Crimean war reasons and results. Crimean War

The Crimean War responded to the old dream of Nicholas I to gain possession of the Black Sea straits by Russia, which Catherine the Great had dreamed of. This contradicted the plans of the Great European Powers, which intended to oppose Russia and help the Ottomans in the coming war.

The main reasons for the Crimean War

The history of the Russian-Turkish wars is incredibly debt and controversial, however, the Crimean War is perhaps the brightest page in this history. There were many reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, but they all agreed on one thing: Russia sought to destroy the dying empire, and Turkey opposed this and was going to use hostilities to suppress the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples. The plans of London and Paris did not include strengthening Russia, so they hoped to weaken it, at best separating Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia. In addition, the French still remembered the humiliating defeat of the war with the Russians during the reign of Napoleon.

Rice. 1. Map of military operations of the Crimean War.

When Emperor Napoleon III ascended the throne, Nicholas I did not consider him a legitimate ruler, since after the Patriotic War and the Foreign Campaign, the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from possible contenders for the throne in France. The Russian emperor in his congratulatory letter addressed Napoleon as “my friend”, and not “my brother”, as etiquette demanded. It was a personal slap in the face of one emperor to another.

Rice. 2. Portrait of Nicholas I.

Briefly about the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, we will collect information in the table.

The immediate reason for the hostilities was the question of controlling the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem. The Turkish sultan handed over the keys to the Catholics, thereby insulting Nicholas I, which led to the outbreak of hostilities through the introduction of Russian troops into the territory of Moldova.

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Rice. 3. Portrait of Admiral Nakhimov, a participant in the Crimean War.

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War

Russia took an unequal battle in the Crimean (or as it was published in the Western press - Eastern) war. But this was not the only reason for the future defeat.

The Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Russian soldiers. Russia fought with dignity and was able to achieve the maximum during this war, although it lost it.

Another reason for the defeat was the diplomatic isolation of Nicholas I. He led a vivid imperialist policy, which caused irritation and hatred from his neighbors.

Despite the heroism of the Russian soldier and some officers, theft took place among the highest ranks. A striking example of this is AS Menshikov, who was nicknamed "the traitor."

An important reason is the military and technical backwardness of Russia from European countries. So, when sailing ships were still in service in Russia, the French and English fleets were already using the steam fleet in full, which showed its best side during the calm. Allied soldiers used rifled guns that fired more accurately and farther than the Russian smoothbore. The situation was similar in artillery.

The classic reason was the low development of the level of infrastructure. Railways did not yet lead to Crimea, and spring thaws killed the road system, which reduced the supply of the army.

The result of the war was the Peace of Paris, according to which Russia did not have the right to have a navy in the Black Sea, and also lost its protectorate over the Danube principalities and returned Southern Bessarabia to Turkey.

What have we learned?

Although the Crimean War was lost, it showed Russia the paths of future development and pointed out weaknesses in the economy, military affairs, and the social sphere. There was a patriotic upsurge throughout the country, and the heroes of Sevastopol were made national heroes.

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Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged an intense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi treaty was concluded with Turkey. On it, the straits were closed for foreign warships, and Russia received the right to freely send its warships through them. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits came under international control for the first time and were closed to all navies. As a result, the Russian fleet was trapped in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Saints.
places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church was supported by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between the two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused a sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. Prince A. Mesnshikov, a special representative of the tsar, was sent to Constantinople. He was entrusted with obtaining privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to yield to the pressure of Russia, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only exacerbated the conflict situation. Thus, it would seem private, but important for that time, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute about the Holy Places became the reason for the emergence of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the all-European war.

Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the might of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smoothbore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. Artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European naval forces were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no well-established communications. This did not allow the theater of operations to be provided with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food. human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight a similar Turkish army, but could not resist the united forces of Europe.

The course of hostilities

To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria has adopted a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages

First: the actual Russian-Turkish campaign - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854 Second (April 1854 - February 1856): Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral PS Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and suppressed the coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. An Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacking Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land an expeditionary corps in the region of Evpatoria. Battle of the Alma River in September

1854 Russian troops lost. By order of the commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and withdrew to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for the defense. It was headed by V. A. Kornilov and P. S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854 the allies laid siege to Sevastopol. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. Especially famous were admirals V.L. Kornilov, P. S. Nakhimov and V. I. Istomin, military engineer E. I. Totleben, lieutenant general of artillery S. A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle at Inksrman (November 1854), the attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied forces, however, finding there some ruins, they returned to their positions.

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855 the Turkish fortress of Kars fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the forces of the allies in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Paris world

At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia has not suffered significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from it. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad outcome of Nikolaev's rule, shook the entire Russian public and made the government come to grips with reforming the state.

	Crimea, Balkans, Caucasus, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Far East
	Coalition victory; Treaty of Paris (1856)
Changes:	Annexation of a small part of Bessarabia to the Ottoman Empire
Opponents
French empire	Russian empire
Ottoman Empire	Megrelian principality
British empire
Sardinian kingdom
Commanders
Napoleon III	Nicholas I †
Armand Jacques Achille Leroy de Saint-Arnault †	Alexander II
Francois Sertin Canrobert	Gorchakov M.D.
Jean-Jacques Pelissier	Paskevich I.F. †
Abdul-Majid I	Nakhimov P.S. †
Abdul Kerim Nadir Pasha	Totleben E. I.
Omer Pasha	Menshikov A.S.
Victoria	Vorontsov M.S.
James Cardigan	Muravyov N.N.
Fitzroy Somerset Raglan †	Istomin V.I. †
Sir Thomas James Harper	Kornilov V.A. †
Sir Edmund Lyons	Zavoiko V.S.
Sir James Simpson	Andronikov I.M.
David Powell Price †	Ekaterina Chavchavadze-Dadiani
William John Codrington	Grigory Levanovich Dadiani
Victor Emmanuel II
Alfonso Ferrero Lamarmor
Forces of the parties
France - 309,268	Russia - 700 thousand
Ottoman Empire - 165 thousand	Bulgarian brigade - 3000
Great Britain - 250,864	Greek Legion - 800
Sardinia - 21 thousand
German Brigade - 4250
German Brigade - 4250
Slavic Legion - 1400 Cossacks
France - 97,365 deaths from wounds and diseases; 39,818 wounded	Russia - an estimated 143 thousand dead: 25 thousand killed 16 thousand died of wounds 89 thousand died from disease
Ottoman Empire - 45,300 dead from wounds and diseases
Great Britain - 22,602 deaths from wounds and diseases; 18,253 wounded
Sardinia - 2,194 deaths; 167 wounded

Crimean War 1853-1856, same Eastern war- a war between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Sardinian kingdom, on the other. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, Azov, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. They reached the greatest tension in the Crimea.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline, and only direct military assistance from Russia, England, France and Austria allowed the Sultan to twice prevent the capture of Constantinople by the rebellious vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt. In addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples continued for liberation from the Ottoman yoke. These factors led to the emergence of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s of thoughts on the separation of the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from the Transcaucasus. The emperor of France Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

During a diplomatic conflict with France over control of the Church of the Nativity of Christ in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldova and Wallachia, which were under Russian protectorate under the terms of the Adrianople Peace Treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw his troops led to the declaration on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France on March 15 (27), 1854, war against Russia.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the allies managed, using the technical backwardness of the Russian troops and the indecision of the Russian command, to concentrate quantitatively and qualitatively superior forces of the army and navy on the Black Sea, which allowed them to make a successful landing in the Crimea of ​​the landing corps, inflict a number of defeats on the Russian army, and after a year siege to capture the southern part of Sevastopol - the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. The Sevastopol Bay, the location of the Russian fleet, remained under Russian control. On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Turkish army and capture Kars. However, the threat of Austria and Prussia joining the war forced the Russians to accept the terms of peace imposed by the allies. The Paris Peace Treaty, signed in 1856, demanded that Russia return to the Ottoman Empire everything captured in southern Bessarabia, at the mouth of the Danube River and in the Caucasus; the empire was forbidden to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, proclaimed as neutral waters; Russia stopped military construction in the Baltic Sea, and much more. At the same time, the goals of severing significant territories from Russia were not achieved. The terms of the treaty reflected a virtually equal course of hostilities, when the allies, despite all their efforts and heavy losses, could not advance beyond the Crimea, and were defeated in the Caucasus.

Preconditions for the conflict

Weakening of the Ottoman Empire

In the 1820s and 1830s, the Ottoman Empire suffered a series of blows that called into question the very existence of the country. The Greek uprising, which began in the spring of 1821, exposed both the domestic political and military weakness of Turkey, and led to terrible atrocities on the part of the Turkish troops. The dispersal of the Janissary corps in 1826 was an undoubted boon in the long term, but in the short term it deprived the country of the army. In 1827, the combined Anglo-French-Russian fleet at the Battle of Navarino destroyed almost the entire Ottoman fleet. In 1830, after a 10-year war of independence and the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, Greece became independent. According to the Adrianople Peace Treaty, which ended the war between Russia and Turkey, Russian and foreign ships received the right to freely pass through the Black Sea straits, Serbia became autonomous, and the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) passed under the protectorate of Russia.

Taking advantage of the moment, in 1830 France occupied Algeria, and in 1831 its most powerful vassal, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, broke away from the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman troops were defeated in a number of battles, and the inevitability of the capture of Istanbul by the Egyptians forced Sultan Mahmud II to accept military assistance from Russia. The 10-thousandth corps of Russian troops, landed on the shores of the Bosphorus in 1833, prevented the capture of Istanbul, and with it, probably, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

The Unkar-Iskelesi treaty concluded as a result of this expedition, favorable for Russia, provided for a military alliance between the two countries in the event that one of them was attacked. A secret additional article of the treaty allowed Turkey not to send troops, but demanded the closure of the Bosphorus for ships of any countries (except Russia).

In 1839, the situation repeats itself - Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the incompleteness of his control over Syria, resumes hostilities. In the battle of Nizib on June 24, 1839, the Ottoman troops were again utterly defeated. The Ottoman Empire was saved by the intervention of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia, who signed a convention in London on July 15, 1840, which guaranteed Muhammad Ali and his descendants the right to inherit power in Egypt in exchange for the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Syria and Lebanon and the recognition of formal subordination to the Ottoman sultan. After Muhammad Ali refused to obey the requirements of the convention, the combined Anglo-Austrian fleet blocked the Nile delta, bombarded Beirut and took Acre by storm. On November 27, 1840, Muhammad Ali accepted the terms of the London Convention.

On July 13, 1841, after the expiration of the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, under pressure from the European powers, the London Convention on the Straits (1841) was signed, which deprived Russia of the right to block the entry of warships of third countries into the Black Sea in case of war. This opened the way for the fleets of Great Britain and France to the Black Sea in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict and was an important prerequisite for the Crimean War.

The intervention of the European powers, thus, twice saved the Ottoman Empire from collapse, but led to the loss of its independence in foreign policy. The British Empire and the French Empire were interested in preserving the Ottoman Empire, for which the appearance of Russia in the Mediterranean was not profitable. Austria feared the same.

Growth of anti-Russian sentiment in Europe

An essential prerequisite for the conflict was that in Europe (including the Kingdom of Greece), there was an increase in anti-Russian sentiment since the 1840s.

The Western press emphasized Russia's desire to seize Constantinople. In reality, Nicholas I did not initially set the goal of annexing any Balkan territories to Russia. Nicholas' conservative and protective principles of foreign policy dictated to him restraint in encouraging the national movements of the Balkan peoples, which aroused the discontent of the Russian Slavophiles.

Great Britain

Great Britain in 1838 concluded a free trade agreement with Turkey, which granted Great Britain the most favored nation treatment and exempted the import of British goods from customs duties and taxes. As the historian I. Wallerstein points out, this led to the collapse of Turkish industry and to the fact that Turkey found itself in economic and political dependence on Great Britain. Therefore, unlike the previous Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), when Great Britain, like Russia, supported the liberation war of the Greeks and Greece's independence, now it was not interested in separating any territories from the Ottoman Empire, which was actually a dependent state and an important market for English goods.

The dependent position in which the Ottoman Empire found itself in relation to Great Britain during this period is illustrated by a cartoon in the London magazine Punch (1856). The picture shows an English soldier saddling one Turk and holding another on a leash.

In addition, Great Britain was concerned about the expansion of Russia in the Caucasus, the strengthening of its influence in the Balkans and feared its possible advance into Central Asia. In general, she viewed Russia as her geopolitical adversary, against whom the so-called. The Great Game (in accordance with the terminology adopted by the then diplomats and modern historians), and was fought by all available means - political, economic and military.

For these reasons, Great Britain sought to prevent any increase in Russian influence in Ottoman affairs. On the eve of the war, she increased diplomatic pressure on Russia in order to dissuade her from any attempts to divide the Ottoman Empire territorially. At the same time, Britain declared its interests in Egypt, which "do not go further than providing prompt and reliable communications with India."

France

In France, a significant part of society supported the idea of ​​revenge for defeat in the Napoleonic wars and was ready to take part in the war against Russia, provided that England would take their side.

Austria

Since the Vienna Congress, Russia and Austria have been members of the Holy Alliance, the main purpose of which was to prevent revolutionary situations in Europe.

In the summer of 1849, at the request of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I, the Russian army under the command of Ivan Paskevich took part in the suppression of the Hungarian National Revolution.

After all this, Nicholas I counted on Austria's support in the Eastern question:

But Russian-Austrian cooperation could not eliminate the contradictions that existed between the two countries. Austria, as before, was frightened by the prospect of the emergence of independent states in the Balkans, probably friendly to Russia, whose very existence would cause the growth of national liberation movements in the multinational Austrian empire.

Immediate causes of war

The prelude to the war was the conflict between Nicholas I and Napoleon III, who came to power in France after the coup on December 2, 1851. Nicholas I considered the new French emperor illegitimate, since the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French succession to the throne by the Congress of Vienna. To demonstrate his position, Nicholas I, in a congratulatory telegram, addressed Napoleon III “Monsieur mon ami” (“dear friend”), instead of the “Monsieur mon frère” (“dear brother”) allowed under the protocol. This liberty was seen as a public insult to the new French emperor.

Aware of the fragility of his power, Napoleon III wanted to divert the attention of the French with the then popular war against Russia and at the same time satisfy the feeling of personal irritation against Emperor Nicholas I. arena, in particular in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity of Christ in Bethlehem, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and, directly, with Russia. At the same time, the French referred to the treaty with the Ottoman Empire from 1740, which gave France the right to control the Christian holy places in Palestine, and Russia - to the decree of the Sultan of 1757, which restored the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine, and the Kuchuk-Kaynardzhi peace treaty of 1774, which gave Russia has the right to defend the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

France demanded that the keys to the church (which at the time belonged to the Orthodox community) be given to the Catholic clergy. Russia demanded that the keys remain with the Orthodox community. Both sides backed up their words with threats. The Ottomans, unable to refuse, promised to fulfill both the French and Russian demands. When this trick, typical of Ottoman diplomacy, was discovered, in the late summer of 1852, France, in violation of the London Convention on the Status of the Straits of July 13, 1841, brought an 80-gun ship of the line under the walls of Istanbul " Charlemagne". In early December 1852, the keys to the Church of the Nativity of Christ were handed over to France. In response, Russian Chancellor Nesselrode, on behalf of Nicholas I, declared that Russia "will not tolerate the insult received from the Ottoman Empire ... vis pacem, para bellum!" (lat. if you want peace, prepare for war!) The concentration of the Russian army began on the border with Moldova and Wallachia.

In private correspondence, Nesselrode gave pessimistic forecasts - in particular, in a letter to the Russian envoy in London Brunnov of January 2, 1853, he predicted that in this conflict Russia would fight against the whole world alone and without allies, since Prussia was indifferent to this issue, Austria would be neutral or sympathetic to the Port. Moreover, Britain will join France to assert its maritime power, because “in a remote theater of operations, apart from the soldiers needed for the landing, it will require mainly naval forces to open the Straits, after which the combined fleets of Britain, France and Turkey will quickly end the Russian fleet on the Black Sea ".

Nicholas I counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Britain and France impossible. However, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen, fearing the strengthening of Russia, went to an agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia.

On February 11, 1853, Prince Menshikov was sent to Turkey as ambassador, demanding the recognition of the rights of the Church of Greece to holy places in Palestine and granting Russia protection over 12 million Christians in the Ottoman Empire, which made up about a third of the entire Ottoman population. All this had to be formalized in the form of a contract.

In March 1853, upon learning of Menshikov's demands, Napoleon III sent a French squadron to the Aegean Sea.

On April 5, 1853, Stratford-Redcliffe, the new British ambassador, arrived in Constantinople. He persuaded the Ottoman sultan to meet Russian demands, but only partially, promising support for England in case of war. As a result, Abdul-Majid I issued a firman (decree) on the inviolability of the rights of the Greek Church to holy places. But he refused to conclude a protection agreement with the Russian emperor. On May 21, 1853 Menshikov left Constantinople.

On June 1, the Russian government issued a memorandum on severing diplomatic relations with Turkey.

After that, Nicholas I ordered the Russian troops (80 thousand) to occupy the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia subordinate to the Sultan "as a pledge, until Turkey satisfies the just demands of Russia." In turn, the British government ordered the Mediterranean squadron to go to the Aegean Sea.

This provoked a protest from the Porte, which, in turn, led to the fact that a conference of plenipotentiaries of England, France, Austria and Prussia was convened in Vienna. The result of the conference was Vienna note, a compromise for all parties, requiring Russia to evacuate from Moldova and Wallachia, but giving Russia the nominal right to protect the Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.

The Vienna note allowed Russia to get out of the situation without losing face and was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected by the Ottoman sultan, who hoped for the military support of Britain promised by Stratford-Redcliffe. Porta proposed various changes to the mentioned note. These changes were not approved by the Russian sovereign.

Trying to use the opportunity to "teach a lesson" to Russia with the hands of the Western allies, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul-Majid I on September 27 (October 9) demanded the cleansing of the Danube principalities within two weeks, and after Russia did not fulfill this condition, on October 4 (16), 1853 announced War on Russia. On October 20 (November 1), Russia replied with a similar statement.

Objectives of Russia

Russia sought to secure its southern borders, secure its influence in the Balkans and establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, which was important both from a military and economic point of view. Nicholas I, realizing that he was a great Orthodox monarch, strove to continue the work of liberating the Orthodox peoples under the rule of Ottoman Turkey. However, despite the existence of plans for decisive military operations, providing for landings in the Black Sea straits and Turkish ports, a plan was adopted that provided only for the occupation of the Danube principalities by Russian troops. According to this plan, Russian troops were not supposed to cross the Danube and had to avoid clashes with the Turkish army. It was believed that such a "peaceful military" show of force would force the Turks to accept Russian demands.

Russian historiography emphasizes Nikolai's desire to help the oppressed Orthodox inhabitants of the Turkish Empire. The Christian population of the Turkish Empire, which was 5.6 million people, and absolutely predominated in its European possessions, wanted liberation and regularly rebelled against Turkish rule. The uprising of the Montenegrins in 1852-53, suppressed with great brutality by the Ottoman troops, became one of the reasons for Russian pressure on Turkey. The oppression by the Turkish authorities of the religious and civil rights of the peaceful population of the Balkan Peninsula and the murders and violence that took place aroused indignation not only in Russia, but also in many other European countries at that time.

At the same time, according to the Russian diplomat Konstantin Leontiev, who was in 1863-1871. in the diplomatic service in Turkey, the main goal of Russia was not the political freedom of co-religionists, but the predominance in Turkey:

Objectives of Great Britain and its Allies

During the Crimean War, British politics were effectively concentrated in the hands of Lord Palmerston. His point of view was stated by him to Lord John Russell:

At the same time, the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Lord Clarendon, not opposing this program, in his big parliamentary speech on March 31, 1854, emphasized the moderation and disinterestedness of England, which, according to him,

Napoleon III, who from the very beginning did not sympathize with Palmerston's fantastic idea of ​​partitioning Russia, for obvious reason refrained from objections; Palmerston's program was designed in such a way as to acquire new allies: Sweden, Prussia, Austria, Sardinia were involved in this way, Poland was encouraged to revolt, Shamil's war in the Caucasus was supported.

But it was almost impossible to please all potential allies at the same time. In addition, Palmerston clearly overestimated England's preparation for war and underestimated the Russians (Sevastopol, which was planned to be taken in a week, successfully defended for almost a year).

The only part of the plan that the French emperor could sympathize with (and which was quite popular in France) was the idea of ​​a free Poland. But it was precisely this idea that the Allies had to abandon in the first place, so as not to alienate Austria and Prussia (namely, it was important for Napoleon III to win over them in order to end the Holy Alliance).

But Napoleon III did not want to either strengthen England too much or weaken Russia beyond measure. Therefore, after the allies managed to capture the southern part of Sevastopol, Napoleon III began to undermine Palmerston's program and quickly reduced it to zero.

During the war, a poem by V. P. Alferyev, published in the "Northern Bee" and beginning with a quatrain, gained wide popularity in Russia:

In England itself, a significant part of society did not understand the meaning of the Crimean War, and after the first serious military losses in the country and in parliament, a strong anti-war opposition arose. Later, the English historian D. Trevelyan wrote that the Crimean War “was just a stupid expedition to the Black Sea, undertaken without sufficient reason, because the English people were bored with the world ... ... "The same misunderstanding of the goals of the war on the part of Great Britain is expressed by the modern English historian D. Lieven, who claims that" the Crimean War was, first of all, a French war. "

Apparently, one of the goals of Great Britain was the desire to force Russia to abandon the protectionist policy pursued by Nicholas I and introduce a regime favorable to the import of British goods. This is evidenced by the fact that already in 1857, less than a year after the end of the Crimean War, a liberal customs tariff was introduced in Russia, which reduced Russian customs duties to a minimum, which was probably one of the conditions imposed on Russia by Great Britain in during the peace negotiations. As I. Wallerstein points out, during the XIX century. Britain has repeatedly resorted to military and political pressure on various countries to conclude a free trade agreement. Examples are the support by Great Britain of the Greek uprising and other separatist movements within the Ottoman Empire, which ended with the signing of a free trade agreement in 1838, the opium war between Great Britain and China, which ended with the signing of the same agreement with it in 1842, etc. in nature was the anti-Russian campaign in Great Britain on the eve of the Crimean War. As the historian M. Pokrovsky wrote about the period preceding its beginning, “Under the name of 'Russian barbarism', the defense against which the British publicists appealed to the public opinion of both their country and the whole of Europe, it was, in essence, the struggle against the Russian industrial protectionism ".

The state of the Russian armed forces

As subsequent events showed, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. The combat strength of the army (which included the corps of the internal guards, which was not capable of fighting) was far from a million people and 200 thousand horses, which were listed on the lists; the reserve system was unsatisfactory. Average mortality among recruits in the years of peace between 1826 and 1858 was 3.5% per year, which was explained by the disgusting sanitary condition of the army. In addition, in 1849 alone, meat delivery rates were increased to 84 pounds of meat per year for each combat soldier (100 grams per day) and 42 pounds for non-combatant. Previously, even the Guard was issued only 37 pounds.

Russia was forced, due to the threat of intervention in the war of Austria, Prussia and Sweden, to keep a significant part of the army on the western border, and in connection with the Caucasian War of 1817-1864 to divert part of the ground forces to fight the mountaineers.

The technical backwardness of the Russian army and navy, associated with radical technical re-equipment in the middle of the 19th century, acquired a threatening scale. armies of Great Britain and France, which carried out the Industrial Revolution.

Army

Regular troops	Generals and officers	Lower ranks
The operating
Infantry (regiments, rifle and line battalions)
Cavalry
Foot artillery
Horse artillery
Garrison artillery
Engineering troops (sappers and horse pioneers)
Various teams (disabled and military workers companies, garrison engineers)
Inner Guard Corps
Reserve and spare
Cavalry
Artillery and sappers
On indefinite leave, not a member of the military staff
Total regular troops
In all irregulars
Total Troops

Name		Consisted by 1853	Lacked
For field troops
Rifle infantry
Dragoon and Cossack guns
Karabinov
Fittings
Pistols
For garrisons
Rifle infantry
Dragoon shotguns

In the 1840s-1850s, the process of replacing obsolete smooth-bore guns with new rifled ones was actively going on in the European armies: by the beginning of the Crimean War, the share of rifled guns in the small arms of the Russian army did not exceed 4-5%, in the French, rifled guns accounted for about a third of small arms , and in English - more than half.

The infantry, armed with rifled guns, in an oncoming battle (especially from cover), had significant superiority due to the range and accuracy of their fire: rifled guns had an effective firing range of up to 1200 steps, and smooth-bore guns - no more than 300 steps while maintaining a lethal force of up to 600 steps.

The Russian army, like the allies, had smooth-bore artillery, the effective range of which (when firing buckshot) reached 900 steps. This three times exceeded the range of the actual fire of smooth-bore rifles, which inflicted heavy losses on the advancing Russian infantry, while the Allied infantry, armed with rifled guns, could shoot the artillery crews of Russian guns, remaining out of the reach of canister fire.

It is also worth noting that until 1853, the Russian army used to release 10 rounds of ammunition per person per year for training infantry and dragoons. However, the disadvantages were inherent in the Allied armies. So in the British army during the Crimean War, the archaic practice of manning the army with officers by selling ranks for money was widespread.

The future Minister of War during the reign of Alexander II DA Milyutin writes in his notes: “... Even in the military business, which the emperor was engaged in with such passion, the same concern for order and discipline prevailed; for its adaptation to a military purpose, and for its external only harmony, for a brilliant appearance at parades, pedantic observance of countless petty formalities that blunt the human mind and kill the true military spirit. "

At the same time, a number of facts indicate that the shortcomings in the organization of the Russian army were greatly exaggerated by the critics of Nicholas I. Thus, the wars of Russia with Persia and Turkey in 1826-1829. ended with a quick defeat of both opponents. During the Crimean War, the Russian army, significantly inferior in the quality of its weapons and technical equipment to the armies of Great Britain and France, showed miracles of courage, high fighting spirit and military training. It should be borne in mind that in the main theater of operations, in the Crimea, the allied expeditionary corps, which, along with army units, included elite guards units, were opposed by ordinary Russian army units, as well as naval crews.

The generals who made their careers after the death of Nicholas I (including the future Minister of War D.A. Milyutin) and criticized their predecessors could do this deliberately in order to hide their own serious mistakes and incompetence. Thus, the historian M. Pokrovsky gave examples of the incompetent conduct of the Russian-Turkish campaign of 1877-1878. (when Milyutin himself was the Minister of War). The losses of Russia and its allies Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro, which in 1877-1878. opposed only one technically and militarily weak Turkey, surpassed the Turkish losses, which speaks in favor of the poor organization of military operations. At the same time, in the Crimean War, Russia, single-handedly opposing a coalition of four powers, significantly superior to it in technical and military terms, suffered less losses than its opponents, which indicates the opposite. So, according to B. Ts. Urlanis, combat and non-combat losses in the Russian army amounted to 134,800 people, and losses in the armies of Great Britain, France and Turkey - 162,800 people, including 117,400 people in the armies of the two Western powers. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that during the Crimean War, the Russian army acted on the defensive, and in 1877 - in the offensive, which could have caused the difference in losses.

The combat units that conquered the Caucasus before the start of the war were distinguished by their initiative and decisiveness, and a high degree of coordination in the actions of the infantry, cavalry and artillery.

The Russian army had missiles of the Konstantinov system, which were used in the defense of Sevastopol, as well as in the Caucasus, the Danube and the Baltic.

Fleet

The ratio of the forces of the Russian and allied fleets by the summer of 1854, by types of ships
War theaters	Black Sea		Baltic Sea		White Sea		Pacific Ocean
Ship types		Allies		Allies		Allies		Allies
Battleships total
Sailing
Frigates total
Sailing
Other total
Sailing

Britain and France went to war with Russia, believing that sailing ships of the line may still be of military importance. Accordingly, sailing ships took part in 1854 in operations in the Baltic and the Black Sea; however, the experience of the first months of the war in both theaters of hostilities convinced the Allies that sailing ships had lost their practical value as combat units. However, the Battle of Sinop, the successful battle of the Russian sailing frigate Flora with three Turkish frigate steamers, as well as the defense of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, in which sailing ships participated from both sides, testify to the opposite.

The Allies had a significant advantage in all types of ships, and there were no steam battleships in the Russian fleet at all. At that time, the English fleet was the first in the world in terms of numbers, the French was in second, and the Russian in third.

A significant influence on the nature of combat operations at sea was exerted by the presence of bombing cannons among the belligerents, which proved to be effective weapons for fighting both wooden and iron ships. On the whole, Russia managed to sufficiently equip its ships and coastal batteries with such weapons before the start of the war.

In 1851-1852, the construction of two propeller-driven frigates and conversion into propeller-driven three sailing ships began in the Baltic. The main base of the fleet, Kronstadt, was well fortified. The Kronstadt fortress artillery, along with cannon artillery, also included rocket launchers designed for volley fire at enemy ships at a distance of up to 2,600 meters.

A feature of the naval theater in the Baltic was that, due to the shallow waters of the Gulf of Finland, large ships could not approach St. Petersburg directly. Therefore, during the war, 32 wooden screw gunboats were built in record time from January to May 1855 to protect it on the initiative of Captain 2nd Rank Shestakov and with the support of Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. And in the next 8 months, 35 more propeller-driven gunboats, as well as 14 propeller-driven corvettes and clippers. Steam engines, boilers and materials for their hulls were manufactured under the general guidance of an official for special assignments of the shipbuilding department, N.I.Putilov, in the St. Petersburg mechanical workshops. Russian artisans were appointed mechanics for the propeller-driven warships being commissioned. Bomb cannons mounted on gunboats turned these small ships into a formidable fighting force. French Admiral Painaud wrote at the end of the war: "The steam gunboats built so quickly by the Russians have completely changed our position."

For the defense of the Baltic coast, for the first time in the world, the Russians used underwater mines with chemical contact fuses, developed by Academician B.S. Yakobi.

The leadership of the Black Sea Fleet was carried out by admirals Kornilov, Istomin, Nakhimov, who had significant combat experience.

The main base of the Black Sea Fleet, Sevastopol, was protected from attacks from the sea by strong coastal fortifications. Before the landing of the allies in the Crimea, fortifications to defend Sevastopol from land did not exist.

In 1853, the Black Sea Fleet conducted active hostilities at sea - it provided the transfer, supply and artillery support of Russian troops on the Caucasian coast, successfully fought the Turkish military and merchant fleet, fought with individual steam ships of the Anglo-French, conducted shelling of their camps and artillery support for their troops. After the sinking of 5 battleships and 2 frigates in order to blockade the entrance to the Northern Bay of Sevastopol, the remaining sailing ships of the Black Sea Fleet were used as floating batteries, and steamers for their towing.

In 1854-1855, mines on the Black Sea were not used by Russian sailors, despite the fact that ground forces had already used underwater mines at the mouth of the Danube in 1854 and at the mouth of the Bug in 1855. As a result, the possibility of using underwater mines to block the entrance of the allied fleet in the Sevastopol Bay and other Crimean harbors remained unused.

In 1854, for the defense of the North Sea coast, the Arkhangelsk Admiralty built 20 rowing 2-gun gunboats, and another 14 in 1855.

The Turkish navy consisted of 13 battleships and frigates and 17 steamers. The command staff was reinforced by British advisers even before the war began.

Campaign of 1853

The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war

On September 27 (October 9), the Russian commander, Prince Gorchakov, received a message from the commander of the Turkish troops Omer Pasha, which contained a demand to clear the Danube principalities within 15 days. In early October, before the deadline indicated by Omer Pasha, the Turks began to fire at the Russian front pickets. On the morning of October 11 (23), the Turks opened fire on the Russian steamships Prut and Ordinarets passing along the Danube past the Isakchi fortress. On October 21 (November 2), Turkish troops began to cross over to the left bank of the Danube and create a bridgehead for an attack on the Russian army.

In the Caucasus, Russian troops defeated the Turkish Anatolian army in the battles near Akhaltsikh, where on November 13-14, 1853, according to Art. with. the seven thousandth garrison of General Andronikov threw off the 15,000th army of Ali Pasha; and on November 19 of the same year, near Bashkadyklar, the 10-thousandth detachment of General Bebutov defeated the 36-thousandth army of Akhmed Pasha. This made it possible to spend the winter calmly. In details.

On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports.

On October 20 (31), a battle of the steamship "Kolkhida", which transported a company of soldiers to reinforce the garrison of the post of St. Nicholas, located on the Caucasian coast. When approaching the coast, the Kolkhida ran aground and came under fire from the Turks, who seized the post and destroyed its entire garrison. She repulsed an attempt at boarding, went aground and, despite the losses among the crew and the received injuries, came to Sukhum.

On November 4 (15), the seizure of the Turkish steamship Medzhari-Tejaret by the Russian steamship Bessarabia, cruising in the Sinop region, without a fight (entered the Black Sea Fleet under the name Turok).

On November 5 (17), the world's first battle of steam ships. The Russian steamship-frigate "Vladimir" captured the Turkish steamer "Pervaz-Bakhri" (became part of the Black Sea Fleet under the name "Kornilov").

On November 9 (21), a successful battle in the area of ​​Cape Pitsunda of the Russian frigate "Flora" with 3 Turkish steamships "Taif", "Feyzi-Bahri" and "Saik-Ishade" under the general command of the British military adviser Slade. After a 4-hour battle, "Flora" forced the ships to retreat, taking the flagship "Taif" in tow.

On November 18 (30), the squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov during Sinop battle destroyed the Turkish squadron of Osman Pasha.

Allied entry

The Sinop incident served as a formal basis for the entry of England and France into the war against Russia.

Upon receiving news of the Battle of Sinop, the British and French squadrons, together with a division of the Ottoman fleet, entered the Black Sea on December 22, 1853 (January 4, 1854). The admirals in command of the fleet informed the Russian authorities that they have the task of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. When asked about the purpose of such an action, the Western powers replied that they had in mind not only to protect the Turks from any attack from the sea, but also to assist them in supplying their ports, at the same time preventing the free navigation of Russian ships. 17 (29) January, the French emperor issued an ultimatum to Russia: withdraw troops from the Danube principalities and begin negotiations with Turkey. 9 (21) February, Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Britain and France.

At the same time, Emperor Nicholas appealed to the Berlin and Vienna courts, inviting them, in case of war, to observe neutrality, supported by weapons. Austria and Prussia declined from this proposal, as well as from the alliance proposed to them by England and France, but concluded a separate treaty between themselves. A special article of this treaty stipulated that if the Russians from the Danube principalities did not come out soon, Austria would demand their cleansing, Prussia would support this demand, and then, in the event of an unsatisfactory answer, both powers would start offensive actions, which could also be caused the annexation of the principalities to Russia or the transition of the Russians across the Balkans.

On March 15 (27), 1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.

Campaign of 1854

At the beginning of 1854, the entire border strip of Russia was divided into sections, each subordinate to a special chief with the rights of the commander-in-chief of the army or a separate corps. These sites were as follows:

• The coast of the Baltic Sea (Finland, St. Petersburg and Ostsee provinces), the military forces of which consisted of 179 battalions, 144 squadrons and hundreds, with 384 guns;
• Kingdom of Poland and western provinces - 146 battalions, 100 squadrons and hundreds, with 308 guns;
• The space along the Danube and the Black Sea to the Bug River - 182 battalions, 285 squadrons and hundreds, with 612 guns (divisions 2 and 3 were under the main command of Field Marshal Prince Paskevich);
• Crimea and the Black Sea coast from Bug to Perekop - 27 battalions, 19 squadrons and hundreds, 48 ​​guns;
• the coast of the Azov Sea and the Black Sea - 31½ battalion, 140 hundred and squadrons, 54 guns;
• Caucasian and Transcaucasian territories - 152 battalions, 281 hundred and a squadron, 289 guns (⅓ of these troops were located on the Turkish border, the rest were inside the region, against the hostile highlanders).
• The shores of the White Sea were guarded by only 2½ battalions.
• The defense of Kamchatka, where there were also minor forces, was in charge of Rear Admiral Zavoiko.

The invasion of Crimea and the siege of Sevastopol

In April, the allied fleet of 28 ships carried out bombing of Odessa, during which 9 merchant ships were burned in the harbor. The allies had 4 frigates damaged and taken to Varna for repairs. In addition, on May 12, in conditions of thick fog, the English steamer Tiger landed on the aground 6 miles from Odessa. 225 crew members were taken prisoner by the Russian, and the ship itself was sunk.

On June 3 (15), 1854, 2 English and 1 French steam frigate approached Sevastopol, from where 6 Russian steam frigates came out to meet them. Taking advantage of the superiority in speed, the enemy went to sea after a short skirmish.

On June 14 (26), 1854, a battle of the Anglo-French fleet of 21 ships with the coastal fortifications of Sevastopol took place.

In early July, the allied forces of 40 thousand French, under the command of Marshal Saint-Arno, and 20 thousand English, under the command of Lord Raglan, landed near Varna, from where part of the French troops undertook an expedition to Dobrudja, but cholera, which developed in terrible proportions in the French landing corps, forced to abandon for a while from any offensive actions.

Failures at sea and in Dobrudja now forced the Allies to turn to the implementation of a long-planned enterprise - the invasion of Crimea, especially since public opinion in England loudly demanded that, in reward for all the losses and costs caused by the war, the naval institutions of Sevastopol and the Russian Black Sea Fleet.

On September 2 (14), 1854, the landing of the coalition expeditionary corps began in Evpatoria. In total, in the first days of September, about 61 thousand soldiers were transported to the coast. 8 (20) September 1854 in the battle of the Alma the allies defeated the Russian army (33 thousand soldiers), which was trying to block their path to Sevastopol. The Russian army was forced to retreat. During the battle, for the first time, the qualitative superiority of the allies' rifled weapons over the smooth-bore Russian appeared. The command of the Black Sea Fleet was going to attack the enemy fleet in order to thwart the allied offensive. However, the Black Sea Fleet received a categorical order not to go out to sea, but to defend Sevastopol with the help of sailors and ship guns.

September 22nd. An attack by an Anglo-French detachment of 4 steamer-frigates (72 guns) on the Ochakov fortress and the Russian rowing flotilla located here, consisting of 2 small steamers and 8 rowing gunboats (36 guns) under the command of Captain 2nd Rank Endogurov. After a three-hour long-range skirmish, the enemy ships, having received damage, went to sea.

Started siege of Sevastopol... On October 5 (17), the first bombing of the city took place, during which Kornilov was killed.

On the same day, the Allied fleet tried to make a breakthrough into the internal raid of Sevastopol, but was defeated. In the course of the battle, the best training of the Russian artillerymen, which surpassed the enemy in rate of fire by more than 2.5 times, was manifested, as well as the vulnerability of Allied ships, including iron steamers, from the fire of Russian coastal artillery. Thus, a Russian 3-pound bomb pierced all the decks of the French battleship Charlemagne, exploded in his car and destroyed it. The rest of the ships participating in the battle also received serious damage. One of the commanders of the French ships assessed this battle as follows: "Another such battle, and half of our Black Sea Fleet will not be good for anything."

Saint-Arno died on September 29th. Three days earlier, he transferred command of the French troops to Canrobert.

On October 13 (25), battle of Balaklava, as a result of which the Allied troops (20 thousand soldiers) thwarted the attempt of the Russian troops (23 thousand soldiers) to unblock Sevastopol. During the battle, Russian soldiers managed to capture some of the allied positions defended by Turkish troops, which they had to leave, consoling themselves with trophies captured from the Turks (a banner, eleven cast-iron guns, etc.). This battle became famous thanks to two episodes:

• Thin Red Line - At a critical moment of the battle for the Allies, trying to stop the breakthrough of the Russian cavalry into Balaklava, the commander of the 93rd Scottish Regiment, Colin Campbell, lined up his riflemen in a row not in four, as was then customary, but in two. The attack was successfully repulsed, after which the phrase "thin red line", denoting the defense of the last forces, entered into circulation in the English language.
• Light Brigade Attack - A misunderstood order by an English light cavalry brigade led to a suicidal attack on well-fortified Russian positions. The phrase "attack of light cavalry" has become in English synonymous with a desperate hopeless attack. This light cavalry, which fell near Balaklava, included representatives of the most aristocratic families. The day of Balaklava has forever remained a mourning date in the military history of England.

In an effort to thwart the allied assault on Sevastopol, on November 5, Russian troops (totaling 32 thousand people) attacked British troops (8 thousand people) near Inkerman. In the ensuing battle, the Russian troops had initial success; but the arrival of French reinforcements (8 thousand people) turned the tide of the battle in favor of the Allies. The French artillery was especially effective. The Russians were ordered to retreat. According to a number of participants in the battle on the Russian side, the decisive role was played by the unsuccessful leadership of Menshikov, who did not use the available reserves (12,000 soldiers under the command of Dannenberg and 22,500 under the command of Gorchakov). The withdrawal of the Russian troops to Sevastopol was covered with their fire by the steam frigates Vladimir and Chersonesos. The assault on Sevastopol was disrupted for several months, which gave time to fortify the city.

On November 14, a severe storm off the coast of Crimea led to the loss of more than 53 ships by the allies (of which 25 transports). Additionally, near Evpatoria, two battleships were wrecked (French 100-gun "Henry IV" and Turkish 90-gun "Peiki-Messeret") and 3 steam corvettes of the allies. In particular, the supplies of winter clothing and medicines sent to the allied landing corps were lost, which in the conditions of the approaching winter put the allies in a difficult situation. The storm on November 14, for the heavy losses it inflicted on the Allied fleet and the supply transports, was equated by them with a lost naval battle.

On November 24, the steam-frigates Vladimir and Chersonesos, leaving the Sevastopol roadstead into the sea, attacked a French steamer standing at Pesochnaya Bay and forced it to retreat, after which, approaching Streletskaya Bay, they fired bombardments on the French camp and enemy steamers located on the coast. ...

On the Danube in March 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria in May. At the end of June, in view of the increased danger of Austria entering the war, the siege was lifted and the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldavia and Wallachia began. As the Russians retreated, the Turks slowly moved forward, and on August 10 (22) Omer Pasha entered Bucharest. At the same time, Austrian troops crossed the border of Wallachia, which, by agreement of the allies with the Turkish government, replaced the Turks and occupied the principalities.

In the Caucasus, Russian troops occupied Bayazet on July 19 (31), July 24 (August 5), 1854 fought a successful battle at Kyuryuk-Dar, 18 km from Kars, but have not yet been able to begin a siege of this fortress, in the area of ​​which 60 thousandth Turkish army. The Black Sea coastline was abolished.

In the Baltic, two divisions of the Baltic Fleet were left to strengthen the defense of Kronstadt, and the third was located at Sveaborg. The main points on the Baltic coast were covered by coastal batteries, and gunboats were actively built.

With the clearing of ice from the sea, a strong Anglo-French fleet (11 propeller-driven and 15 sailing battleships, 32 steamer-frigates and 7 sailing frigates) under the command of Vice Admiral Charles Napier and Vice Admiral A. F. Parseval-Deschenes entered the Baltic and blocked the Russian Baltic Fleet (26 sailing battleships, 9 steamer-frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg.

Not daring to attack these bases due to Russian minefields, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. July 26 (August 7) ​​1854 11-thousandth Anglo-French landing landed on the Aland Islands and besieged Bomarsund, which surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landings (in Ekenes, Ganges, Gamlakarlebu and Abo) ended in failure. In the fall of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea.

On the White Sea, the actions of the allied squadron of Captain Omaney were limited to the seizure of small merchant ships, robbery of coastal residents, two-time bombing of the Solovetsky Monastery. There were attempts to undertake a landing, but they were abandoned. During the bombing of the city of Kola by enemy fire, about 110 houses, 2 churches (including the Resurrection Cathedral of the 17th century, a masterpiece of Russian wooden architecture), shops were burned.

In the Pacific Ocean, the garrison of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky under the command of Major General V.S. Zavoiko on August 18-24 (August 30-September 5), 1854, repulsed an attack by an Anglo-French squadron under the command of Rear Admiral David Price, defeating the landing force it had landed.

Diplomatic efforts

In 1854, diplomatic negotiations between the warring parties were held in Vienna with the mediation of Austria. England and France, as conditions of peace, demanded a ban for Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of protectorate over Moldova and Wallachia and from claims to patronize the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" along the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouths).

On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. On December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855), a conference of the ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia was opened, but the negotiations did not yield any results and were interrupted in April 1855.

On January 26, 1855, the Sardinian kingdom joined the allies, having concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, were to go to Sardinia for participating in the coalition. After the war, France signed a treaty with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).

Campaign of 1855

On February 18 (March 2), 1855, the Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. The Russian throne was inherited by his son, Alexander II.

Crimea and the siege of Sevastopol

After the seizure of the southern part of Sevastopol, the allied commanders, who did not dare to move with the army inside the peninsula due to the lack of carts, began to threaten the movement to Nikolaev, which, with the fall of Sevastopol, became important, since there were Russian naval institutions and reserves. To this end, a strong allied fleet on October 2 (14) approached Kinburn and, after a two-day bombardment, forced it to surrender.

For the bombardment of Kinburn by the French, for the first time in world practice, armored floating platforms were used, which turned out to be practically invulnerable to the Kinburn coastal batteries and the fort, the most powerful weapons of which were medium-caliber 24-pound cannons. Their cast-iron cannonballs left dents no more than an inch deep on the 4½-inch armor of the French floating batteries, and the fires of the batteries themselves were so destructive that, according to the British observers present, the batteries alone would have been enough to destroy the walls of Kinburn in three hours.

Leaving Bazin's troops and a small squadron in Kinburn, the British and French sailed to Sevastopol, near which they began to settle for the upcoming wintering.

Other theaters of war

For operations on the Baltic Sea in 1855, the Allies equipped 67 ships; This fleet appeared in front of Kronstadt in mid-May, hoping to lure the Russian fleet stationed there into the sea. Without waiting for this and making sure that the fortifications of Kronstadt were strengthened and underwater mines were laid in many places, the enemy limited himself to raids by light ships at various places on the Finnish coast.

On July 25 (August 6), the allied fleet bombarded Sveaborg for 45 hours, but apart from the destruction of buildings, it did almost no harm to the fortress.

In the Caucasus, the capture of Kars was a major victory for Russia in 1855. The first attack on the fortress took place on June 4 (16), its siege began on June 6 (18), and by mid-August it had acquired a total character. After a large, but unsuccessful assault on September 17 (29), N.N. 18.5 thousand prisoners. As a result of this victory, Russian troops began to successfully control not only the city, but also its entire region, including Ardahan, Kagyzman, Olty and Nizhne-Basensky Sanjak.

War and propaganda

Propaganda was an integral part of the war. A few years before the Crimean War (in 1848), Karl Marx, who himself actively published in the Western European press, wrote that the German newspaper, in order to save its liberal reputation, had to "show hatred for the Russians in time."

F. Engels in several articles in the English press, published in March-April 1853, accused Russia of striving to seize Constantinople, although it was well known that the Russian ultimatum of February 1853 did not contain any territorial claims of Russia itself against Turkey. In another article (April 1853), Marx and Engels scolded the Serbs for not wanting to read books printed in their language in the West in Latin letters, but read only books in Cyrillic printed in Russia; and rejoiced that an "anti-Russian progressive party" had finally appeared in Serbia.

In the same year, 1853, the English liberal newspaper Daily News assured its readers that Christians in the Ottoman Empire enjoyed greater religious freedom than in Orthodox Russia and Catholic Austria.

In 1854, the London Times wrote: "It would be nice to return Russia to the cultivation of internal lands, to drive the Muscovites deep into the forests and steppes." In the same year, D. Russell, the leader of the House of Commons and the head of the Liberal Party, said: "We must pull the bear's fangs ... Until its fleet and naval arsenal on the Black Sea is destroyed, Constantinople will not be safe, there will be no peace in Europe."

Widespread anti-Western, patriotic and jingoistic patriotic propaganda began in Russia, which was supported by both official speeches and spontaneous speeches of the patriotic part of society. In fact, for the first time since the Patriotic War of 1812, Russia opposed itself to a large coalition of European countries, demonstrating its “special become”. At the same time, some of the most harsh jingoistic speeches by the Nikolaev censorship were not allowed to be published, which happened, for example, in 1854-1855. with two poems by F. I. Tyutchev ("Prophecy" and "Now you have no time for poetry").

Diplomatic efforts

After the fall of Sevastopol, disagreements appeared in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria announced its readiness to join the allies. In mid-December, she presented Russia with an ultimatum:

• replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia with the protectorate of all the great powers;
• establishment of freedom of navigation at the mouths of the Danube;
• preventing the passage of someone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus into the Black Sea, prohibiting Russia and Turkey to keep a military fleet on the Black Sea and have arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
• Russia's refusal to patronize the Sultan's Orthodox subjects;
• the concession by Russia in favor of Moldova of the Bessarabia section adjacent to the Danube.

A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Frederick Wilhelm IV, who called on the Russian emperor to accept the Austrian conditions, hinting that otherwise Prussia could join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, in conditions of depletion of resources and defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in an extremely difficult position.

On the evening of December 20, 1855, a meeting called by him was held in the tsar's office. It was decided to invite Austria to omit the 5th paragraph. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15, 1856. The meeting unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as a precondition for peace.

Results of the war

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30), a peace treaty was signed.

• Russia returned the city of Kars with the fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange the seized Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities.
• The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.
• Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.
• Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiysk Peace of 1774, and Russia's exclusive patronage over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
• Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but they managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and temporarily deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

The aftermath of the war

Russia

• The war led to the breakdown of the financial system of the Russian Empire (Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain - 76 million pounds): to finance military spending, the government had to resort to printing unsecured bank notes, which led to a decrease in their silver coverage from 45% in 1853 up to 19% in 1858, that is, in fact, more than two-fold depreciation of the ruble. Russia was able to return to a deficit-free state budget in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble against gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, in the course of Witte's monetary reform.
• The war became the impetus for economic reforms and, in the future, for the abolition of serfdom.
• The experience of the Crimean War partially formed the basis for the military reforms of the 1860s-1870s in Russia (replacing the outdated 25-year conscription, etc.).

In 1871, Russia achieved the abolition of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories according to the Berlin Treaty, signed within the framework of the Berlin Congress, held following the results of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

• The government of the Russian Empire begins to revise its policy in the field of railway construction, which previously manifested itself in the repeated blocking of private projects for the construction of railways, including those to Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa, and upholding the disadvantage and uselessness of building railways south of Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin surveys on the Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa line. In October 1854, an order was received to start surveys on the Kharkov-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosiyskaya line to Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk - Simferopol - Bakhchisarai - Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Imperial decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.

Britannia

Military setbacks prompted the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced by Palmerston. The viciousness of the official system of selling officers' ranks for money, which has survived in the British army since medieval times, was revealed.

Ottoman Empire

During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire borrowed £ 7 million from England. In 1858, the Sultan's treasury was declared bankrupt.

In February 1856, Sultan Abdul-Majid I was forced to issue a gatti sheriff (decree) of Hatt-ı Hümayun, which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of the subjects of the empire, regardless of nationality.

Austria

Austria found itself in political isolation until October 23, 1873, when a new alliance of three emperors (Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary) was concluded.

Influence on military affairs

The Crimean War gave impetus to the development of the armed forces, military and naval art of European states. In many countries, the transition from smooth-bore weapons to rifled weapons began, from a sailing wooden fleet to an armored steam fleet, positional forms of warfare arose.

In the ground forces, the role of small arms increased and, accordingly, fire preparation of an attack, a new battle formation appeared - a rifle chain, which was also the result of the sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, she completely replaced the columns and loose structure.

• Marine barrage mines were invented and applied for the first time.
• The beginning of the use of the telegraph for military purposes was laid.
• Florence Nightingale laid the foundation for modern hospital care and sanitation - less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, hospital mortality dropped from 42% to 2.2%.
• For the first time in the history of war, the sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
• Nikolai Pirogov was the first in Russian field medicine to use a plaster cast, which made it possible to speed up the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.

Other

• One of the earliest manifestations of information warfare is documented, when, immediately after the Battle of Sinop, English newspapers wrote in reports about the battle that the Russians were completing the wounded Turks sailing in the sea.
• On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by German astronomer Robert Luther at the Düsseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, ​​the ancient Roman goddess of war who was part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johannes Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
• On March 31, 1856, an asteroid named (40) Harmony was discovered by the German astronomer Hermann Gold Schmidt. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
• For the first time, photography is widely used to cover the course of the war. In particular, the 363 photographs collection by Roger Fenton was purchased by the Library of Congress.
• The practice of constant weather forecasting emerged, first in Europe and then around the world. The storm of November 14, 1854, which caused heavy losses to the Allied fleet, as well as the fact that these losses could be prevented, forced the Emperor of France Napoleon III to personally instruct the leading astronomer of his country - W. Le Verrier - to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaklava, the first forecast map was created, the prototype of those that we see in the weather news, and in 1856, 13 weather stations were already operating in France.
• Cigarettes were invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by British and French troops in the Crimea from Turkish comrades.
• The young author Leo Tolstoy receives all-Russian fame with the "Sevastopol Stories" published in the press from the scene. Here he also creates a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on the Black River.

Losses

Losses by country
	Population, 1853				Died of wounds	Died of disease	For other reasons
England (no colonies)
France (no colonies)
Sardinia
Ottoman Empire

According to estimates of military losses, the total number of those killed in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases, in the Allied army amounted to 160-170 thousand people, in the Russian army - 100-110 thousand people. According to other estimates, the total number of deaths in the war, including non-combat losses, was approximately 250 thousand on the part of Russia and on the part of the allies.

Awards

• In Great Britain, the Crimean Medal was established to award distinguished soldiers, and the Baltic Medal was established to award those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic in the Royal Navy and Marine Corps. In 1856, to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, the Victoria Cross medal was established, which is still the highest military award in Great Britain.
• In the Russian Empire on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal "In Memory of the War of 1853-1856", as well as the medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol" and ordered the Mint to execute 100,000 copies of the medal.
• The population of Taurida, Alexander II on August 26, 1856, was awarded the "Certificate of Appreciation".

• aggravation of the "Eastern question", that is, the struggle of the leading countries for the division of the "Turkish heritage";
• the growth of the national liberation movement in the Balkans, an acute internal crisis in Turkey and the conviction of Nicholas I of the inevitability of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire;
• the miscalculations of Nicholas 1's diplomacy, manifested in the hope that Austria, in gratitude for her salvation in 1848-1849, would support Russia, with England it would be possible to agree on the partition of Turkey; as well as disbelief in the possibility of an agreement between the eternal enemies - England and France, directed against Russia, "
• the desire of England, France, Austria and Prussia to oust Russia from the East, to the desire to prevent its penetration into the Balkans

The reason for the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856:

Dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to control Christian shrines in Palestine. Russia was behind the Orthodox Church, and France was behind the Catholic Church.

Stages of military operations of the Crimean War:

1. Russian-Turkish war (May - December 1853). The Russian army, after the Turkish sultan rejected the ultimatum to grant the Russian tsar the right to patronize the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire, occupied Moldavia, Wallachia and went to the Danube. The Caucasian corps went on the offensive. The Black Sea squadron achieved tremendous success, which in November 1853 under the command of Pavel Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop.

2. The beginning of the war between Russia and the coalition of European countries (spring - summer 1854). the threat of defeat hanging over Turkey pushed the European countries to active anti-Russian actions, which led from a local war to a pan-European war.

March. England and France sided with Turkey (Sardinian). Allied squadrons fired at Russian troops; fortification on the Alan Islands in the Baltic, on the Solovki, in the White Sea, on the Kola Peninsula, in Petropavlovsk - Kamchatsky, Odessa, Nikolaev, Kerch. Austria, threatening Russia with war, moved troops to the borders of the Danube principalities, which forced the Russian armies to leave Moldavia and Wallachia.

3. Defense of Sevastopol and the end of the war. In September 1854 Anglo - French. The army landed in the Crimea, which has become the main "theater" of the war. This is the last stage of the Crimean War 1853 - 1856.

The Russian army, led by Menshikov, was defeated on the river. Alma and left Sevastopol defenseless. The defense of the naval fortress, after the sinking of the sailing fleet in the Sevastopol bay, was taken over by sailors led by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov Istomin (all died). In early October 1854, the defense of the city began and was taken only on August 27, 1855.

Successful actions in the Caucasus in November 1855, the capture of the Kars fortress. However, with the fall of Sevastopol, the outcome of the war predetermined: March 1856. in Paris peace talks.

Terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856)

Russia lost Southern Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, and Kars returned to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol.

• Russia was deprived of the right of patronage to Christians of the Ottoman Empire
• The Black Sea was declared neutral and Russia lost the right to have a navy and fortifications there.
• Established freedom of navigation along the Danube, which opened the Baltic Peninsula to the Western powers

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War.

• Economic and technical backwardness (armament and transport support of the Russian armies)
• The mediocrity of the Russian high ground command, who achieved ranks and ranks through intrigue, flattery
• Diplomatic miscalculations that led Russia and isolation in the war with the coalition of England, France, Turkey, with the hostile attitude of Austria, Prussia.
• Obvious inequality of power

Thus, the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856,

1) at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia managed to acquire a number of territories in the East and expand its spheres of influence

2) the suppression of the revolutionary movement in the West brought Russia the title of "gendarme of Europe", but did not answer her nat. interests

3) the defeat in the Crimean War revealed the backwardness of Russia; the rottenness of its autocratic serfdom. Revealed mistakes in foreign policy, the goals of which did not correspond to the country's capabilities

4) this defeat became a decisive and immediate factor in the preparation and implementation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia

5) the heroism and dedication of Russian soldiers during the Crimean War remained in the memory of the people and influenced the development of the spiritual life of the country.

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. In the days of ancient Greece, there was not so much heroism. I have not managed to be in business even once, but I thank God that I have seen these people and live in this glorious time.

Lev Tolstoy

Wars between the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common feature of international politics in the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended with the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed strong resistance from the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of Russia's role in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself problems in domestic politics, which led to many problems. Despite victories at the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This article describes the reasons, course, main results and historical significance in a short account of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Reasons for the aggravation of the eastern question

Historians understand the Eastern question as a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to a conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the main ones for the future war, are as follows:

• The loss of Crimea and the northern Black Sea region by the Ottoman Empire at the end of 18 constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining territory. This is how the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829 began. However, as a result, Turkey lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further strengthened the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. Russia demanded to open these straits for the Black Sea Fleet, while the Ottoman Empire (under pressure from the countries of Western Europe) ignored these demands of Russia.
• The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, of Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia provided them with support, thereby causing a wave of indignation from the Turks over Russia's interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of the countries of Western Europe (Britain, France, and Austria) not to let Russia into the Balkans, as well as to close her access to the straits. For this, the countries were ready to support Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These problematic moments were brewing throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853, the Turkish Sultan transferred the Bethlehem Temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the management of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation in the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas I decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a pretext for an attack on Turkey. Russia demanded to transfer the temple to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also to open the straits for the Black Sea fleet. Turkey refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danube principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the 1848 revolution, and Britain could be appeased by handing over Cyprus and Egypt to her in the future. However, the plan did not work, European countries called on the Ottoman Empire to act, promising it financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia. So, in short, the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called Eastern.

The course of the war and the main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. These are the stages:

1. October 1853 - April 1854. During these six months, the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without the direct intervention of other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. The British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations, as well as a turning point in the course of the war. The allied troops were superior to the Russian ones from the technical point of view, which was the reason for the changes in the course of the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be distinguished: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but the ones listed above are the most basic. Let's consider them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in the Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing boats. These victories significantly raised the morale of the Russian army and gave hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinoposky naval battle on November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

In early April 1854, the Ottoman Empire launched a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which swiftly headed for the Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombing of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a swift and intense bombardment, it was planned to land a landing in the northern Black Sea region, in order to force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as to weaken the protection of the Crimea. However, the city survived for several days. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver accurate strikes against the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The allies were forced to retreat towards the Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

The battles on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the introduction of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After the success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed to the right bank of the Danube, an offensive was opened on Silistria and further on to Bucharest. However, the entry into the war of England and France complicated the offensive of Russia. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted and Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, on this front, Austria also entered the war against Russia, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, a huge landing of the British and French armies (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand) landed near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, displacing Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the leadership of the army first strike the Black Sea fleet in the Crimea.

Fights in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 at the village of Kyuryuk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June-November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the Karsu fortress, so that the allies would send part of their troops to this region, thereby slightly easing the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the Battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little impact on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the "peace" signed later, the Kars fortress returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace negotiations showed, the capture of Kars played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, Franco-British troops captured the last point of defense of the city - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived 11 months of the siege, but as a result it was surrendered to the troops of the allies (among which the Kingdom of Sardinia appeared). This defeat became a key one and half-condemned the impulse to end the war. At the end of 1855, intensified negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol, several more battles took place on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, which were aimed at "unblocking" Sevastopol:

1. Battle of the Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Inkerman battle (November 1854).
4. An attempt to liberate Evpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle on the Black River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main hostilities of the war took place near the Crimean Peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Peter and Paul defense. The battle that took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British forces on the one hand and Russian on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was the result of the British victory over China in the "opium" wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in the east of Asia, displacing Russia from here. In total, the Allied troops undertook two assaults, both ended in failure for them. Russia withstood the Peter and Paul defense.
2. Arctic company. Operation of the British fleet to try to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. Also, the British undertook the bombing of the Solovetsky fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

In February 1855, Nicholas 1 died. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented by Alexey Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed on March 6, 1856, which ended the Crimean War.

The main terms of the Paris Treaty 6 were as follows:

1. Russia returned the fortress of Kars to Turkey, in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was forbidden to have a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of the Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Moldavian principality, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
5. On the Allad Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was forbidden to build military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for the losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, the Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Kingdom of Sardinia lost 12 thousand troops. The dead on the part of Austria are not known, perhaps because it was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia in comparison with the states of Europe, especially in terms of economics (completion of the industrial revolution, construction of railways, use of steamships). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, a desire for revenge was brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was over and Russia was defeated in it.