The most famous works of art from the Baroque era. Baroque style in art
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To create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate becomes popular, this is how the Baroque emerges in the 16th century on the territory of Italy.
Origin of the term
Origin of the word baroque causes more controversy than the names of all other styles. There are several versions of the origin. Portuguese barroco- a pearl of irregular shape, without an axis of rotation, such pearls were popular in the 17th century. In italian baroco- a false syllogism, an Asian form of logic, a technique of sophistry based on a metaphor. Like pearls of irregular shape, baroque syllogisms, the falsity of which was hidden by their metaphor.
The use of the term by art critics and historians dates back to the second half of the 18th century and refers, at first, to figurative art and, consequently, also to literature. Initially, the Baroque took on a negative meaning and it was only at the end of the 19th century that a reappraisal of the Baroque took place, thanks to the European cultural context from Impressionism to Symbolism, which highlights the links with the Baroque era.
One of the controversial theories suggests the origin of all these European words from Latin bis-roca, twisted stone. Another theory - from Latin verruca, a steep high place, a defect in a gem.
In different contexts, the word baroque could mean "pretentiousness", "unnatural", "insincerity", "elite", "deformed", "exaggerated emotionality". All these shades of the word baroque in most cases were not perceived as negative.
Finally, another theory suggests that this word in all the languages mentioned is parodic from the point of view of linguistics, and its word formation can be explained by its meaning: unusual, unnatural, ambiguous and deceptive.
The ambiguity of the Baroque style is due to its origin. According to some researchers, it was borrowed from the architecture of the Seljuk Turks.
Baroque features
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music).
The worldview foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock, which the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The concept of the world as a rational and permanent unity, which was established in antiquity, changed, as well as the Renaissance concept of man as a rational being. In the words of Pascal, a person began to recognize himself as "something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end."
Baroque era
The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - a promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - "carousels" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place of icons was taken by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.
The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. All that is "clearly and distinctly" thought or has a mathematical expression is true, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word "baroque" is sometimes taken to denote one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco... The first European park appears in the Palace of Versailles, where the idea of a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. In the armies of the Baroque era, which received uniforms for the first time, much attention is paid to "drill" - the geometric correctness of the formations on the parade ground.
Baroque man
Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, impudence, tyranny, brutality and ignorance - all that in the era of romanticism will become a virtue. A baroque woman values the pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, pretentious hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.
And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the gentleman - from the English. gentle: "Soft", "gentle", "calm". Initially, he preferred to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume, and wear powdered wigs. Why force, if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket. In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the natural state (eng. state of nature) is a condition characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.
Baroque is characterized by the idea of ennobling nature on the basis of reason. Not to endure the need, but "it is good to offer in pleasant and courteous words" (Yunost honest mirror, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives are no longer the content of sin, but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is shaped in an exquisite dining etiquette (it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); interest in the opposite sex - in polite flirting, quarrels - in a refined duel.
The Baroque is characterized by the idea of a sleeping God - deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just like a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe in any way. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true keepers of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (), and Carl Linnaeus systematizes biology "The System of Nature" (). Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are being established throughout European capitals.
The diversity of perception raises the level of consciousness - something like this says the philosopher Leibniz. Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (), and Levenguck under a microscope discovers tiny living organisms (). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventure seekers became literary symbols of the era: the ship's doctor Gulliver and Baron Munchausen.
Baroque painting
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio by his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's modern life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light capture the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggians, and the movement itself caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
Baroque in architecture
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman Church of Santa Susanna (city). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces, executed in the new style, date back to around Bernini, who is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. D. Fontana, R. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longena, L. Vanvitelli, P. da Cortona made significant contributions. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - sicilian baroque.
In Germany, an outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - J.G.Buring, H.L. Munter) and the Summer Palace there (G.V. von Knobelsdorf).
Baroque in sculpture
Trier. Baroque sphinx at the elector's palace
Pope Innocent XII. St. Peter's Basilica in Rome
Baroque gnomes in the Hofgarten Augsburg
Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, persecuted by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved out of marble and the robes of the characters as if fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
In Spain, in the era of the Baroque style, wooden sculptures prevailed; for greater believability, they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often worn on the statue.
Baroque in literature
Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depictions. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poems form a drawing), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a striving for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a striving for the study of being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). The baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of impermanence and impermanence, dream-life (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). The famous play by Calderon "Life is a dream". Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudery, M. de Scudery), the real-life and satirical novel (Fueretier, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) also developed. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties, directions are born: marinism, gongorism (culturaism), conceptism (Italy, Spain), the metaphysical school and eufuism (England) (see Precision literature).
The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are portrayed as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called the pastoral (Honore d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Such forms as sonnet, rondo, conchetti (a small poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals are widespread.
In the West, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). V. Vuatur (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous in poetry. In Russia, the Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich. "Precision literature" flourished in France during this period. It was cultivated then, mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque trend in literature was called "gongorism" after the name of the most prominent representative (see above).
In Germanic literature, the traditions of the Baroque style are still maintained by members of the Blumenorden literary community. They gather in the summer for literary festivals in the Irrhein grove near Nuremberg. The society was organized in the year by the poet Philip Harsdörfer in order to restore and support the German language, which was badly damaged during the Thirty Years War.
Baroque music
Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and predated the music of the Classicist era.
Baroque fashion
At first, when he was still a child (he was crowned at the age of 5), short jackets called brasier richly decorated with lace. Then pants came into vogue, rengraves, like a skirt, wide, also richly decorated with lace, which lasted a long time. Later appeared justocore(from French it can be translated: "exactly on the body"). This is a type of caftan, knee-length, in this era it was worn buttoned, a belt was worn over it. A sleeveless camisole was worn under the caftan. The caftan and camisole can be compared with the later jacket and vest, which they will become in 200 years. The collar of the Justocor was at first a turn-down, with semicircular ends extended downward. Later it was replaced by a frill. In addition to lace, there were many bows on the clothes, on the shoulders, on the sleeves and on the trousers, there were whole series of bows. In the previous era, under Louis XIII, boots were popular ( boots). This is a field type of footwear, usually worn by the military class. But at that time there were frequent wars, and they walked in boots everywhere, even at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only for their direct purpose - in the field, in military campaigns. In a civilian setting, shoes came out on top. Until 1670 they were decorated with buckles, then buckles were replaced by bows. Intricately decorated buckles were called agraph.
Baroque in the interior
The baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury, although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.
Painting was always popular, but in the Baroque style it became simply necessary, since the interiors required a lot of color and large, richly decorated details. The frescoed ceiling, painted marble and gilded walls were more popular than ever. Contrasting colors were often used in the interior: it was not uncommon to find a marble floor resembling a checkerboard. Gold was everywhere, and everything that could be covered with gilding was gilded. Not a single corner of the house was left unattended when decorating.
The furniture was a real piece of art, and, it seemed, was intended only for interior decoration. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive, richly dyed fabric. Huge canopy beds with flowing bedspreads and giant wardrobes were common. The mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco moldings with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture materials.
The Baroque style is not suitable for small spaces, since massive furniture and decorations take up a lot of space, and in order for a room to not look like a museum, there must be a lot of free space. But even in a small room, you can recreate the spirit of this style, limiting yourself to stylization, using some baroque details, such as:
- figurines and vases with floral ornaments;
- tapestries on the walls;
- mirror in a gilded frame with stucco molding;
- chairs with carved backs, etc.
It is important that the details used are combined with each other, otherwise the interior will look clumsy and tasteless.
At the end of the 16th century, a new style appeared - the baroque. It is about him that will be discussed in this article.
Baroque (Italian barocco - "quirky", "strange", "prone to excess", port. perola barroca - literally "pearl with vice") Is a style in art in general and architecture in particular.
Baroque era
It is conventionally considered (like all historical periods) that the Baroque era continued during the 16th-18th centuries. Interestingly, it all started with Italy, which by the 16th century began to noticeably weaken in the international arena economically and politically.
The French and Spaniards actively pursued their policies in Europe, although Italy still remained the cultural center of European society. And the strength of culture, as you know, is determined by its ability to adapt to new realities.
So the Italian nobility, having no money to build rich palaces that demonstrate their power and grandeur, turned to art in order to create the appearance of wealth, strength and prosperity with its help.
This is how the Baroque era began, which became an important stage in the development of world art.
It is important to emphasize that people's lives at this time began to change fundamentally. The Baroque era is characterized by a lot of free time. The townspeople prefer horseback riding ("carousel") and playing cards to knightly tournaments, walking in the park to pilgrimages, and theaters to mysteries.
Old traditions based on superstition and prejudice are falling away. The outstanding mathematician and philosopher Descartes deduces the formula: "I think, therefore I am." That is, society is being rebuilt to a different way of thinking, where what is sensible is not what some authority has said, but what can be mathematically precisely explained to any rational being.
An interesting fact is that in the professional environment around the very word "baroque" there is more controversy than about the era as such. From Spanish, barroco is translated as a pearl of irregular shape, but from Italian - baroco denotes a false logical conclusion.
This second version looks like the most plausible version of the origin of the controversial word, since it was in the Baroque era that some ingenious absurdity was observed in art, and even quirkiness, striking the imagination with its bombast and grandeur.
Baroque style
The Baroque style is characterized by contrast, dynamism and tension, as well as a distinct desire for pomp and external grandeur.
It is interesting that the representatives of this trend combined different styles of art extremely organically. In short, the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus played a key role in laying the foundations of the Baroque style.
If it was typical for the Renaissance to perceive a person as the measure of all things and the most reasonable of creatures, then Blaise Pascal already perceives himself differently: “something in between everything and nothing”.
Baroque art
Baroque art is distinguished, first of all, by its extraordinary splendor of forms, originality of plots and dynamism. In art, catchy flamboyance prevails. In painting, the most prominent representatives of this style were Rubens and.
Looking at some of Caravaggio's paintings, one is involuntarily amazed at the dynamism of his subjects. The play of light and shadow incredibly subtly emphasizes the various emotions and experiences of the characters. An interesting fact is that the influence of this artist on art was so great that a new style appeared - caravaggism.
Some followers were able to adopt naturalism from their teacher in transferring people and events to the canvas. Peter Rubens, while studying in Italy, became a follower of Caravaggio and Carraci, mastering their technique and adopting the style.
The Flemish painter Van Dyck and the Dutchman Rembrandt were also prominent representatives of Baroque art. In Spain, this style was followed by the outstanding artist Diego Velazquez, and in - by Nicolas Poussin.
By the way, it was Poussin who began to lay the foundations of a new style in art - classicism.
Baroque in architecture
The architecture, executed in the Baroque style, is distinguished by its spatial scope and complex, curvilinear forms. Numerous sculptures on the facades and in the interiors, various colonnades and a lot of rip-offs create a splendor and majestic look.
Architectural ensemble "Zwinger" in Dresden
Domes acquire complex shapes and often have several tiers. An example is the dome in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, of which he was.
The most significant Baroque works in architecture are the Palace of Versailles and the building of the French Academy in. The world's largest baroque ensembles include Versailles, Peterhof, Zwinger, Aranjuez and Schönbrunn.
In general, it must be said that the architecture of this style spread in many European countries, including in, under the influence of Peter the Great.
Style "Petrovskoe Baroque" Baroque music
Speaking about the Baroque era, it is impossible to ignore the music, since it also underwent significant changes during this period. Composers combined large-scale musical forms, while simultaneously trying to contrast choral and solo singing, voices and instruments.
Baroque- a characteristic of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, in the era of the Late Renaissance, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in the 16th-17th centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal march of "Western civilization". Baroque opposed classicism to rationalism.
Baroque features
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music). The worldview foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock that the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The concept of the world as a rational and permanent unity, which was established in antiquity, changed, as well as the Renaissance concept of man as a rational being. According to Pascal, a person began to realize himself as “something in between everything and nothing”, “one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end”.
Baroque era
The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages, a promenade (walks in the park); together with knightly tournaments - "carousel" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of the mystery-theatrical-masquerade. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place was occupied by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.
The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. Everything is true that is "clearly and distinctly" thought or has a mathematical expression, declares the philosopher Descartes. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the word "baroque" is sometimes taken to denote one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco... The first European park appears in the Palace of Versailles, where the idea of a forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. In the armies of the Baroque era, which received uniforms for the first time, much attention is paid to "drill" - the geometric correctness of the formations on the parade ground.
Baroque man
Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, impudence, tyranny, brutality and ignorance - all that in the era of romanticism will become a virtue. A baroque woman values the pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, pretentious hairstyle, corsets, an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.
And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the gentleman-otangl. gentle: "Soft", "gentle", "calm". Initially, he preferred to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume, and wear powdered wigs. Why force, if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket. In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbesa, the natural state (eng. state of nature) is a condition characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.
Baroque is characterized by the idea of ennobling nature on the basis of reason. Necessity not to endure, but "nice to offer in pleasant and courteous words" (Yunost honest mirror, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives are no longer the content of sin, but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is formalized in an exquisite dining etiquette (it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); interest in the opposite sex - in courteous flirtation, quarrels - in sophisticated duel.
The Baroque is characterized by the idea of a sleeping god-deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just like a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanicism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe in any way. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true keepers of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1689), and Karl Linnaeus systematizes biology ("The System of Nature", 1735). Academies of Science and scientific societies are being established throughout European capitals.
The diversity of perception increases the level of consciousness - something like this says the philosopher Leibniz. Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Levenguk under a microscope discovers tiny living organisms (1675). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the world's oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers became the literary symbols of the era: Robinson Crusoe, ship doctor Gulliveri Baron Münchhausen.
“In the Baroque era, a fundamentally new development took place, different from medieval allegorical thinking. A viewer who can understand the language of the logo has formed. The allegory has become the norm of artistic vocabulary in all types of plastic and spectacular arts, including such synthetic forms as festivals. "
Baroque painting
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was called Caravaggio by his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's modern life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light capture the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. The followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggians, and the movement itself was caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) in the early 17th century studied in Italy, where he learned the style of Caravaggio and Carraci, although he arrived there only after completing a course in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, learning and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque, Van Dyck (1599-1641), achieved international recognition. With the work of Rubens, a new style came to Holland, where it was taken up by Frans Hals (1580 / 85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, Diego Velazquez (1599-1660) worked in the manner of Caravaggio, and in France, Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), who, not being satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundations of a new trend in his work - classicism.
Architecture
Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelliv of Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in Rzeczpospolita) is characterized by spatial scope, cohesion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on facades and interiors, volutes, a large number of rivets, bow facades with ripping in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. Domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, like the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. Typical baroque details are telamon (atlant), caryatid, mascaron.
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who tore apart the manners and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman Church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces in the new style date from around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the area of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana, Carlo Rainaldi, Guarino Guarini, Baldassare Longena, Luigi Vanvitelli, Pietro da Cortona. In Sicily, after the major earthquake of 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - sicilian baroque... Light acts as a fundamentally important element of the baroque space, entering the churches through the naves.
The Coranaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652) is considered the quintessential Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture.
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or the local Churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), also spread in Latin America. His most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered by the believers in Spain. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is the most elaborate version of it, and they call it ultra-baroque.
In France, the Baroque style is more modest than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop at all here, and the baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, together with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are ranked among the French Baroque. They do have some of the features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is a regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the Park of Versailles.
Later, at the beginning of the 18th century, the French developed their own style, a kind of baroque-rococo. It manifested itself not in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was spread throughout Europe and Russia.
In Belgium, an outstanding Baroque monument is the Grand Place in Brussels. The house of Rubensav Antwerp has baroque features, built according to the artist's own design.
In Russia, the baroque appeared in the 17th century ("Naryshkin baroque", "Golitsyn baroque"). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, D. Trezzini - the so-called "Peter's Baroque" (more restrained), and reaches its prime during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna creativitypp. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.
In Germany, an outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - J. G. Buring (German) Russian, H. L. Munter) and the Summer Palace there (G. V. von Knobelsdorf).
The largest and most famous ensembles of the baroque in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).
In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the styles of the Sarmatian Baroque and the Vilna Baroque became widespread, the largest representative being Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among his famous projects are the rebuilt Church of the Ascension of the Lord (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.
Baroque in sculpture
Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Among the most famous of his sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpina by the god of the underworld Pluton and the miraculous transformation into the tree name Daphne, persecuted by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved out of marble and as if fluttering in the wind attire of characters, steatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
In Spain, in the era of the Baroque style, wooden sculptures prevailed; for greater believability, they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often worn on the statue.
Baroque in literature
Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depictions. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poems form a drawing), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude to reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a striving for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a striving for the study of being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). The baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of impermanence and impermanence, dream-life (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). The famous play by Calderon "Life is a dream". Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scuderi, M. de Scuderi), the real-life and satirical novel (Füretier, S. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the baroque style, its varieties, directions are born: marinism (Italy), gongorism (culturism) and iconseptism (Spain), euphoism, metaphysical school (England), precision literature (France), macaronism, i.e. mixed Polish-Latin versification (Poland).
The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are portrayed as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called the pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Such forms as sonet, rondo, conchetti (a small poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals are widespread.
In the west, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama, P. Calderon (Spain). They became famous in poetry Vuatur (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England). "Precision literature" flourished in France during this period. It was cultivated then, mainly, in Salonemade de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque trend in literature was called "gongorism" after the name of a prominent representative (see above).
Baroque in Polish literature is represented by the poetry of the heroic and epic trend of Zbigniew Morsztyn, Vaclav Potocki, Vespasian Kochowski (the theme of whose poetry is largely due to the eventful military biography of all three), the courtier (the so-called macaroni style, popular at the end of the 17th century) Jan, Andrzej Morsztyn philosophical Stanislav Heraclius Lubomirsky; in prose - mainly memoirs (the most significant work - "Memoirs" by Jan Chrysostom Pasek).
In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich.
In German literature, the traditions of the Baroque style are still supported by members of the literary community "Blumenorden". They gather in the summer for literary festivals in the Irrhein grove near Nuremberg. The society was organized in 1646 by Georg Philipp Harsdörffers with the aim of restoring and maintaining the German language, badly damaged during the Thirty Years' War.
Theoretically, the poetics of the Baroque was developed in the treatises Wit, or the Art of the Sophisticated Mind by Baltasar Gracian (1648) and Aristotle's Spyglass by Emanuele Tesauro (1655).
Baroque music
Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and predated classical music. Representatives - Vivaldi, Bach, Handel. The leading position of the genre, oratorios, operas. Characterized by the opposition of choraisolists, voices and instruments, a combination of large-scale forms, the gravitation of xynthesis art with a simultaneous tendency to isolate music from the word (the emergence of instrumental genres).
Baroque fashion
The mode of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the XVII century. This is the time of absolutism. At court, strict etiquette and complex ceremonial reigned. The suit was subject to etiquette. France was a trendsetter in Europe, so other countries quickly adopted French fashion. This was the century when a general fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics receded into the background or remained in the folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, some aristocrats also wore European costumes in Russia, although not everywhere.
The costume was characterized by stiffness, splendor, and an abundance of jewelry. The ideal man was Louis XIV, "the sun king", a skillful rider, dancer, shooter. He was short, so he wore high heels.
At first, when he was still a child (he was crowned at the age of 5), short jackets, called brasier richly decorated with lace. Then pants came into vogue, rengraves, like a skirt, wide, also richly decorated with lace, which lasted a long time. Later appeared justocore(from French it can be translated: "exactly on the body"). This is a type of caftan, knee-length, in this era it was worn buttoned, a belt was worn over it. Under the caftanna, devalicamzole, sleeveless. The caftan and camisole can be compared with the later jacket and vest, which they will become in 200 years. The collar of the Justocor was at first a turn-down, with semicircular ends extended downward. Later he changed his head. In addition to lace, there were many bows on the clothes, on the shoulders, on the sleeves and on the trousers, there were whole series of bows. In the previous era, under Louis XIII, boots were popular ( boots). This is a field type of footwear, usually worn by the military class. But at that time there were frequent wars, and they walked in boots everywhere, even at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only for their direct purpose - in the field, in military campaigns. In a civilian setting, shoes came out on top. Until 1670, they were decorated with buckles, then buckles were replaced by bows. Intricately decorated buckles were called agraph.
The women's dress was, unlike the dress of the previous period, not on a frame, but on a lining of a whalebone. It gradually expanded towards the bottom, and a train was worn at the back. The full female costume consisted of two skirts, the bottom ( freepon) and upper ( modest). The first is light, the second is darker. The petticoat was visible, the top parting away from the bottom of the bodice. Draperies adorned the sides of the skirt. There were also draperies along the edge of the neckline. The neckline was wide and opened the shoulders. The waist is narrow, a corset was worn under the dress. If under Louis XIII women wore men's hats (they then borrowed many elements of the costume from men), now hairstyles, light kerchiefs or caps are in fashion. In the 1660s, hairstyles were fashionable. mancini and sevigne, by the name of the niece of Cardinal Mazarin, with whom the king was in love in his youth, and by the name of the famous writer. Later, the hairstyle came into vogue. fountain(not to be confused with the fountain cap), named after one of the king's mistresses. This is a high hairstyle, made up of many curls. In the history of the costume, the hairstyle is also called kouafura.
The men wore puffy wigs that protruded high up and lowered over the shoulders. Wigs came into use even under Louis XIII, who was bald. Now they have become much more luxurious. Hats in the 1660s were wide-brimmed with a high crown. At the end of the century, they were replaced by a cocked hat, which remained popular in the next 18th century.
Umbrellas have also come into fashion, for women - muffs, fans. Cosmetics were used without measure. Flies appeared, faces and wigs were powdered for whiteness, and a black fly created contrast. Wigs were so heavily powdered that hats were often carried in the hand. Both men and women carried walking sticks. The sling ( bandulier), on which swords were worn, came into fashion in the previous era. Even earlier, swords were worn on a harness, a thin strap fastened to a waist belt. The sling used to be leather, now it was also made of moire. Materials of that time: wool, velvet, satin, brocade, taffeta, moire, camlot, cotton.
Baroque in the interior
The baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury, although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.
Wall painting (one of the types of monumental painting) has been used in decorating European interiors since early Christian times. In the Baroque era, it was most widespread. The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: the ceiling decorated with frescoes, marble walls and part of the decor, gilding. Color contrasts were characteristic - for example, the marble floor, decorated with tiles in a checkerboard pattern. Abundant gilded decorations were a characteristic feature of this style.
The furniture was a piece of art, and was intended almost exclusively for interior decoration. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive, richly dyed fabric. Huge four-poster beds with flowing down bedspreads and gigantic wardrobes were widespread. The mirrors were decorated with sculptures and lepnines with a planting pattern. Southern walnut ebony was often used as a material for furniture.
The Baroque style is not suitable for small spaces, as massive furniture and decorations take up a large volume of space. Reproducing the atmosphere of the Baroque style today is possible through stylization and the use of such baroque details as:
figurines and vases with floral ornaments;
tapestries on the walls;
mirror in a gilded frame with stucco molding;
chairs with carved backs, etc.
The details used should be combined with each other in an artistic and aesthetic plan.
Baroque is an artistic movement that developed at the beginning of the 17th century. Translated from Italian, the term means "bizarre", "strange". This direction affected various types of art and, above all, architecture. What are the characteristics of baroque literature?
A bit of history
The leading position in the social and political life of Europe in the seventeenth century was occupied by the church. This is evidenced by outstanding architectural monuments. It was necessary to strengthen church authority with the help of artistic images. Something bright, pretentious, even somewhat intrusive was required. So a new artistic direction was born, the birthplace of which was the then cultural center of Europe - Italy.
This direction began its development in painting and architecture, but later embraced other types of art. Writers and poets did not stay away from new trends in culture. A new direction was born - baroque literature (emphasis on the second syllable).
Baroque works were intended to glorify power and the church. In many countries, this trend has been developed as a kind of court art. However, later the varieties of the baroque were distinguished. Specific features of this style also appeared. The most active development of the baroque was in Catholic countries.
Main features
The aspirations of the Catholic Church to strengthen its power were in the best way possible in art, the characteristic features of which were grace, pomp, and sometimes exaggerated expressiveness. In literature, attention is paid to sensuality and, oddly enough, the bodily principle. A distinctive feature of Baroque art is the combination of the sublime and the earthly.
Varieties
Baroque literature is a collection that can be contrasted with classicism. Moliere, Racine and Corneille created their creations according to strict standards. In the works written by representatives of such a direction as baroque literature, there are metaphors, symbols, antitheses, gradation. They are inherently illusory, using various means of expression.
Baroque literature subsequently split into several varieties:
- marineism;
- gongorism;
- conseptism;
- euphuism.
Trying to understand the features of each of the listed areas is not worth it. A few words should be said about what are the stylistic features of baroque literature, who are its main representatives.
Baroque aesthetics
During the Renaissance, the idea of humanism began to appear in literature. The dark medieval worldview was replaced by an awareness of the value of the human person. Scientific, philosophical and social thought was actively developed in. But before there was such a direction as baroque literature. What's this? We can say that Baroque literature is a kind of transitional link. It replaced the Renaissance poetics, but did not become its negation.
At the heart of the baroque aesthetics is the clash of two opposing views. In the works of this artistic direction, belief in human capabilities and belief in the omnipotence of the natural world are bizarrely combined. They reflect both ideological and sensory needs. What is the main theme in the creations created within the framework of the Baroque literature direction? Writers did not give preference to a certain point of view regarding a person's place in society and the world. Their ideas fluctuated between hedonism and asceticism, earth and heaven, God and devil. Another characteristic feature of baroque literature is the return of antique motifs.
Baroque literature, examples of which can be found not only in Italian, but also in Spanish, French, Polish and Russian cultures, is based on the principle of combining the incongruous. The authors combined various genres in their work. Their main task was to surprise and stun the reader. Strange pictures, unusual scenes, a heap of various images, a combination of secularism and religiosity - all these are features of baroque literature.
Worldview
The Baroque era does not abandon the humanistic ideas inherent in the Renaissance. But these ideas take on a certain tragic connotation. The person is full of conflicting thoughts. He is ready to fight his passions and the forces of the social environment.
An important idea of the baroque worldview is also the combination of the real and the fictional, the ideal and the earthly. Authors who created their works in this style often showed a tendency towards disharmony, grotesqueness, and exaggeration.
An external feature of Baroque art is a special understanding of beauty. Pretentiousness of forms, splendor, splendor are the characteristic features of this direction.
Heroes
A typical character of baroque works is a person with a strong will, nobility, the ability to think rationally. For example, the heroes of Calderon - the Spanish playwright, one of the brightest representatives of baroque literature - are seized with a thirst for knowledge, a desire for justice.
Europe
Representatives of Italian baroque literature are Jacopo Sannadzoro, Tebeldeo, Tasso, Guarini. In the works of these authors, there is pretentiousness, ornamentalism, word play and gravitation towards mythological subjects.
The main representative of the Baroque is Luis de Gongora, after whom one of the varieties of this artistic movement is named.
Other representatives are Baltasar Gracian, Alonso de Ledesmo, Frncisco de Quevedo. It should be said that, having originated in Italy, the aesthetics of the Baroque were subsequently actively developed in Spain. The features of this literary trend are also present in prose. It is enough just to remember the famous "Don Quixote". The hero of Cervantes lives partly in a world he has invented. The misadventures of the Knight of the Grievous are reminiscent of the journey of a Homeric character. But in the book of the Spanish writer there is grotesque and comic.
A monument of Baroque literature is Grimelshausen's "Simplicissimus". This novel, which may seem rather eccentric and not devoid of comic to contemporaries, reflects the tragic events in the history of Germany, namely the Thirty Years' War. In the center of the plot is a simple young man who is on an endless journey and experiences both sad and funny adventures.
In France during this period, predominantly "precision literature" was popular.
In Poland, baroque literature is represented by such names as Zbigniew Morsztyn, Vespasian Kochowski, Vaclav Potocki.
Russia
S. Polotsky and F. Prokopovich are representatives of Russian baroque literature. This direction has become, in a sense, official. Baroque literature in Russia found its expression primarily in court poetry, but it developed somewhat differently than in Western European countries. The fact is that, as you know, the Baroque replaced the Renaissance, which was almost unknown in Russia. The literary direction referred to in this article had little difference from the artistic direction inherent in the culture of the Renaissance.
Simeon Polotsky
This poet strove to reproduce various concepts and ideas in his poems. Polotsky gave logic to poetry and even brought it somewhat closer to science. Collections of his creations resemble encyclopedic dictionaries. His works are mainly devoted to various social issues.
What poetry does the modern reader perceive? Certainly more recent. What is dearer to a Russian person - baroque literature or the Silver Age? Most likely the second. Akhmatova, Tsvetaeva, Gumilev ... The creations that Polotsky created can hardly please the present lover of poetry. This author wrote a number of moralizing poems. It is rather difficult to perceive them today due to the abundance of outdated grammatical forms and archaisms. "A man is a certain wine drinker byache" is a phrase, a meaning that not every of our contemporary will understand.
Baroque literature, like other forms of art in this style, tuned in to freedom of choice of means of expression. The works were distinguished by the complexity of their forms. And in them, as a rule, there was pessimism caused by the belief in the powerlessness of a person against external forces. At the same time, the awareness of the frailty of the world was combined with the desire to overcome the crisis. With the help, an attempt was made to cognize the higher mind, to comprehend the place of man in the vastness of the universe.
The Baroque style was the product of political and social upheaval. It is sometimes perceived as an attempt to restore a medieval worldview. However, this style occupies an important place in the history of literature, and primarily because it became the basis for the development of later trends.
BAROQUE (Italian - barocco, presumably from Portuguese barroco - pearl of irregular shape or from Latin baroco - mnemonic designation of one of the modes of syllogism in traditional logic), style in art of the late 16-18 centuries. He covered all areas of plastic arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), literature, music and performing arts. The Baroque style was an expression of the typological community of national cultures during the period of the formation of absolutism, which was accompanied by severe military conflicts (including the Thirty Years' War of 1618-48), the strengthening of Catholicism and church ideology (see Counter-Reformation). Thanks to this community, it is also legitimate to talk about the cultural and historical era of the Baroque, which inherited the Renaissance. The chronological boundaries of the baroque do not coincide in individual regions (in Latin America, a number of countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in Russia the style was formed later than in Western Europe) and in various types of art (for example, in the 18th century, baroque exhausted itself in Western European literature, but continued to exist in architecture, fine arts, music). Italy is rightfully considered the birthplace of the Baroque. Baroque is inherently associated with 16th century Mannerism and coexists with classicism.
The Baroque style reflected a new worldview that replaced the Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism, in which the features of rationalism and mystical spiritualism, the desire for the scientific systematization of knowledge and passion for magical and esoteric teachings, interest in the objective world in all its breadth and religious exaltation were contradictory. Scientific discoveries that pushed the boundaries of the universe brought awareness of the infinite complexity of the world, but at the same time turned man from the center of the universe into a small part of it. The destruction of the balance between man and the world manifested itself in the antinomy of the baroque, which gravitates towards sharp contrasts of the sublime and the low, the carnal and the spiritual, the refined and the brutal, the tragic and the comic, and so on. Calm balance, harmony of Renaissance art were replaced by heightened affectation, exaltation, stormy dynamics. At the same time, striving to actively influence the viewer-listener, the Baroque style relied on a carefully thought-out rational system of techniques, largely based on rhetoric [primarily on the teachings of "invention" (Latin inventio) and stylistic figures, "decoration" (Latin elocutio)]. Rhetorical principles were transferred to various types of art, determining the construction of a literary work, theatrical performance, programs of decorative and monumental painting cycles, musical compositions.
Wishing to combine contrasting images within one work, and often elements of various genres (tragicomedy, opera-ballet, etc.) and style manners, the Baroque masters attached particular importance to virtuoso artistry: the victory of technology over the material of art symbolized the triumph of the creative genius possessed by “ wit ”- the ability to combine distant and dissimilar concepts in a single image. The main instrument of "wit" was a metaphor - the most important of the Baroque tropes, "the mother of poetry" (E. Tesauro).
The desire for a comprehensive impact on the audience led to the rapprochement and interpenetration of various types of art, characteristic of the Baroque, and interpenetration of various types of art (architectural illusions in painting and scenography, sculptural and picturesque architecture, theatricalization of sculpture, poetic and pictorial picturesque music, the combination of image and text in curly verses and in the genre of the emblem ). Pathetically "high" baroque with its inherent grandeur and splendor (architectural ensembles, altars and altar images, triumphs and apotheosis in painting, operas on mythological subjects, tragedy, heroic poem; theatrical performances - coronations, weddings, burials, etc.) side by side with chamber (still life in painting, pastoral and elegy in literature) and grassroots (comedy sideshows in opera and school drama) forms of the baroque. Life-likeness in baroque art often bordered on both spectacular theatricality (the motive of the world as a theater is typical for baroque) and complex symbolism: an object depicted in a realistic manner concealed a hidden meaning.
The term "baroque" arose in the 18th century among art historians close to classicism (I. Vikelman, F. Milizia); initially expressed a negative assessment of the Italian architecture of the 17th century, and later all the art of this period. The epithet "baroque" in the classical normative aesthetics served as a designation for everything that was outside the rules and was contrary to orderliness and classical clarity. In musicology, the term "baroque" (for the first time - in the "Musical Dictionary" by J. J. Rousseau, 1768) for a long time also had a negative meaning, fixing attention on certain "oddities" that fell out of the norms of classicism. One of the first historical interpretations of the baroque was given by J. Burckhardt (in the book "Il Cicerone", 1855), who defined the baroque style in connection with the Italian architecture of the late 16th century. The theory of the baroque as a style in the visual arts, different from the Renaissance and classicism, was formulated by G. Wölflin (Renaissance and Baroque, 1888; Basic Concepts of Art History, 1915), who singled out formal categories to distinguish between essentially opposite Renaissance styles and baroque. The idea of the baroque as a historical style was transferred to literature and music only at the beginning of the 20th century. The modern concept of the baroque tends to take it beyond the boundaries of art and literature, to transfer it to areas such as sociology, politics, history, religion and philosophy. Sometimes the concept of "baroque" is interpreted not in a specific historical sense, but as a designation of a set of stylistic features that are periodically repeated at various stages of cultural evolution (for example, elements of baroque stylistics are seen in romanticism, expressionism, surrealism, Latin American magical realism, etc.).
V.D.Dazhina, K.A.Chekalov, D.O. Chekhovich.
Architecture and fine arts... Certain features of the Baroque style (craving for the grandiose, dynamic composition, dramatic tension) appeared already in the 16th century in the works of Correggio, Michelangelo, G. da Vignola, F. Barocci, Giambologna. The heyday of the Baroque dates back to the 1620-30s, the final stage falls on the middle of the 18th century, and in some countries at the end of this century.
The idea of a triumphant church was embodied in the art of the Baroque, which contributed to the solution of large-scale architectural problems, the creation of majestic ensembles (the square in front of St.Peter's Cathedral in Rome, the rebuilding of the most important Roman basilicas, the Churrigueresco style in Spain, etc.), the flourishing of picturesque interior design and a representative altar painting. Organic for the baroque was the idea of the triumph of power, which was reflected in the art of the court baroque, characteristic not only of the centers of absolutism (France, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Russia, some states of Germany and Italy), but also of the republics that asserted their power ( Venice, Genoa).
The inherent baroque striving for splendor of forms, spectacular spectacle most clearly manifested itself in architecture. It was in the Baroque era that a new European urban planning was born, a type of modern house, street, square, and city manor was developed. In the countries of Latin America, the Baroque town-planning principles have determined the appearance of many cities. Palace and park ensembles (Versailles, Petrodvorets, Aranjuez, Zwinger, etc.) are developing, decorative and applied and small sculptural forms, landscape gardening are flourishing. Baroque architecture is characterized by a tendency towards the synthesis of arts, the emphasized interaction of volume with the spatial environment (the natural environment of the park, the openness of the architectural ensemble of the square), curvilinear plans and outlines, sculptural elasticity and plasticity of forms, contrasting play of light and shadow, different scales of volumes, illusionism (J. L. Bernini, F. Borromini, D. Fontana, Pietro da Cortona, K. Maderno, C. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longena, J. B. de Churriguera, G. Jesius, L. Vanvitelli, etc.) ... Painting and sculpture actively interact with architecture, transforming the interior space; stucco molding, various materials in their spectacular and colorful combinations (bronze, multi-colored marble, granite, alabaster, gilding, etc.) are widely used.
In the visual arts of the Baroque, virtuoso in performance decorative compositions of religious, mythological or allegorical content (plafonds by Pietro da Cortona, A. Pozzo, the Carracci brothers, P.P. Rubens, G. B. Tiepolo), spectacular theatrical ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, J.L. Bernini, G. Rigaud), fantastic (S. Rosa, A. Magnasco) and heroic (Domenichino) landscapes, as well as more chamber forms of portrait (Rubens), landscape and architectural lead (F. Guardi, J. A. Canaletto), pictorial parables (D. Fetti). Court life and its theatricalization contributed to the active development of representative forms of painting (decorative cycles of paintings in palace apartments, battle painting, mythological allegory, etc.). The perception of reality as an infinite and changeable space makes the painterly space boundless, which opens upward in spectacular ceiling compositions, goes deep into inventive architectural landscapes and theatrical scenery (scenography by B. Buontalenti, J.B. Aleotti, G. Torelli, J.L. Bernini, I. Jones, the Galli Bibbien family, and others). Perspective effects, spatial illusions, linear and compositional rhythms, contrast of scales violate integrity, give rise to a feeling of improvisation, free birth of forms, their variability. The primary role was played by optical effects, the fascination with the aerial perspective, the transfer of the atmosphere, transparency and humidity of the air (G. B. Tiepolo, F. Guardi, and others).
In the painting of the "high" baroque, oriented towards the so-called grand style, preference was given to the historical and mythological genres, which were then considered the highest in the genre hierarchy. In this era, the "lower" (in the terminology of that time) genres arose and developed fruitfully: still life, genre painting itself, landscape. The democratic direction of the Baroque, alien to theatricalization and affectation of feelings, manifested itself in realistic everyday scenes ("painters of reality" in France, representatives of caravaggism, the bodegones genre in Spain, everyday genre and still life in Holland and Flanders), non-church religious painting (J.M. Crespi, Rembrandt).
The Baroque style existed in many national variants, distinguished by their bright originality. For the Flemish Baroque, the most characteristic is the work of Rubens with his ability to convey the feeling of the fullness of life, its internal dynamics and variability by means of pictorial means. Spanish Baroque is distinguished by a more restrained and ascetic style combined with an orientation towards local realistic traditions (D. Velazquez, F. Zurbaran, J. de Ribera, architect JB de Herrera). In Germany (architects and sculptors B. von Neumann, A. Schlüter, the Azam brothers, and others) and Austria (architects I.B. Fischer von Erlach and I.L. von Hildebrandt), the Baroque style was often combined with Rococo features. In French art, the Baroque retains a Renaissance rationalistic basis, and later actively interacts with classicist elements (the so-called baroque classicism). Certain stylistic features of the Baroque were manifested in the emphasized decorativeism of the buildings of the state rooms of Versailles, decorative panels by S. Vouet and C. Lebrun. England, with its characteristic cult of classical forms and Palladianism (J. Jones, C. Wren), has mastered a more restrained version of the Baroque style (mainly in decorative painting and interior design). In restrained, ascetic forms, the style manifested itself in some Protestant countries (Holland, Sweden, etc.). In Russia, the development of the Baroque style falls on the 18th century (flourishing - 1740-50s), which was associated with the growth and strengthening of the absolute monarchy. The earlier period, defined as the Naryshkin Baroque, is closely related to the traditions of the architecture of Ancient Rus and has no direct relation to the Baroque style. The originality of the Russian baroque was determined not only by the stability of national traditions and forms, but also by the interaction of baroque features with classicism and rococo (sculptor K.B. Rastrelli, architects B.F.Rastrelli, S.I. Chevakinsky, D.V. Ukhtomsky). National variants of the Baroque style emerged in Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Western Ukraine, Lithuania. The centers of the spread of the baroque were not only European countries, but also a number of Latin American countries (especially Mexico and Brazil, where the baroque acquired hypertrophied features in the ultra-baroque forms), as well as the Philippines and other Spanish colonies.
V.D.Dazhin.
Literature... The early manifestations of the Baroque in literature, which remain close to Mannerism, date back to the last quarter of the 16th century: the tragedy of R. Garnier "Hippolyte" (1573), "Tragic Poems" by T.A. d'Aubigne (created in 1577-79 , published in 1616), T. Tasso's poem "Jerusalem Liberated" (1581). The style fades away in the second half of the 17th century (the founding of the Arcadia Academy in 1690 is considered the chronological border of the Baroque for Italy), however, it continues to be retained in Slavic literature even in the Age of Enlightenment.
Form-creative experimental beginning, craving for novelty, for the unusual and unusual in Baroque literature are associated with the formation of the new European picture of the world and are largely generated by the same renewal of cognitive paradigms as scientific and geographical discoveries at the turn of the 16-17 centuries. The influence of new European empiricism is reflected in the active use by writers of life-like and even naturalistic forms (not only in prose, but also in poetry), which, according to the law of contrast, are combined with the hyperbolism of style and the cosmism of the figurative system (J. Marino's poem "Adonis", published in 1623) ...
The most important component of the baroque is the striving for diversity (Latin "varietas"), which was considered as one of the criteria for the artistic perfection of poetry (including the baroque by Gracian and Morales, E. Tesauro, Tristan L 'Hermit and especially J.P. Camus, the creator of the monumental 11-volume work "Variegated mixture", 1609-19). Comprehensiveness, the desire to summarize knowledge about the world (taking into account the latest discoveries and inventions) are the characteristic features of the Baroque. In other cases, encyclopedism turns into chaos, collecting curiosities; the sequence of the survey of the universe takes on an extremely whimsical, individually associative character; the world appears as a labyrinth of words, a set of mysterious signs (treatise of the Jesuit E. Binet "Experience of Miracles", 1621). Books of emblems are widely popular as universal collections of various kinds of truths and ideas about the world: the influence of emblems is felt in the poetry of G. Marino, F. von Tsesen, J. Morsztyn, Simeon of Polotsk, in the novel by B. Gracian-i-Morales "Criticon" (1651-57 years).
Baroque literature is characterized by the desire to study being in its contrasts (darkness and light, flesh and spirit, time and eternity, life and death), in its dynamics and at various levels (pendulum movement between the levels of social hierarchy in H. von Grimmelshausen's novel “ Simplicissimus ", 1668-1669). Baroque poetics is marked by increased attention to the symbols of the night (A. Griffius, G. Marino), the theme of the transitory and impermanence of the world (B. Pascal, J. Duperron, L. de Gongora-y-Argote), dream life (F. de Quevedo-i -Villegas, P. Calderon de la Barca). In baroque texts, the ecclesiastical formula of "the vanity of the world" (Latin vanitas mundi) is often heard. Ecstaticity, a spiritual beginning often merge with a morbid fascination with death (the treatise by J. Donne "Biotanatos", published in 1644; poetry by J. B. Chassigne). Both stoic indifference to suffering (A. Griffius) and sublimated eroticism (F. Deport, T. Carew) can become a recipe against this fascination. The tragedy of the Baroque partly has a socio-historical determinism (wars in France, Germany, etc.).
Marked by stylistic sophistication and saturated with rhetorical figures (repetitions, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons, etc.), baroque poetry developed within the framework of national variants: gongorism and conceptism (in which the deliberate semantic obscurity inherent in the baroque was expressed with particular force) in Spain, marineism in Italy, the metaphysical school and eufuism in England. Spiritual poems (P. Fleming, J. Herbert, J. Lubrano) occupy an important place in baroque poetry along with works of a secular, court and salon (V. Vuatur) character. The most popular genres are sonnet, epigram, madrigal, satire, religious and heroic poem, etc.
The genre of the novel is extremely significant for the Western European Baroque; it is in this genre of baroque that it most fully reveals itself as an international style: thus, the Latin-language novel by G. Barclay "Argenida" (1621) becomes a model for narrative prose throughout Western Europe. Along with the real-life and satirical modifications of the baroque novel (C. Sorel, P. Scarron, A. Fuuretier, I. Mosheroche), its gallant and heroic variety (J. de Scuderi and M. de Scuderi, G. Marini, D.K. von Lohenstein). The so-called high baroque novel attracted readers not only with its intricate twists and turns, an abundance of literary and political allusions and an ingenious combination of "romantic" and cognitive beginnings, but also with its significant volume, which can be considered one of the manifestations of the baroque "poetics of amazement", striving to embrace the world in everything its whimsical variety. In terms of structural features, the religious novel of the Baroque is close to the gallant-heroic (J.P. Camus, A.J. Brignolet Sale).
Dramatic genres, both secular (Elizabethan drama in England, pastoral tragicomedy, "new comedy" in Spain), and religious (Spanish auto, biblical dramas by J. van den Vondel) occupy an important place in the Baroque culture, marked by increased theatricality. The early dramaturgy of P. Corneille also belongs to the baroque; his "Comic Illusion" (1635-36) is an encyclopedia of theatrical genres of the 16-17 centuries.
Baroque literature, following the mannerist literature, tends to genre experiments and a mixture of genres (the emergence of the essay genre, heroic and burlesque poems, tragicomedy opera). The Simplicissimus by H. von Grimmelshausen combines elements of rogue, allegorical, utopian, pastoral novels, as well as the style of schwanks and popular prints. The scholarly Christian epic Paradise Lost by J. Milton (1667-74) also includes a number of small genres - ode, hymn, pastoral eclogue, georgica, epithalamus, complaint, alba, etc.
A characteristic feature of the Baroque, which is paradoxically combined with a tendency towards abnormality, is a tendency towards theoretical self-reflection: the treatises "Wit and the art of a sophisticated mind" by B. Gracian-y-Morales (1642-48), "Aristotle's telescope" by E. Tesauro (published in 1655). A number of Baroque novels include a literary and aesthetic commentary: The Wild Shepherd by S. Sorel (1627), The Dog of Diogenes by F. F. Frugoni (1687-89); Assenat by F. von Zesen (1670).
In the Slavic countries, baroque has a number of features that make it possible to speak of "Slavic baroque" as a special modification of the style (the term was proposed in 1961 by A. Andyal). In a number of cases, it is perceived as a secondary in relation to Western European models (J. Morsztyn as the successor of marineism in Polish poetry), however, the first Polish poetics of M.K. Gracian y Morales and E. Tesauro. The highest achievements of the Slavic Baroque are associated with poetry (philosophical and love lyrics in Poland, religious poetry in the Czech Republic). In the Russian literary baroque, a tragic attitude is less pronounced, it is characterized by a ceremonial, state pathos, an enlightenment principle, strongly expressed by the founder of the poetic baroque in Russia Simeon Polotsky, his student Sylvester (Medvedev) and Karion Istomin. In the 18th century, the Baroque traditions were supported by Feofan Prokopovich and Stefan Yavorsky; the narrative structures of the baroque novel are used in Masonic prose ("Cadmus and Harmony" by M. M. Kheraskov, 1786).
K. A. Chekalov.
Music... The Baroque style prevailed in European professional music of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century. The boundaries of the Baroque era, as well as the traditional division into the stages of the early (1st half of the 17th century), mature (2nd half of the 17th century) and late (1st half of the 18th century) baroque, are rather arbitrary, since the baroque was established in music different countries at the same time. In Italy, baroque made itself felt at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, that is, about 2 decades earlier than in Germany, and it penetrated into Russian music only in the last quarter of the 17th century due to the spread of partisan singing.
In the modern view of the baroque, it is a complex style that unites diverse manners of composition and performance, that is, the actual “styles” in the understanding of musical theorists of the 17-18 centuries (“church”, “theatrical”, “concert”, “chamber”), styles of national schools and individual composers. The diversity of baroque music is clearly manifested when comparing such stylistically distant compositions as operas by F. Cavalli and G. Purcell, polyphonic cycles by G. Frescobaldi and violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, Sacred Symphonies by G. Schutz and oratorios by G. F. Handel. They, however, show a significant degree of commonality when compared with examples of Renaissance music from the 16th century and with the classical style of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. As in the preceding musical-historical epochs, the musical in the Baroque is closely connected with the non-musical (in a word, number, dance movement); however, a new phenomenon also arises - the isolation of purely musical methods of organization, which made possible the flourishing of the genres of instrumental music.
The era of the Baroque in music is often called the era of the general bass, thus marking the widespread and important role of this system of composing, recording and performing music. The possibility of different decoding of the general-bass testifies to the specificity of baroque compositions - their fundamental variability and significant dependence on a specific performing embodiment, in which performers (as a rule, in the absence of detailed author's instructions in the musical text) have to determine the tempo, dynamic nuances, instrumentation, possibility the use of melodic embellishments, and so on, up to the significant role of improvisation in a number of genres (for example, in the "untactivated" preludes of the 17th century French harpsichordists L. Couperin, N. Lebesgue, etc., in the cadenzas of soloists in instrumental concerts of the 18th century, in reprise sections of da capo).
Baroque is the first style in the history of European music with the obvious dominance of the major-minor tonal system (see Harmony, Tonality). It was within the framework of the baroque that homophony first declared itself (the division of musical texture into the main melodic voice and accompaniment). At the same time, the free style of polyphony and its highest form, the fugue, took shape and reached its peak (in the works of J.S. Bach); in baroque music, a mixed type of texture is used, combining elements of polyphony and homophony. It was at this time that an individualized musical theme was formed. As a rule, a baroque musical theme consists of a bright initial intonation nucleus, followed by a more or less prolonged unfolding, leading to a short end - cadence. Baroque themes, as well as whole compositions, are characterized by a much greater metro-rhythmic freedom in comparison with classical ones, based on a rather rigid song and dance framework.
In the Baroque era, music expanded its expressive possibilities, especially in an effort to convey the diversity of human emotional experiences; they were presented in the form of generalized emotional states - affects (see Affects theory). However, the main task of music in the Baroque era was considered to be the glorification of God. Therefore, in the genre hierarchy recorded in the theoretical treatises of that time, the primacy was invariably assigned to the genres of church music. However, in practice, secular music has proven to be equally important, especially in the field of musical theater. It was in the Baroque era that the most important musical stage genre, opera, took shape and passed through a very long period of its history, the degree of spread and development of which was in many ways an indicator of the level of musical culture of a particular country. Venice (late C. Monteverdi, F. Cavalli, M.A.Chesty), Rome (S. Landi), Naples (A. Scarlatti), Hamburg (German operas by R. Kaiser, G.F . Handel), Vienna (Honor, A. Caldara, I. J. Fuchs), Paris (J. B. Lully, J. F. Rameau), London (G. Purcell, Handel's Italian operas). Both new vocal genres (oratorio and cantata) and traditional genres of church music (in late Baroque masses, motets, passions, and so on, operatic forms were actively used: aria, duet, recitative) were influenced by opera. The stylistic differences between church and secular music became less and less significant, which made it possible to use the same musical material in both secular and church compositions (numerous examples are in the works of J.S.Bach).
The Baroque era was the culmination of organ art, which was actively developing in the Netherlands (J.P. Sweelink), Italy (J. Frescobaldi), France (F. Couperin, L. Marchand), but most of all in the Protestant lands of Germany, where they worked with Scheidt, I. Pachelbel, D. Buxtehude, J. S. Bach. Many genres associated with religious symbolism and designed to be performed in the church (fantasy, toccata, prelude, fugue, choral variations, and so on), had, however, not a liturgical, but a concert purpose. Other genres of instrumental music were also actively used: triosonata (A. Corelli, G.F. Telemann, etc.), a dance suite for various compositions - from harpsichord or solo violin to large ensembles (F. F. Handel and others), a concert for a solo instrument and orchestra (A. Vivaldi, J.S.Bach and others), a concert grosso (Corelli, Handel). In the Concerto Grosso (an ensemble-orchestral concert with a group of soloists), the characteristic qualities of the Baroque were clearly manifested - the active use of the principle of concert, contrasting comparisons of sound masses of different density (many vocal compositions of the Baroque era have similar qualities, including the so-called sacred concerts, which received a special spread in Russia at the end of 17-18 centuries).
The connection with rhetoric is expressed both in the general principles of the arrangement of musical material, and in the use of specific melodic-rhythmic turns with established semantics - the so-called musical-rhetorical figures, which in vocal music strengthened the meaning of the verbal text, and in instrumental music - to a certain extent allowed “ decipher "figurative content (however, to reveal the content F. Couperin, J. F. Rameau, G. F. Telemann, instrumental compositions were often given characteristic names, and I. Froberger, I. Kuhnau, A. Vivaldi even accompanied them with detailed literary programs ). However, instrumental music devoid of word support, which in many respects retained its applied functions (dance, drinking, etc.), gradually acquired an aesthetic value in itself, turning into concert music itself.
Elements of the Baroque style were also used in the music of the classical period (up to L. van Beethoven), and later in the neoclassicism of the 20th century (by I.F. Stravinsky, P. Hindemith). In the performance of baroque music, historical musical instruments (authentic or their exact copies) are increasingly used, the acoustic conditions specific to it, the performing principles of the era, recorded in musical theoretical treatises and literary and artistic monuments of the 17-18 centuries (see Authentic Performance), are being recreated.
Yu.S. Bocharov.
Lit .: General work. Schnürer G. Katholische Kirche und Kultur in der Barockzeit. Paderborn, 1937; Retorica e Barocco. Roma, 1955; Die Kunstformen des Barockzeitalters / Hrsg. von R. Stamm. Bern, 1956; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the 15th-17th centuries. M., 1966; Baroque in Slavic cultures. M., 1982; Croce B. Storia dell 'età barocca in Italia. Mil. 1993; Paul J.-M. Images modernes et contemporaines de l 'homme baroque. Nancy 1997; Battistini A. Il barocco: cultura, miti, immagini. Roma, 2000; Welflin G. Renaissance and Baroque: A Study of the Essence and Formation of the Baroque Style in Italy. SPb., 2004.
Architecture and fine arts.
Riegl A. Die Entstehung der Barockkunst in Rom. W., 1908; Weisbach W. Der Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation. B., 1921; idem. Die Kunst des Barock in Italien, Frankreich, Deutschland und Spanien. 2. Aufl. B., 1929; Male E. L 'art religieux après le concile de Trente. P., 1932; Fokker T. H. Roman Baroque art. The history of the style. L., 1938. Vol. 1-2; Praz M. Studies in seventeenth century imagery: In 2 vol. S. 1., 1939-1947; Mahon D. Studies in seicento art and theory. L., 1947; Friedrich C. J. The age of Baroque, 1610-1660. N. Y. 1952; Argan G. C. L 'architettura barocca in Italia. Rome, 1960; Battisti E. Renaiscimento e barocco. Firenze, 1960; Bialostocki J. Barock: Stil, Epoche, Haltung // Bialostocki J. Stil und Ikonographie. Dresden, 1966; Keleman P. Baroque and Rococo in Latin America. N. Y. 1967; Rotenberg E. I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; Held J.S., Posner D. 17th and 18th century art: baroque painting, sculpture, architecture. N. Y. 1971; Russian baroque art. M., 1977; Vipper B. Architecture of the Russian Baroque. M., 1978; Voss H. Die Malerei des Barock in Rom. S. F., 1997; The triumph of baroque: architecture in Europe, 1600-1750 / Ed. H. Millon. N. Y. 1999; Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. M., 2001.
Literature. Raymond M. Baroque et renaissance poétique. P., 1955; Getto G. Barocco in prosa e in poesia. Mil. 1969; Sokolowska J. Spory about barok. Warsz., 1971; Dubois Cl. G. Le Baroque. P., 1973; Slavic baroque. M., 1979; Emrich W. Deutsche Literatur der Barockzeit. Königstein, 1981; Questionnement du baroque. Louvain; Brux. 1986; Identità e metamorfosi del barocco ispanico. Napoli 1987; Hoffmeister G. Deutsche und europäische Barockliteratur. Stuttg. 1987; Souiller D. La littérature baroque en Europe. P., 1988; Le ba- roque litteraire: théorie et pratiques. P., 1990; Pavih M. Barok. Beograd, 1991; Sazonova L.I. Poetry of the Russian Baroque (second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries). M., 1991; KuchowiczZ. Czlowiek polskiego baroku. Lodz 1992; Baroque in the avant-garde - avant-garde in the baroque. M., 1993; Mikhailov A.V. Poetics of the Baroque: the end of the rhetorical era // Mikhailov A.B. Languages of culture. M., 1997; Genette J. On a Baroque Narrative // Figures. M., 1998. T. 1; Hernas Cz. Barok. Warsz. 1998; Silyunas V.Yu. Lifestyle and Art Styles: (Spanish Mannerist and Baroque Theater). SPb., 2000; D 'Ors E. Lo Barocco. Madrid, 2002; Rousset J. La littérature de l âge baroque en France: Circé et le paon. P., 2002.
Music. Bukofzer M. Music in the Baroque era from Monteverdi to Bach. N. Y. 1947; Clercx S. Le baroque et la musique. Brux. 1948; Le baroque musical. Recueil d 'études sur la musique. Liège, 1964; Dammann R. Der Musikbegriff im deutschen Barock. Köln, 1967; Blume F. Renaissance and Baroque music. A comprehensive survey. N. Y. 1967; idem. Barock // Epochen der Musikgeschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. Kassel, 1974; Stricker R. Musique du baroque. ; Stefani G. Musica barocca. Mil. 1974; Livanova T.N. Western European music of the 17th-18th centuries among the arts. M., 1977; Raaben L. Baroque music // Questions of musical style. L., 1978; Braun W. Die Musik des 17. Jahrhunderts. Laaber, 1981; Donington R. Baroque music: style and performance. N.Y. 1982; Palisca C. V. Baroque Music. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1991; Baron J.H. Baroque music: a research and information guide. N. Y. 1992; Lobanova M. Western European Musical Baroque: Problems of Aesthetics and Poetics. M., 1994; Anderson N. Baroque music from Monteverdi to Handel. L., 1994.