werther, but the debt to her husband and younger brothers and sisters left by the dying mother in her care takes over the feeling, and the heroine has to choose, although she does not know until the last moment that she will have to choose between life and the death of a person dear to her. Lotta, like Werther, is a tragic heroine, because, perhaps, it is only in death that she learns the true extent of her love and Werther's love for her, and the inseparability of love and death is another feature inherent in romantic aesthetics. The theme of the unity of love and death will be relevant in the future.XIXcentury, all major artists of the era of romanticism will turn to it, but it was Goethe who was one of the first to reveal its potential in his early tragic novel "The Sorrows of Young Werther".

Despite the fact that during his lifetime Goethe was primarily the renowned author of The Sorrows of Young Werther, his greatest creation is the tragedy Faust, which he wrote over almost sixty years. It began in the period of "Storm and Onslaught", but ended in the era when the romantic school dominated in German literature. Therefore, "Faust" reflects all the stages that followed the poet's work.

The first part of the tragedy is closely related to the period of "Storm and Onslaught" in the work of Goethe. The theme of the abandoned lover of a girl, in a fit of despair, becoming a child killer, was very common in the literature of the direction "Sturmanddrang"(" Child-killer "by Wagner," Daughter of a priest from Taubenheim "by Burger). The appeal to the age of fiery Gothic, the Knittelfer, monodramatic - all this speaks of the connection with the aesthetics of Storm and Onslaught.

The second movement, which achieves special artistic expressiveness in the image of Elena the Beautiful, is more connected with the literature of the classical period. Gothic outlines give way to ancient Greek ones, Hellas becomes the scene of action, the knittelfers are replaced by poems of the antique warehouse, the images acquire some special sculptural density (this expresses Goethe's addiction in maturity to decorative interpretation of mythological motives and purely spectacular effects: masquerade - 3 scene 1 act, classic Walpurgis night and the like). In the final scene of the tragedy, Goethe already pays tribute to romanticism, introducing a mystical chorus and opening the gates of paradise to Faust.

"Faust" occupies a special place in the work of the German poet - it is the ideological result of all his creative activity. The novelty and uncommonness of this tragedy lies in the fact that its subject was not one life conflict, but a consistent, inevitable chain of deep conflicts not throughout a single life path, or, in Goethe's words, "a series of increasingly higher and purer types of hero's activities."

In the tragedy Faust, as in the novel The Suffering of Young Werther, there are many characteristic features of romantic aesthetics. The same double world in which Werther lived is characteristic of Faust, but unlike Werther, the doctor has a fleeting pleasure in fulfilling his dreams, which, however, leads to even greater sorrow because of the illusory nature of dreams and the fact that they collapse, bringing grief not only to himself. As in the novel about Werther, in "Faust" the subjective experiences and sufferings of the individual are placed in the center, but unlike "The Sorrows of Young Werther", where the theme of creativity is not the leading one, in "Faust" it plays a very important role. At the end of the tragedy, Faust's creativity takes on a huge scope - this is his idea of ​​a colossal construction project on land reclaimed from the sea for the happiness and well-being of the whole world.

It is interesting that the main character, although in alliance with Satan, does not lose his morality: he strives for sincere love, beauty, and then universal happiness. Faust does not use the forces of evil for evil, but as if he wants to turn them into good, therefore his forgiveness and salvation are natural and expected - the cathartic moment of his ascension to paradise is not unexpected.

Another characteristic feature of the aesthetics of romanticism is the theme of the inseparability of love and death, which in "Faust" goes through three stages: love and death of Gretchen and their daughters with Faust (as an objectification of this love), the final departure into the kingdom of the dead of Elena the Beautiful and their death with Faust's son (as in the case of his daughter Gretchen, the objectification of this love), Faust's love for life and all of humanity and the death of Faust himself.

"Faust" is not only a tragedy about the past, but about the coming human history, as it was presented by Goethe. After all, Faust, according to the poet, is the personification of all mankind, and his path is the path of the entire civilization. Human history is a story of search, trial and error, and the image of Faust embodies the belief in the limitless possibilities of man.

Now let us turn to the analysis of Goethe's creativity from the point of view of the category of the tragic. In favor of the fact that the German poet was an artist of a tragic orientation, he says, for example, the predominance of tragic and dramatic genres in his work: "Getz von Berlichingen", the tragically ending novel "The Suffering of Young Werther", the drama "Egmont", the drama "Torquato Tasso", tragedy "Iphigenia in Taurida", drama "Citizen General", tragedy "Faust".

Historical drama "Getz von Berlichingen", written in 1773, reflected the events of the eve of the Peasant WarXvicentury, sounded like a harsh reminder of princely tyranny and the tragedy of a fragmented country. In the drama "Egmont", written in 1788 and connected with the ideas of "Storm and Onslaught", the conflict between foreign oppressors and the people, whose resistance is suppressed, but not broken, is at the center of events, and the drama finale sounds like a call to the struggle for freedom. The tragedy "Iphigenia in Taurida" is written on the plot of the ancient Greek myth, and its main idea is the victory of humanity over barbarism.

The Great French Revolution is directly reflected by Goethe in the "Venetian Epigrams", the drama "Citizen General" and the short story "Conversations of German Emigrants". The poet does not accept revolutionary violence, but at the same time recognizes the inevitability of social reorganization - on this topic he wrote the satirical poem "Reinecke-Fox", denouncing feudal arbitrariness.

One of the most famous and significant works of Goethe, along with the novel "The Suffering of Young Werther" and the tragedy "Faust", is the novel "The Study Years of Wilhelm Meister". In it, you can again trace the romantic tendencies and themes inherent inXIXcentury. In this novel, the theme of the death of a dream appears: the stage hobbies of the protagonist subsequently appear as a youthful delusion, and in the finale of the novel he sees his task in practical economic activity. Meister is the opposite of Werther and Faust, creative heroes burning with love and dreams. His life drama lies in the fact that he abandoned his dreams, choosing routine, boredom and the actual meaninglessness of existence, because his creativity, which gives the true meaning of being, extinguished when he gave up his dream of becoming an actor and playing on stage. Much later in literatureXXcentury, this theme is transformed into the theme of the tragedy of a little man.

The tragic direction of Goethe's work is obvious. Despite the fact that the poet did not create a complete philosophical system, his works expound a deep philosophical concept associated with both the classicist picture of the world and romantic aesthetics. Goethe's philosophy, revealed in his works, is in many ways contradictory and ambiguous, like his main work of life, "Faust", but it clearly traces, on the one hand, an almost Schopenhauer vision of the real world as bringing man the greatest suffering, awakening dreams and desires. but not fulfilling them, preaching injustice, ordinariness, routine and death of love, dreams and creativity, but on the other hand, faith in the limitless possibilities of man and the transforming forces of creativity, love and art. In a polemic against the nationalist tendencies that developed in Germany during and after the Napoleonic wars, Goethe put forward the idea of ​​"world literature", while not sharing Hegel's skepticism in assessing the future of art. Goethe also saw in literature and in art in general a powerful potential for influencing a person and even the existing social order.

Thus, perhaps, the philosophical concept of Goethe can be expressed as follows: the struggle of the creative creative forces of man, expressed in love, art and other aspects of being, against the injustice and cruelty of the real world and the victory of the former. Despite the fact that most of Goethe's struggling and suffering heroes die in the end. The catharsis of his tragedies and the victory of the bright beginning are obvious and large-scale. In this regard, the end of "Faust" is indicative, when both the main character and his beloved Gretchen receive forgiveness and go to heaven. Such an end can be projected onto most of Goethe's seeking and suffering heroes.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1786-1861) - the representative of the irrational direction in the philosophical thought of Germany in the first halfXIXcentury. The main role in the formation of Schopenhauer's worldview system was played by influences from three philosophical traditions: Kantian, Platonic and ancient Indian Brahmanist and Buddhist philosophy.

The views of the German philosopher are pessimistic, and his concept reflects the tragedy of human existence. The center of Schopenhauer's philosophical system is the doctrine of the denial of the will to live. He considers death as a moral ideal, as the highest goal of human existence: “Death, undoubtedly, is the real goal of life, and at the moment when death comes, everything is accomplished for which throughout our life we ​​have just prepared and started. Death is the final conclusion, the summary of life, its result, which immediately unites into one whole all the partial and disparate lessons of life and tells us that all our aspirations, the embodiment of which was life, that all these aspirations were in vain, vain and contradictory and that salvation consists in detachment from them. "

Death is the main goal of life, according to Schopenhauer, because this world, by his definition, is the worst possible one: - the worst possible world " .

Human existence is placed by Schopenhauer in the world of "inauthentic being" of representations, determined by the world of Will - truly existing and self-identical. Life in the stream of time seems to be a bleak chain of suffering, a continuous series of major and minor adversities; a person cannot find peace in any way: "... in the suffering of life we ​​console ourselves with death and in death we console ourselves with the suffering of life."

In the works of Schopenhauer, one can often find the idea that both this world and people should not exist at all: “... the existence of the world should not please us, but rather sadden; ... its non-existence would be preferable to its being; ... it represents itself something that in essence should not be. "

The existence of a person is just an episode that violates the peace of absolute being, which should end in the desire to suppress the will to live. Moreover, according to the philosopher, death does not destroy true being (the world of Will), since it represents the end of a temporary phenomenon (the world of ideas), and not the innermost essence of the world. In the chapter “Death and its relation to the indestructibility of our being” of his large-scale work “The World as Will and Representation” Schopenhauer writes: “... nothing invades our consciousness with such irresistible force as the thought that the emergence and destruction does not affect the real essence of things that the latter is inaccessible to them, that is, incorruptible, and that therefore everything that wants life really continues to live endlessly ... Thanks to him, in spite of millennia of death and decay, nothing has perished yet, not a single atom of matter and, even less, not a single fraction of the inner essence that appears to us as nature. "

The timeless existence of the world of Will knows neither gains nor losses, it is always identical with itself, eternal and true. Therefore, the state into which death takes us is the "innate state of Will." Death destroys only the biological organism and consciousness, and cognition allows understanding the insignificance of life and defeating the fear of death, according to Schopenhauer. He expresses the idea that with cognition, on the one hand, a person's ability to feel grief, the true nature of this world, which brings suffering and death, increases: "A person, along with reason, inevitably developed a terrifying confidence in death." ... But, on the other hand, the ability of cognition leads, in his opinion, to a person's awareness of the indestructibility of his true being, which manifests itself not in his individuality and consciousness, but in the world will: “The horrors of death are mainly based on the illusion that with itI disappear, but the world remains. In fact, rather the opposite is true: the world disappears, and the innermost coreI , the bearer and creator of the subject, in whose view the world only has its existence, remains. "

Awareness of immortality by the true essence of man, according to Schopenhauer's views, is based on the fact that one cannot identify oneself only with one's own mind and body and make a distinction between the outer and inner world. He writes that "death is a moment of liberation from the one-sidedness of an individual form, which does not constitute the innermost core of our being, but rather is a kind of perversion of it."

Human life, according to Schopenhauer's concept, is always accompanied by suffering. But he perceives them as a source of purification, since they lead to the denial of the will to live and do not allow a person to embark on the false path of its affirmation. The philosopher writes: “All human existence clearly enough says that suffering is the true lot of man. Life is deeply embraced by suffering and cannot escape it; our entry into it is accompanied by words about this, in its essence it always proceeds tragically, and its end is especially tragic ... Suffering is truly the cleansing process that alone, in most cases, sanctifies a person, that is, deflects him from the false path of the will of life " ...

An important place in the philosophical system of A. Schopenhauer is occupied by his concept of art. He believes that the highest goal of art is to free the soul from suffering and gain spiritual peace. However, he is attracted only by those types and kinds of art that are close to his own worldview: tragic music, dramatic and tragic genre of performing arts, and the like, since they are the ones who are able to express the tragic essence of human existence. He writes about the art of tragedy: “The peculiar action of tragedy, in essence, is based on the fact that it shakes the indicated innate delusion (that a person lives in order to be happy - approx.), Clearly embodying in a great and striking example of vanity human aspirations and insignificance of all life and thus revealing the deepest meaning of being; that is why tragedy is considered the most exalted kind of poetry. "

The German philosopher considered music to be the most perfect art. In his opinion, in her highest achievements, she is capable of mystical contact with the transcendent World Will. Moreover, in austere, mysterious, mystically colored and tragic music, the World Will finds its most possible embodiment, and this is the embodiment of just that feature of the Will, which contains its dissatisfaction with itself, and therefore, the coming gravitation towards its redemption and self-denial. In the chapter “On the Metaphysics of Music” Schopenhauer writes: “... music, viewed as an expression of the world, is a highly universal language, which even treats the universality of concepts almost as they do to individual things ... music differs from all other arts in themes that it does not reflect the phenomena, or, more correctly, the adequate objectivity of the will, but directly reflects the will itself and, thus, for everything physical in the world it shows the metaphysical, for all phenomena, the thing in itself. Therefore, the world can be called both embodied music and embodied will.

The category of the tragic is one of the most important in the philosophical system of A. Schopenhauer, since human life itself is perceived by him as a tragic mistake. The philosopher believes that from the moment a person is born, endless suffering begins, lasting all life, and all joys are short-lived and illusory. Being contains a tragic contradiction, which consists in the fact that a person is endowed with a blind will to live and an endless desire to live, but his existence in this world is finite and full of suffering. Thus, a tragic collision arises between life and death.

But Schopenhauer's philosophy contains the idea that with the advent of biological death and the disappearance of consciousness, the true human essence does not perish, but continues to live forever, incarnating in something else. This idea of ​​the immortality of the true essence of man is akin to the catharsis that comes at the end of the tragedy; therefore, we can conclude not only that the category of the tragic is one of the basic categories of Schopenhauer's worldview system, but also that his philosophical system as a whole reveals similarities with tragedy.

As mentioned earlier, Schopenhauer assigns an important place to art, especially music, which he perceives as the embodied will, the immortal essence of being. In this world of suffering, according to the philosopher, a person can follow the right path only by denying the will to live, embodying asceticism, accepting suffering and purifying himself both with their help and thanks to the cathartic effect of art. Art and music in particular contribute to a person's knowledge of his true essence and the desire to return to the realm of true being. Therefore, one of the ways of purification, according to the concept of A. Schopenhauer, runs through art.

Chapter 3. Criticism of Romanticism

3.1. The critical position of Georg Friedrich Hegel

Despite the fact that romanticism for a time became an ideology that spread throughout the world, romantic aesthetics were criticized both during its existence and in the following centuries. In this part of the work we will consider the criticism of romanticism carried out by Georg Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Nietzsche.

In the philosophical concept of Hegel and the aesthetic theory of romanticism, there are significant differences that caused the criticism of romantics by the German philosopher. First, romanticism from the very beginning ideologically opposed its aesthetics to the era of the Enlightenment: it appeared as a protest against enlightenment views and in response to the failure of the French revolution, on which the enlighteners had pinned great hopes. To the classicist cult of reason, romantics opposed the cult of feelings and the desire to deny the basic postulates of classicism aesthetics.

In contrast, G.F. Hegel (like J.W. Goethe) considered himself the heir of the Enlightenment. Hegel and Goethe's criticism of the Enlightenment never turned into a denial of the legacy of this period, as is the case with the romantics. For example, for the question of cooperation between Goethe and Hegel, it is extremely characteristic that Goethe in the early yearsXIXcentury discovers and, translating, immediately publishes with his commentaries "Nephew of Rameau" by Diderot, and Hegel immediately uses this work in order to reveal with extraordinary plasticity the specific form of the dialectic of the Enlightenment. The images created by Diderot occupy a decisive place in the most important chapter of the Phenomenology of Spirit. Therefore, the position of the romantics opposing their aesthetics and the aesthetics of classicism was criticized by Hegel.

Secondly, the dual world characteristic of romantics and the conviction that everything beautiful exists only in the dream world, and the real world is a world of sorrow and suffering, in which there is no place for ideal and happiness, is contrasted with the Hegelian concept that the embodiment of the ideal is it is not a departure from reality, but on the contrary, its deep, generalized, meaningful image, since the ideal itself is presented as rooted in reality. The vitality of the ideal rests on the fact that the main spiritual meaning, which should be revealed in the image, completely penetrates into all the private aspects of the external phenomenon. Consequently, the image of the essential, characteristic, the embodiment of spiritual meaning, the transmission of the most important trends in reality is, according to Hegel, the disclosure of the ideal, which in this interpretation coincides with the concept of truth in art, artistic truth.

The third aspect of Hegel's criticism of romanticism is subjectivity, which is one of the most important features of romantic aesthetics; Hegel is especially critical of subjective idealism.

In subjective idealism, the German thinker sees not just a certain false direction in philosophy, but a direction, the emergence of which was inevitable, and to the same extent it was inevitably false. Hegel's proof of the falsity of subjective idealism is at the same time a conclusion about its inevitability and necessity and about the limitations associated with it. Hegel arrives at this conclusion in two ways, which for him are closely and inextricably linked - historically and systematically. From the historical point of view, Hegel argues that subjective idealism arose from the deepest problems of our time and its historical significance, the preservation of its greatness for a long time is explained by this. At the same time, however, he shows that subjective idealism, by necessity, can only guess the problems posed by the times and translate these problems into the language of speculative philosophy. Subjective idealism has no answers to these questions, and this is precisely where it fails.

Hegel believes that the philosophy of subjective idealists consists of a stream of emotions and empty declarations; he criticizes romantics for the dominance of the sensual principle over the rational, as well as for the unsystematization and incompleteness of their dialectics (this is the fourth aspect of Hegel's criticism of romanticism)

An important place in Hegel's philosophical system is occupied by his concept of art. Romantic art, according to Hegel, begins in the Middle Ages, but he includes Shakespeare, Cervantes, and artistsXVII- Xviiicenturies, and German romantics. The romantic art form, according to his concept, is the disintegration of romantic art in general. The philosopher hopes that from the disintegration of romantic art a new form of free art will be born, the embryo of which he sees in the work of Goethe.

Romantic art, according to Hegel, includes painting, music and poetry - those forms of art that can best, in his opinion, express the sensual side of life.

The painting medium is a colorful surface, a lively play of light. It frees itself from the sensual spatial completeness of the material body, since it is limited to the plane, therefore, it is able to express the entire scale of feelings, mental states, depict actions full of dramatic movement.

The elimination of spatiality is achieved in the next form of romantic art - music. Its material is sound, vibration of a sounding body. Matter here no longer appears as spatial, but as temporal ideality. Music goes beyond sensory contemplation and covers exclusively the area of ​​inner experiences.

In the last romantic art, poetry, sound comes in as a sign of no significance in itself. The main element of a poetic image is a poetic representation. According to Hegel, poetry can depict absolutely everything. Its material is not just sound, but sound as meaning, as a sign of representation. But the material here is not formed freely and arbitrarily, but according to the rhythmic musical law. In poetry again, as it were, all types of art are repeated: it corresponds to fine art as an epic, as a calm narration with rich images and picturesque pictures of the history of nations; it is music as a lyric, because it reflects the inner state of the soul; it is the unity of these two arts as dramatic poetry, as a depiction of the struggle between the active, conflicting interests rooted in the characters of individuals.

We have briefly reviewed the main aspects of the critical position of G.F. Hegel in relation to romantic aesthetics. We now turn to the criticism of romanticism carried out by F. Nietzsche.

3.2. Friedrich Nietzsche's critical position

Friedrich Nietzsche's worldview system can be defined as philosophical nihilism, since criticism occupied the most important place in his work. The characteristic features of Nietzsche's philosophy are: criticism of church dogmas, reassessment of all existing human concepts, recognition of the limitations and relativity of any morality, the idea of ​​eternal becoming, the thought of the philosopher and the historian as a prophet overthrowing the past for the sake of the future, problems of the place and freedom of the individual in society and history , denial of the unification and leveling of people, a passionate dream of a new historical era, when the human race matures and realizes its tasks.

In the development of the philosophical views of Friedrich Nietzsche, two stages can be distinguished: the active development of the culture of vulgar literature, history, philosophy, music, accompanied by romantic worship of antiquity; criticism of the foundations of Western European culture ("The Wanderer and His Shadow", "Morning Dawn", "Merry Science") and the overthrow of idolsXIXcenturies and past centuries ("The Fall of Idols", "Zarathustra", the doctrine of the "superman").

At the early stage of his creative work, Nietzsche's critical position was not yet fully formed. At this time, he was fond of the ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer, calling him his teacher. However, after 1878, his position changed to the opposite, and a critical orientation of his philosophy began to appear: in May 1878, Nietzsche published a book "Humanity, Too Human" with the subtitle "A Book for Free Minds", where he publicly broke with the past and its values: Hellenism , Christianity, Schopenhauer.

Nietzsche believed that his main merit was that he undertook and carried out a reassessment of all values: everything that is usually recognized as valuable, in fact, has nothing to do with true value. In his opinion, it is necessary to put everything in its place - put true values ​​in place of imaginary values. In this reassessment of values, in essence constituting the actual philosophy of Nietzsche, he strove to stand "on the other side of good and evil." Ordinary morality, no matter how developed and complex, is always enclosed in a framework, the opposite sides of which make up the idea of ​​good and evil. All forms of existing moral relations are exhausted by their limits, while Nietzsche wanted to go beyond these limits.

F. Nietzsche defined his contemporary culture as being at the stage of decline and decay of morality. Morality corrupts culture from the inside, as it is an instrument of crowd control, its instincts. According to the philosopher, Christian morality and religion assert an obedient "morality of slaves." Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a “reassessment of values” and to reveal the foundations of the morality of a “strong man”. Thus, Friedrich Nietzsche distinguishes between two types of morality: master's and slave. The morality of the "masters" affirms the value of life, which is most manifested against the background of natural inequality of people, due to the difference in their wills and vitality.

All aspects of the culture of romanticism have been heavily criticized by Nietzsche. He subverts the romantic double world when he writes: “There is no point in composing fables about the“ other ”world, unless we are strongly urged to slander life, belittle it, look at it suspiciously: in the latter case, we take revenge on life with a phantasmagoria.” another "," better "life".

Another example of his opinion on this issue is the statement: "The division of the world into" true "and" apparent ", in the sense of Kant, indicates a decline - this is a symptom of a passing life ..."

Here are excerpts from his quotes about some representatives of the era of romanticism: "" The Unbearable: ... - Schiller, or the moral trumpeter from Säckingen ... -V. Hugo, or a lighthouse on the sea of ​​madness. - Liszt, or the school of a daring onslaught in pursuit of women. - Georges Sand, or milk abundance, which in German means: a cash cow with "beautiful style." - Offenbach's music. - Zola, or "Love of stench."

About the bright representative of romantic pessimism in philosophy, Arthur Schopenhauer, whom Nietzsche at first considered his teacher and admired him, later it will be written: “Schopenhauer is the last of the Germans who cannot be passed over in silence. This German, like Goethe, Hegel and Heinrich Heine, was not only a "national", local phenomenon, but also a pan-European one. It is of great interest to the psychologist as a genius and pernicious challenge to the name of the nihilistic devaluation of life, the opposite of the world outlook, a great self-confirmation of the "will to live", a form of abundance and excess of life. Art, heroism, genius, beauty, great compassion, knowledge, will to truth, tragedy - all this, one after another, Schopenhauer explained as phenomena accompanying "denial" or impoverishment of "will", and this makes his philosophy the greatest psychological falsehood in history of mankind ".

He gave a negative assessment to most of the outstanding representatives of the culture of the past centuries and contemporary to him. His disappointment with them lies in the phrase: "I was looking for great people and always found only the monkeys of my ideal." .

One of the few creative personalities that aroused Nietzsche's approval and admiration throughout his life was Johann Wolfgang Goethe - he turned out to be an unrelenting idol. Nietzsche wrote about him: “Goethe is not a German, but a European phenomenon, a magnificent attempt to overcome the eighteenth century by returning to nature, by ascending to naturalness during the Renaissance, an example of self-overcoming from the history of our century. All his strongest instincts were combined in him: sensitivity, passionate love for nature, anti-historical, idealistic, unreal and revolutionary instincts (this latter is only one of the forms of the unreal) ... he did not withdraw from life, but went deep into it, he did not lose heart and how much he could take over himself, into himself and over himself ... He was striving for integrity; he fought against the disintegration of reason, sensuality, feeling and will (preached by Kant, the Goethean antipode, in disgusting scholasticism), he raised himself to wholeness, he created himself ... Goethe was a convinced realist in an unrealistically tuned age. "

In the quote above, there is another aspect of Nietzsche's criticism of romanticism - his criticism of being disconnected from the reality of romantic aesthetics.

About the century of romanticism, Nietzsche writes: “Is thereXIXcentury, especially at the beginning, only intensified, coarseXviiicentury, in other words: decadent century? And isn't Goethe, not for Germany alone, but for the whole of Europe, only an accidental phenomenon, lofty and vain? " .

An interesting Nietzschean interpretation of the tragic, associated, among other things, with his assessment of romantic aesthetics. The philosopher writes about this: "A tragic artist is not a pessimist, he is more willing to take everything mysterious and terrible, he is a follower of Dionysus." ... The essence of not understanding the tragic Nietzsche is reflected in his statement: “What does the tragic artist show us? Doesn't he show a state of fearlessness before the terrible and mysterious. This state alone is the highest good, and the one who experienced it puts it infinitely high. The artist conveys this state to us, he must convey it precisely because he is the artist of the transmission. Courage and freedom of feeling before a mighty enemy, before a great grief, before a task, inspiring horror - this victorious state is chosen and glorified by the tragic artist! " .

Drawing conclusions on the criticism of romanticism, we can say the following: many arguments referring to the aesthetics of romanticism negatively (including those of G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche) do take place. Like any manifestation of culture, this type has both positive and negative sides. However, despite the censure of many contemporaries and representativesXXcentury, romantic culture, which includes romantic art, literature, philosophy and other manifestations, is still relevant and arouses interest, transforming and reviving in new worldview systems and trends of art and literature.

Conclusion

Having studied the philosophical, aesthetic and musicological literature, as well as familiarized ourselves with works of art related to the field of the studied problem, we came to the following conclusions.

Romanticism arose in Germany in the form of a "disenchantment aesthetic" in the ideas of the Great French Revolution. The result was a romantic system of ideas: evil, death and injustice are eternal and irreparable from the world; world sorrow is a state of the world that has become a state of mind for a lyric hero.

In the struggle against the injustice of the world, death and evil, the soul of the romantic hero seeks a way out and finds him in the world of dreams - this manifests the dualism of consciousness characteristic of romantics.

Another important characteristic of romanticism is that romantic aesthetics gravitate towards individualism and subjectivity. As a result, romantics have increased their focus on feelings and sensibilities.

The ideas of the German romantics were universal and became the foundation of the aesthetics of romanticism, influencing its development in other countries. German romanticism is characterized by a tragic orientation and artistry of the language, which manifested itself in all spheres of life.

The understanding of the immanent content of the category of the tragic changed significantly from era to era, reflecting the change in the general picture of the world. In the ancient world, the tragic was associated with a certain objective principle - fate, fate; in the Middle Ages, tragedy was viewed primarily as the tragedy of the Fall, which Christ redeemed by his exploit; in the era of the Enlightenment, the concept of a tragic collision between feeling and duty was formed; in the era of romanticism, the tragic appeared in an extremely subjective form, putting forward in the center a suffering tragic hero who faces evil, cruelty and injustice of people and the entire world order and tries to fight it.

The outstanding cultural figures of German romanticism - Goethe and Schopenhauer - are united by the tragic orientation of their worldview systems and creativity, and they consider art to be a cathartic element of tragedy, a kind of atonement for the suffering of earthly life, giving a special place to music.

The main aspects of criticism of romanticism are as follows. Romantics are criticized for their desire to oppose their aesthetics to the aesthetics of the past era, classicism, and their rejection of the legacy of the Enlightenment; a double world, which is viewed by critics as being divorced from reality; lack of objectivity; exaggeration of the emotional sphere and understatement of the rational; unsystematization and incompleteness of the romantic aesthetic concept.

Despite the fairness of criticism of romanticism, the cultural manifestations of this era are relevant and arouse interest even inXXIcentury. Transformed echoes of the romantic worldview can be found in many areas of culture. For example, we believe that the basis of the philosophical systems of Albert Camus and Jose Ortega y Gasset was the German romantic aesthetics with its tragic dominant, but reinterpreted by them already in cultural conditionsXXcentury.

Our research helps not only to reveal the general characteristic features of romantic aesthetics and the specific features of German romanticism, to show the change in the immanent content of the category of the tragic and its understanding in different historical epochs, as well as to reveal the specifics of the manifestation of the tragic in the culture of German romanticism and the limits of romantic aesthetics, but also contributes to understanding the art of the era of romanticism, finding its universal imagery and themes, as well as building a meaningful interpretation of the work of romantics.

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1 PROGRAM - MINIMUM of the candidate exam in the specialty "Musical art" in art history Introduction The program involves testing the knowledge of graduate students and applicants for a Ph.D. degree regarding the achievements and problems of modern musicology, in-depth knowledge of the theory and history of music, orientation in the problems of modern musicology, mastering the skills of independent analysis and systematization of the material, mastering the methods of research work and the skills of scientific thinking and scientific generalization. The candidate minimum is designed for graduates of conservatories with basic education. An important place in the training of scientific and creative personnel is given to acquaintance with the problems of modern musicology (including interdisciplinary), in-depth study of the history and theory of music, including such disciplines as the analysis of musical forms, harmony, polyphony, the history of domestic and foreign music. A worthy place in the program is given to the problems of creating, preserving and distributing music, the issues of profiling the scientific research of graduate students (applicants), their scientific views and interests related to the topic of the dissertation. Postgraduate students (applicants) who pass the exam in this specialty are also required to master special concepts of musicology, which make it possible to use concepts and provisions that are new for them in scientific and creative activities. An important factor in the requirements is the mastery of modern research technologies, the ability and skills to use theoretical material in practical (performing, pedagogical, scientific) activities. the factor of requirements is the mastery of modern technologies of research activity, the ability and skills to use theoretical material in practical (performing, pedagogical, scientific) activities. The program was developed by the Astrakhan Conservatory on the basis of the minimum program of the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory, approved by the expert council of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Ministry of Education for Philology and Art Criticism. QUESTIONS TO THE EXAM: 1. Theory of musical intonation. 2. Classical style in 18th century music. 3. Theory of musical drama. 4. Musical Baroque. 5. Methodology and theory of folklore.

2 6. Romanticism. Its general and musical aesthetics. 7. Genre in music. 8. Artistic and stylistic processes in Western European music of the second half of the 19th century. 9. Style in music. Polystylistics. 10. Mozartianism in the music of the XIX and XX centuries. 11. Theme and thematicism in music. 12. Imitation forms of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. 13. Fugue: concept, genesis, typology of form. 14. Traditions of Mussorgsky in Russian music of the twentieth century. 15. Ostinate and Ostinate Forms in Music. 16. Mythopoetics of Rimsky-Korsakov's operatic creativity. 17. Musical rhetoric and its manifestation in the music of the XIX and XX centuries. 18. Style processes in musical art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. 19. Modality. Modus. Modal technique. Modal music of the Middle Ages and the twentieth century. 20. "Faustian" theme in the music of the XIX and XX centuries. 21. Series. Serial equipment. Seriality. 22. Music of the twentieth century in the light of the ideas of the synthesis of arts. 23. The genre of opera and its typology. 24. The genre of the symphony and its typology. 25. Expressionism in music. 26. Theory of functions in musical form and in harmony. 27. Stylish processes in Russian music of the second half of the twentieth century. 28. Characteristic features of the sound organization of 20th century music. 29. Artistic trends in Russian music of the ies of the twentieth century. 30. Harmony in 19th century music. 31. Shostakovich in the context of the musical culture of the twentieth century. 32. Modern musical theoretical systems. 33. The work of I.S. Bach and its historical significance. 34. The problem of classification of chord material in modern musical theories. 35. Symphony in contemporary Russian music. 36. Problems of tonality in modern musicology. 37. Stravinsky in the context of the era. 38. Folklorism in the music of the twentieth century. 39. Word and music. 40. The main trends in Russian music of the XIX century.

3 REFERENCES: Recommended basic literature 1. Alshvang А.А. Selected works in 2 vols. M., 1964, Alshvang A.A. Tchaikovsky. M., Antique aesthetics. Introductory sketch and collection of texts by A.F. Losev. M., Anton Webern. Lectures on music. Letters. M., Aranovsky M.G. Musical text: structure, properties. M., Aranovsky M.G. Thinking, language, semantics. // Problems of Musical Thinking. M., Aranovsky M.G. Symphonic quest. L., Asafiev B.V. Selected works, T. M., Asafiev B.V. A book about Stravinsky. L., Asafiev B.V. Musical form as a process, Vol. 12 (). L., Asafiev B.V. Russian music of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Asafiev B.V. Symphonic Etudes. L., Aslanishvili Sh. Principles of shaping in fugues by J.S.Bach. Tbilisi, Balakirev M.A. Memories. Letters. L., Balakirev M.A. Research. Articles. L., Balakirev M.V. and V.V. Stasov. Correspondence. M., 1970, Barenboim L.A. A.G. Rubinstein. L., 1957, Barsova I.L. Essays on the history of score notation (XVI first half of the XVIII century). M., Bela Bartok. Sat Articles. M., Belyaev V.M. Mussorgsky. Scriabin. Stravinsky. M., Bershadskaya T.S. Harmony lectures. L., Bobrovsky V.P. On the variability of the functions of the musical form. M., Bobrovsky V.P. The functional foundations of the musical form. M., Bogatyrev S.S. Double canon. M.L., Bogatyrev S.S. Reversible counterpoint. M. L., Borodin A. P. Letters. M., Vasina-Grossman V.A. Russian classical romance. M., Volman B.L. Russian printed sheet music of the 18th century. L., Memories of Rachmaninov. In 2 vols. M., Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of art. M., Glazunov A.K. Musical heritage. In 2 vols. L., 1959, 1960.

4 32. Glinka M.I. Literary heritage. M., 1973, 1975, Glinka M.I. Collection of materials and articles / Ed. Livanovoy T.M. - L., Gnesin M. Thoughts and memories of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Gozenpud A.A. Musical theater in Russia. From the origins to Glinka. L., Gozenpud A.A. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Themes and ideas of his operatic creativity. 37. Gozenpud A.A. Russian Opera House of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Grigoriev S.S. Theoretical course of harmony. M., Gruber R.I. The history of musical culture. Volume 1 2.M. L., Gulyanitskaya N.S. An introduction to modern harmony. M., Danilevich L. The last operas of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Autobiography. Letters. Memories. Pg., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Selected letters. M., Dianin S.A. Borodin. M., Diletskiy N.P. The idea of ​​the Musiki grammar. M., Dmitriev A. Polyphony as a factor of shaping. L., Documents of the life and work of Johann Sebastian Bach. / Comp. H.- J. Schulze; per. with him. and comments. V.A. Erokhin. M., Dolzhansky A.N. On the modal basis of Shostakovich's works. (1947) // Features of D. D. Shostakovich's style. M., Druskin M.S. About Western European music of the twentieth century. M., Evdokimova Yu.K. History of polyphony. Issues I, II-a. M., 1983, Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Renaissance music (cantus firmus and work with it). M., Evseev S. Russian folk polyphony. M., Zhitomirsky D.V. Tchaikovsky's ballets. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphonic thinking of I. Stravinsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphony in D. Shostakovich's instrumental works. M., Zakharova O. Musical rhetoric. M., Ivanov, Boretskiy M.V. Musical and historical reader. Issue 1-2. M., History of polyphony: in 7 issues. You 2. Dubrovskaya T.N. M., History of Russian Music in Materials / Ed. K.A. Kuznetsova. M., History of Russian Music. In 10 volumes. M.,

5 61. L. P. Kazantseva Author in musical content. M., Kazantseva L.P. Foundations of the theory of musical content. Astrakhan, Kandinsky A.I. From the history of Russian symphonism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries // From the history of Russian and Soviet music, vol. 1.M., Kandinsky A.I. Monuments of Russian musical culture (choral works a capella by Rachmaninoff) // Soviet music, 1968, Karatygin V.G. Selected articles. M.L., Katuar G.L. Theoretical course of harmony, part 1 2. M., Keldysh Yu.V. Essays and studies on the history of Russian music. M., Kirillina L.V. Classical style in music of the 18th early 19th centuries: 69. The identity of the era and musical practice. M., Kirnarskaya D.K. Musical perception. M., Claude Debussy. Articles, reviews, conversations. / Per. from French M. L., Kogan G. Questions of pianism. M., Kon Yu. To the question of the concept of "musical language". // From Lully to the present day. M., Konen V.D. Theater and symphony. M., Korchinsky E.N. On the question of the theory of canonical imitation. L., Korykhalova N.P. Interpretation of music. L., Kuznetsov I.K. Theoretical foundations of polyphony of the twentieth century. M., Course E. Fundamentals of linear counterpoint. M., Kurt E. Romantic harmony and its crisis in "Tristan" by Wagner, M., Kushnarev Kh.S. Questions of the history and theory of Armenian monodic music. L., Kushnarev Kh.S. About polyphony. M., Cui Ts. Selected articles. L., Lavrentyeva I.V. Vocal forms in the analysis of musical works. M., Laroche G.A. Selected articles. In 5th issue. L., Levaya T. Russian music of the late XIX - early XX century in the artistic context of the 86. era. M., Livanova T.N. Bach's musical drama and its historical connections. M.L., Livanova T.N., Protopopov V.V. M. I. Glinka, T. M.,

6 89. Lobanova M. Western European Musical Baroque: Problems of Aesthetics and Poetics. M., Losev A.F. On the concept of artistic canon // The problem of canon in ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Losev A.F., Shestakov V.P. History of aesthetic categories. M., Lotman Yu.M. Canonical art as an information paradox. // The problem of the canon in the ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Lyadov An.K. A life. Portrait. Creation. Pg Mazel L.A. Music analysis questions. M., Mazel L.A. About the melody. M., Mazel L.A. Problems of classical harmony. M., Mazel L.A., Zukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works. M., Medushevsky V.V. The intonational form of music. M., Medushevsky V.V. Musical style as a semiotic object. // CM Medushevsky V.V. On the patterns and means of artistic influence of music. M., Medtner N. Muse and Fashion. Paris, 1935, reprinted by Medtner N. Letters. M., Medtner N. Articles. Materials. Memories / Comp. Z. Apetyan. M., Milka A. Theoretical foundations of functionality. L., Mikhailov M.K. Style in music. L., Music and Musical Life of Old Russia / Ed. Asafiev. L. Musical culture of the ancient world / Ed. R.I. Gruber. L., Musical aesthetics of Germany in the XIX century. / Comp. Al.V. Mikhailov. In 2 vols. M., Musical aesthetics of the Western European Middle Ages and Renaissance. Compiled by V.P. Shestakov. M., Musical aesthetics of France in the XIX century. M., Tchaikovsky's Musical Heritage. M., Musical content: science and pedagogy. Ufa, Mussorgsky M.P. Literary heritage. M., Muller T. Polyphony. M., Myaskovsky N. Musical-critical articles: in 2 vols. M., Myasoedov A.N. About the harmony of classical music (roots of national specificity). M., 1998.

7 117. Nazaikinsky E.V. The logic of musical composition. M., Nazaikinsky E.V. On the psychology of musical perception. M., Nikolaeva N.S. "Rhine Gold" is the prologue of Wagner's concept of the universe. // 120. Problems of romantic music of the XIX century. M., Nikolaeva N.S. Symphonies by Tchaikovsky. M., Nosina V.B. The symbolism of JS Bach's music and its interpretation in the "Well 123. Tempered Clavier". M., About Rachmaninoff's symphonism and his poem "Bells" // Soviet music, 1973, 4, 6, Odoevsky V.F. Musical and literary heritage. M., Pavchinsky S.E. Scriabin's works of the late period. M., Paisov Yu.I. Politonality in the works of Soviet and foreign composers of the twentieth century. M., In memory of S.I. Taneev. M., Prout E. Fuga. M., Protopopov V.V. "Ivan Susanin" by Glinka. M., Protopopov V.V. Essays from the history of instrumental forms of the 16th early 19th century. M., Protopopov V.V. The principles of the musical form of J.S.Bach. M., Protopopov V.V., Tumanina N.V. Tchaikovsky's operatic creativity. M., Rabinovich A.S. Russian opera before Glinka. M., Rachmaninov S.V. Literary heritage / Comp. Z. Apetyan M., Riemann H. Simplified harmony or the doctrine of the tonal functions of chords. M., Rimsky-Korsakov A.N. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Life and art. M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Memories of V.V. Yastrebtseva. L., 1959, Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Literary heritage. T M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Practical textbook of harmony. Complete Works, v. Iv. M., Richard Wagner. Selected works. M., Rovenko A. Practical foundations of straight simulation polyphony. M., Romain Rolland. Moose. historical heritage. Vyp M., Rubinstein A.G. Literary heritage. T. 1, 2.M., 1983, 1984.

8 145. Russian book about Bach / Ed. T.N. Livanova, V.V. Protopopova. M., Russian music and the twentieth century. M., Russian artistic culture of the late 19th early 20th century. Book. 1, 3.M., 1969, Ruchevskaya E.A. Functions of the theme music. L., Savenko S.I. I.F. Stravinsky. M., Saponov M.L. Minstrels: Essays on the Musical Culture of the Western Middle Ages. M .: Prest, Simakova N.A. Vocal genres of the Renaissance. M., Skrebkov S.S. Polyphony tutorial. Ed. 4. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkova-Filatova M.S. Texture in Music: Artistic Possibilities, Structure, Functions. M., Skryabin A.N. On the 25th anniversary of his death. M., Skryabin A.N. Letters. M., Skryabin A.N. Sat. Art. M., Smirnov M.A. The emotional world of music. M., Sokolov O. On the problem of typology of muses. genres. // Problems of 20th century music. Gorky, A.A. Solovtsov The life and work of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Sokhor A. Questions of sociology and aesthetics of music. Part 2. L., Sokhor A. Theory of muses. genres: tasks and prospects. // Theoretical problems of musical forms and genres. M., Sposobin I.V. Lectures on the course of harmony. M., Stasov V.V. Articles. About music. In 5 issues. M., Stravinsky I.F. Dialogues. M., Stravinsky I.F. Correspondence with Russian correspondents. T / Red-sost. V.P. Varunts. M., Stravinsky I.F. Digest of articles. M., Stravinsky I.F. Chronicle of my life. M., Taneev S.I. Analysis of modulations in Beethoven's sonatas // Russian book about Beethoven. M., Taneev S.I. From the scientific and pedagogical heritage. M., Taneev S.I. Materials and documents. M., Taneev S.I. A movable counterpoint to austere writing. M., Taneev S.I. Teaching about the canon. M., Tarakanov M.E. Alban Berg Musical Theater. M., 1976.

9 176. Tarakanov M.E. New tonality in the music of the twentieth century // Problems of Musical Science. M., Tarakanov M.E. New images, new means // Soviet music, 1966, 1, M.E. Tarakanov. Creative work of Rodion Shchedrin. M., Telin Yu.N. Harmony. Theoretical course. M., Timofeev N.A. Transformability of simple canons of strict writing. M., Tumanina N.V. Tchaikovsky. In 2 vols. M., 1962, Tyulin Yu.N. The art of counterpoint. M., Tyulin Yu.N. On the origin and initial development of harmony in folk music // Questions of musical science. M., Tyulin Yu.N. Modern harmony and its historical origin / 1963 /. // Theoretical problems of 20th century music. M., Tyulin Yu.N. The doctrine of harmony (1937). M., Ferenc Liszt. Berlioz and his symphony "Harold" // Liszt F. Izbr. articles. M., Ferman V.E. Opera theatre. M., Fried E.L. Past, present and future in "Khovanshchina" by Mussorgsky. L., Kholopov Yu.N. Changing and unchanging in the evolution of the muses. thinking. // Problems of tradition and innovation in contemporary music. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Lada Shostakovich // Dedicated to Shostakovich. M., Kholopov Yu.N. About three foreign systems of harmony // Music and modernity. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Structural levels of harmony // Musica theorica, 6, MGK. M., 2000 (manuscript) Kholopova V.N. Music as an art form. SPb., Kholopova V.N. Musical themes. M., Kholopova V.N. Russian musical rhythm. M., Kholopova V.N. Texture. M., Tsukkerman V.A. "Kamarinskaya" by Glinka and its traditions in Russian music. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: Variational form. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: General principles of development and shaping in music, simple forms. M., 1980.

10 200. Tsuckerman V.A. Expressive means of Tchaikovsky's lyrics. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Musical theoretical sketches and studies. M., 1970, Tsukkerman V.A. Musical theoretical sketches and studies. M., 1970., no. II. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Musical genres and foundations of musical forms. M., Tsukkerman V.A. Liszt's Sonata in B minor. M., Tchaikovsky M.I. The life of PI Tchaikovsky. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. and Taneev S.I. Letters. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Literary heritage. T M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Guide to the practical study of harmony / 1872 /, Complete collection of works, v. Iii-a. M., Cherednichenko T.V. On the problem of artistic value in music. // Problems of Musical Science. Issue 5. M., Chernova T.Yu. Drama in instrumental music. M., Chugaev A. Structural features of Bach's clavier fugues. M., Shakhnazarova N.G. Music of the East and Music of the West. M., Etinger M.A. Early classical harmony. M., Yuzhak K.I. A theoretical sketch of the polyphony of free writing. L., Yavorskiy B.L. The main elements of music // Art, 1923, Yavorsky B.L. The structure of musical speech. Ch M., Yakupov A.N. Theoretical problems of musical communication. M., Das Musikwerk. Eine Beispielsammlung zur Musikgeschichte. Hrsg. von K.G. Fellerer. Koln: Arno Volk Denkmaler der Tonkunst in Osterreich (DTO) [Multivolume Series "Monuments of Musical Art in Austria"] Denkmaler Deutscher Tonkunst (DDT) [Multivolume Series "Monuments of German Art"].

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation PROGRAM - MINIMUM of the candidate exam in the specialty 17.00.02 "Musical art" in art history The minimum program contains 19 pages.

Introduction The program of the candidate exam in the specialty 17.00.02 musical art involves finding out the knowledge of graduate students and applicants for the degree of candidate of sciences about achievements and problems

Approved by the decision of the Academic Council of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Krasnodar State Institute of Culture" dated March 29, 2016, minutes 3 ENTRANCE TEST PROGRAM for applicants

The content of the entrance exam in the specialty 50.06.01 Art history 1. Interview on the topic of the essay 2. Answering questions on the history and theory of music Requirements for the scientific essay Introductory

QUESTIONS FOR THE CANDIDATE EXAM ON SPECIALTIES Direction of study 50.06.01 "Art history" Direction (profile) "Musical art" Section 1. History of music History of Russian music

The compiler of the program: A.G. Alyabyeva, Doctor of Arts, Professor of the Department of Musicology, Composition and Methods of Music Education. The purpose of the entrance exam: assessment of the formation of the applicant

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University" (MSHU) WORKING

EXPLANATORY NOTE Creative competition to identify certain theoretical and practical creative abilities of applicants, is held on the basis of the academy according to the program developed by the academy

Tambov Regional State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Tambov State Music and Pedagogical Institute named after S.V. Rachmaninov "PROGRAM OF THE INTRODUCTORY

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Executive

1 თბილისის ვანო სარაჯიშვილის სახელობის სახელმწიფო კონსერვატორია სადოქტორო პროგრამა: საშემსრულებლო ხელოვნება სპეციალობა: აკადემიური სიმღერა მისაღები გამოცდების მოთხოვნები I. სპეციალობა სოლო სიმღერა - 35-40

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education “Russian State University named after A.N. Kosygin (Technology. Design. Art) "

The content of the entrance test in the direction 50.06.01 Art history 1. Interview on the topic of the abstract. 2. Answering questions about the history and theory of music. The form of the entrance test

MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL STATE BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION "ORLOVSK STATE INSTITUTE OF CULTURE"

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Murmansk State Humanitarian University" (MSHU) WORKING

The program was discussed and approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music of the Tambov State Music and Pedagogical Institute named after S.V. Rachmaninov. Minutes 2 dated September 5, 2016 Developers:

2. Professional test (solfeggio, harmony) Write a two-three-part dictation (harmonic structure with melodic-developed voices, using alteration, deviations and modulations, including

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Executing Faculty Department of History and Theory

THE PROGRAM OF THE DISCIPLINE Musical literature (foreign and domestic) 2013 The program of the academic discipline was developed on the basis of the Federal State Educational Standard (hereinafter

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)

The program was approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music FTP, minutes 5 of 09.04.2017 This program is intended for applicants entering the postgraduate study of the Orthodox St.

MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA "CRIMEAN UNIVERSITY OF CULTURE, ARTS AND TOURISM"

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE LUGANSK PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC LUGANSK UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER TARAS SHEVCHENKO Institute of Culture and Arts PROGRAM of the profile entrance test in the specialty "Musical

Explanatory note The work program of the subject "Music" for grades 5-7 was developed in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Basic General Education

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)

Department of Culture of Moscow City State Budgetary School of Education of Moscow "Voronovskaya Children's Art School" Adopted by the Pedagogical Council Minutes of 2012. "Approved" by the Director of GBOUDOD (IN Gracheva) 2012 Teacher's work program

Planning music lessons. Grade 5. Theme of the Year: "Music and Literature" "Russian Classical Music School". 5. Acquaintance with large symphonic forms. 6. Expanding and deepening the presentation

Compiled by: O. Sokolova, Ph.D., Associate Professor Reviewer: V. Yu. Grigorieva, Ph.D., Associate Professor The program was approved at a meeting of the Department of History and Theory of Music FTP, minutes 1 of 01.09.2018. 2 This program

The compiler of the program: Compilers of the program: T.I. Strazhnikova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Musicology, Composition and Methods of Music Education. The program is designed

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory named after M.I. Glinka L.A. Ptushko HISTORY OF DOMESTIC MUSIC OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE XX CENTURY Textbook for students of musical

State Classical Academy named after Maimonides Faculty of World Musical Culture Department of Theory and History of Music Approved by: Rector of S. Maimonides prof. Sushkova-Irina Ya.I. Subject program

THE PROGRAM OF THE DISCIPLINE Musical literature (foreign and domestic) 208 The program of the academic discipline was developed on the basis of the Federal State Educational Standard (hereinafter

DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE AND TOURISM OF THE VOLOGDA REGION budgetary professional educational institution of the Vologda region "VOLOGODA REGIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS" (BPOU VO "Vologda Regional College

Class: 6 Hours per week: Total hours: 35 I trimester. Total weeks 0.6 total lesson hours Thematic planning Subject: Music Section. "The transforming power of music" The transforming power of music as a species

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory (Academy) named after M.I. Glinka Department of Choral Conducting G.V. Suprunenko Principles of theatricalization in a modern choral

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Executive

Additional general developmental program "Performing arts (piano) preparation for the level of higher education programs of undergraduate programs, specialty programs" References 1. Alekseev

Budgetary professional educational institution of the Udmurt Republic "Republican Music College" FUNDS FOR EVALUATION MEANS CONTROL AND EVALUATION MATERIALS FOR EXAM Specialty 53.02.07

1. EXPLANATORY NOTE Admission in the direction of training 53.04.01 "Musical Instrumental Art" is carried out in the presence of higher education of any level. Applicants for training on this

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education Moscow State Institute of Culture APPROVED BY L.S.Zorilova, Dean of the Faculty of Musical Art eighteen

Explanatory note. The work program is based on the standard program for "literacy and listening to music", Blagonravova NS. The work program is designed for grades 1-5. To the musical

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Municipal autonomous institution of additional education of the urban district "City of Kaliningrad" "Children's music school named after D.D. Shostakovich "Exam requirements for the subject" Musical

PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION "ORTHODOX ST. TIKHONOVSK HUMANITARIAN UNIVERSITY" (PSTGU) Moscow APPROVED Vice-rector for scientific work, Archpriest. K. Polskov, Cand. Philos.

Elena Igorevna Luchina, PhD in Art History, Associate Professor of the Department of Music History Born in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Germany). Graduated from the theoretical and piano departments of the Voronezh College of Music

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Novosibirsk State Conservatory (Academy)

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Executing Faculty

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education of the City of Moscow "Moscow City Pedagogical University" Institute of Culture and Arts

Code of the direction of training For the 2016-2017 academic year PROGRAM of entrance examinations to graduate school Name Name of the direction of training (profile) of the training program 1 2 3

Explanatory note Entrance exams in the specialty "Musical and theatrical art", specialization "The art of opera singing" reveal the level of pre-university training of applicants for further

Explanatory note The work program of the subject "MUSIC" for grades 5-7 was developed in accordance with the basic educational program of basic general education MBOU in Murmansk "Average

Municipal budgetary educational institution of additional education for children Art School of Zavitinsky district Calendar plans for the subject Musical literature First year of study First year

Municipal budgetary institution of additional education of the city of Astrakhan "Children's Art School named after M.P. Maksakova "Additional general educational program" Fundamentals of musical

"APPROVED" Rector of FSBEI HPE MGUDT V.S. Belgorodsky 2016 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION federal state budgetary educational institution of higher professional

Ministry of Culture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education North Caucasus State Institute of Arts Executive