Culture of Moscow Russia XIV - XVII centuries.

In 1367, a stone Kremlin was erected in Moscow, the only one in all of North-Eastern Russia at that time. The "golden age" of frescoes begins in medieval Russia. Significant experience Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium in the 70s of the XIV century. already a mature painter (fresco painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod): a bold pictorial manner, freedom in dealing with iconographic traditions, virtuosity of performance, interest in the inner world of man, full of drama and sorrow, temperamental painting is a vivid phenomenon in the art of that time, all the more noticeable that in the work of Theophanes his heretical moods were clearly visible (he preached dualism). Another concept of the divine essence is revealed in creativity Andrey Rublev, the greatest icon painter, highly revered up to the present time on all continents (international symposia devoted to his work are periodically held). His name, captured three times during his lifetime in the annals, is associated with the time of the high flowering of painting in Moscow at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, where at that time the Russian national school of painting was taking shape. As a monk of the Trinity-Sergiev, and then the Spaso-Andronikov monastery, in 1405 he, together with Theophanes the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets (this is noted in the annals), created frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1408, together with Daniil Cherny, he embodied the ideas of Russian hesychasm in the fresco cycle of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, and then the result of his spiritual ascent - in the works for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. At the end of his life A. Rublev painted frescoes of the Savior Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery, where he died around 1430 and was buried. Characteristic

features of his, truly innovative for its time, style: compositional discoveries - the first applied round shape ("Trinity", "Angel in a circle"), the repeatedly interpreted sacred motif of the "sorrowful cup" "Trinity"); a three-quarter turn of figures to convey an impulsive movement towards a believer contemplating an icon or a fresco - in the central Deesis icon, in the figure of a trumpeting angel (fresco cycle in Vladimir); The picturesque Byzantine canon (the color sacral in the Trinity), talentedly developed in the Slavic interpretation, in the words of M. Lazarev, is that “receding transparency” that made it possible to embody true harmony. The influence of the philosophy of Sergius of Radonezh is palpable in the icon "Trinity", written for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral, according to the behest of the "great doer" (this was the name of Sergius of Radonezh for his talent for uniting princes who entered into feudal strife), with a rare artistic force presented the visibly humanistic idea of ​​harmony and human love , the ideal of moral perfection, readiness for a heroic deed "for one's own friends." The philosophical nature of Rublev's work, thanks to the strength of his talent, found a vivid expression in his "Savior" from the Zvenigorod rank: "with a line immersed in picturesqueness," he outlined the face of the Savior, giving it Slavic features. VN Lazarev, a major researcher of ancient Russian art, noted that "in the work of A. Rublev, the process of separating Russian painting from Byzantine, which began to emerge in the XII century, received its logical conclusion."

At the initiative of the government, supported by the church, there was typography(1553). In 1563. a printing house headed by a deacon was opened Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, 1.03.1564. published "Apostol", the first Russian dated printed book. In 1565. - "Book of Hours". In total, until the end of the 16th century. published about 20 books of religious content. From the end of the 15th century. comes new stage in the development of architecture: brickwork (brick and terracotta) supplanted the traditional white stone. Moscow became an all-Russian art center: the Kremlin was rebuilt at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. as the residence of the "sovereign of all Russia": the Assumption Cathedral was erected by an Italian Aristotle Fioravanti, in the Russian tradition, Pskov craftsmen built the Blagoveshchensky, an Italian Aleviz New- Arkhangelsky. Arose w atra style, one of the sources of which was Russian folk wooden architecture - the temple Ascension in Kolomenskoye(1532). Pokrovsky Cathedral (1560) on Red Square was built by architects Barma and Postnik (Basil the Blessed, after the famous holy fool, buried in his side-chapel). The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting - Dionysius(c. 1440-150?) - icons, part of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, murals of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery: refined drawing, exquisite color, decorativeness, a mood of solemn festivity, bright joy - the icons "Life" - the central image is framed by a number of small scenes, "brands" representing episodes from life, the phenomenon of miracles, etc. ("Metropolitan Peter with deeds", "Sergius of Radonezh with deeds", etc.).

In the history of Russian culture from the second half of the 17th century. begins new period... Changes are taking place in all spheres of social life: the desire for literacy is growing, as evidenced by the strong demand for printed textbooks. Vasily Burtsev's primer of 1634 was reprinted many times, sold at an affordable price (1 kopeck each). In 1648 the "Grammar" by Melety Smotritsky was published, in 1682 the multiplication table ("Reading is convenient"). Educational institutions are created -1687 in the Zaikonospassky monastery in Moscow - the first higher in pre-Petrine Russia educational institution- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy for the training of higher clergy and officials public service... The first teachers were the Likhud brothers, Greeks who graduated from the University of Padua. Representatives of all classes and nationalities studied here. The Academy played an important role in the development of Russian education. The first historical work was published in 1678 Ukrainian scientist Innokentiy Gizel "Synopsis", a brief overview of Russian history from ancient times to the 70s of the XVII century., withstood about

30 editions. A sample of a new literary genre, autobiography, - "Life of Archpriest Avvakum ". Turning to the traditional genre of living, he boldly introduced folk vernacular into the book language. The genre of democratic satire that exposed social injustice. Popular everyday life b ("Woe-Misfortune", etc.). The architecture is characterized by a departure from medieval austerity, a striving for external elegance, and a strengthening of the decorative principle. "Wonderful pattern"- this is how contemporaries defined the essence of the new - Terem Palace in the Moscow Kremlin, the architectural forms embodied the features of Russian folk art. Is being activated secular construction... Colored tiles, figured bricks, and a variety of decorative details made the buildings more picturesque. The desire for decoration is noticeable in the architecture of the kremlin and monasteries. New lavishly decorated refectories, bell towers and churches add an elegant look. The further development of Russian architecture led to the emergence at the end of the century of the so-called "Moscow Baroque" (second half of the 17th century), combining external splendor and decorativeness (carving on white stone, colored tiles, painting facades) with symmetry, multi-tiered. "Moscow Baroque"the development of medieval Russian architecture is nearing completion. culture XVII v. the process of secularization also affected painting, in which realistic tendencies began to appear. Art center has become Armouries, which from 1655 was headed by B.M. Khitrovo, a fine art connoisseur. The head of the new direction was the master of the chamber Simona Ushakova(1626-1686). The message to Ushakov by the artist Vladimirov, who spoke out against blind admiration for antiquity, for the closeness of art to nature, caused a response "A Word to the Lovers of Icon Writing" (1667), where Ushakov emphasized that "painting should reflect life just like a mirror reflects real objects." The most famous work of S. Ushakov is "The Savior Not Made by Hands", in which the characteristic of a human face is subtly conveyed through the use of chiaroscuro. In 1671, the artist created an icon based on the traditional theme of the "Trinity", in which he sought to convey not spiritual beauty (like in Rublev's), but earthly, material beauty. With the awakening of interest in an individual personality, the appearance "parsuns"(from the Old Russian Person) - the first secular genre in Russian culture, the prototype of the portrait - the image of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the father of Peter the Great, in the exposition of the Sevastopol Art Museum).

Until the 17th century. there was no theater in Russia. It was replaced by folk rituals with the participation of mummers: buffoons, dancers, acrobats, musicians, tightrope walkers, puppeteers, etc. performed. Later, folk theaters of buffoons appeared with their own repertoire. In the XVII century. court and school theaters were created (at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy). Plays were written by teachers on gospel stories and everyday traditions, and were staged by students. In Russian culture of the 17th century. prerequisites were created for the reforms of Peter I.

Basic concepts: military story, "Kulikovsky cycle", travel literature, hagiography, Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionisy, Russian typography, "Apostle", book miniatures, Cheti-Minei, Domostroy, Stoglav, tent style, "Naryshkin baroque", secularization, secularization , "Moscow - the third Rome", parsuna, schismaticism, Old Belief, Josephites, non-possessors, rhymed poetry, part singing, songs of the "Razin cycle"

Russian culture XIV- XV centuries. The culture of Muscovite Rus corresponds to the historical period from approximately the 14th to the 17th century. It is multifaceted and reflects all the complex events that took place at that time on Russian soil.

The regions of cultural activity are changing under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars. The south (Kiev and Dnieper region) gives way to the northeast (North-Eastern Russia and Moscow), thanks to which Russian culture manages to preserve its identity and fundamental features. The first signs of the beginning of stabilization were found already at the end of the 13th century. A special place here belongs to Novgorod and Pskov, who withstood the harsh hardships of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and who managed not only to preserve, but also to increase the artistic traditions of Russia.

By the beginning of the XIV century, Novgorod appears to be a major center of trade, a city high culture... Novgorod originality is manifested in architecture, works of fine art, epics (legends about the merchant and singer Sadko and the hero Vasily Buslaev), poetry.

I.E. Grabar, emphasizing the originality of Novgorod art, writes: “One glance at the sturdy, stocky monuments of Veliky Novgorod is enough to understand the ideal of a Novgorodian - a good warrior, not very well-groomed ... but on his own mind. ... In his architecture they are the same as he himself, simple, but strong walls, devoid of annoying ornamentation, which from his point of view is "useless", mighty silhouettes, energetic masses. The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength. Not always smooth, but always magnificent, for it is strong, majestic, conquering. "

Here were born an epic-novella, which, in comparison with the Kiev one, contains more everyday touches, as well as a buffoon - an epic of a socially incriminating character with a stamp of rude humor. The creators and performers of epics, as a rule, were buffoons, whose art is associated with the appearance of a puppet theater in the city. The Petrushka National Theater, which has been popular with the people for several centuries, was founded in Novgorod. Notable is the theatricalization of the church rite, which demonstrates the opposite influence secular art on church art. Performances on religious subjects, staged in sets, costumes, with rich musical accompaniment, were a vivid show and enjoyed success. According to N.A. Berdyaev, such pagan elements constantly played a significant role in the Russian worldview. He emphasized that “in the Russian element, the Dionysian, ecstatic element has always been and is still preserved ... tremendous power Russian choral song and dancing. "

Znamenny chanting (a rich tradition of chanting was formed) and the art of bell ringing, which later became an essential feature of Russian music of the 19th and 20th centuries, reached the highest perfection in Novgorod (the bells were reproduced in the operas Boris Godunov by Mussorgsky, Pskovityanka and The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh "Rimsky-Korsakov, in the music of Rachmaninov, Shostakovich).

From the middle of the XIV century, a period of cultural upsurge began in Russia, named by Academician D.S. Likhachev Pre-Renaissance, which, nevertheless, did not result in the Renaissance as in the West. The full influence of church ideology on spiritual life until the 17th century did not allow our country to follow the western path of the formation of humanistic principles. However, the progress towards humanity in Russian Orthodoxy in the 14th century cannot be denied. It was he who played a special role in the formation of the spiritual unity of Russia in the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The founder and abbot of the Holy Trinity Monastery, St. Sergius of Radonezh, who became the exponent of the Russian ideal of holiness, made a huge contribution to the awakening of national self-awareness and the raising of the people against foreigners. Compared to pre-Mongol times, Sergius is a different type of saint who stood at the origins of the new asceticism of the desert-dwellers. He managed to turn his personal aspirations for the unity of the Russian land, for the end of the troubles into the religious, moral and political ideal of his era. The legislator of the thoughts of all the people blessed Dmitry Ivanovich for a feat of arms ("Go boldly against the atheists, without hesitation, and you will win"), sanctified the forthcoming erection of soldiers against the oppressors of Russia. The appearance in the ranks of the Russian militia of two soldiers in black schema (Alexander Peresvet and Andrei Oslyaby, sent by St. Sergius of Radonezh) made an indelible impression on the people and strengthened their will to victory.

Pointing to the importance of the figure of St. Sergius of Radonezh in raising patriotism, historian V.O. Klyuchevsky writes: “the people, accustomed to trembling at the very name of the Tatar, finally gathered up the courage, stood up to the enslavers and not only found the courage to rise, but also went to look for the Tatar hordes in the open steppe and there fell upon the enemies with an indestructible wall, burying them under their own bones of many thousands ”. After the victory on the Kulikovo field, another hundred years should have passed until the complete overthrow of Tatar rule, but the increased sense of one's own strength, achieved as a result of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, could not be crossed out. Of course, the true flourishing of cultural life began after the Battle of Kulikovo.

The spiritual consolidation of the Russian people was largely promoted and educational activities monasteries, the buildings of which themselves, as a rule, are monuments of architecture. Unique collections of handwritten and later printed books were kept here, schools of icon painting developed. For example, at the Joseph Volotsk (Volokolamsk) monastery, founded in 1479 by the preacher Joseph Volotsk, a school was organized. And such monastic educators as the writer Epiphanius the Wise, Saint Theophanes the Greek, the Monk (since 1989 Saint) Andrei Rublev, Monk Daniel Cherny, Saint Dionysius Glushitskaya made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture.

The history of Russian culture is inseparable from the history of the Russian Orthodox Church. Within it, there were two ideological directions, opposite to each other, but oriented, in fact, towards a common task - opposition to the secularizing policy of the state. The final resolution of this long-term confrontation is not in favor of the church, realized as a result of the church reform of Peter I, by and large, and signifies the logical and historical completion of the considered period of culture. The main stumbling block between Iosiflanism (the movement founded by the Volokolamsk abbot, writer Joseph Volotsky (1439-1515) and non-acquisitiveness (concentrated in the Volga region and headed by the elder Nil Sorsky (1433-1508)) was the sphere of state-church relations. This dispute largely predetermined not only the nature of the political struggle, but also the ideological and philosophical essence of the artistic culture of Muscovite Rus.It also carried the embryo of the resonant concept "Moscow is the third Rome."

The postulate of Joseph Volotsky: "Sovereign ... we all have a common sovereign, whom the Lord God placed the Almighty in his place and placed on the royal throne, court and mercy to give him both the church and monastic and all Orthodox Christianity of all Russia, the land has entrusted power and care to him", - explains in many ways why his opponent lost the argument. In the context of the idea of ​​the integrity, the unity of Russia, the line of the Josephites turned out to be in practice the most appropriate and useful. The strengthening of the Moscow autocracy, according to Joseph Volotsky, should be facilitated by the economically powerful church (that is, owning the lands inhabited by the peasants, using their labor), which was regarded by contemporaries as money-grubbing. The non-possessors, in fact, doomed from the very beginning to declare their movement a heresy, preached the principles of conservative humanism and sought to create a church independent of the secular authorities. The political failure could not overshadow the cultural and moral significance of non-acquisitiveness, which promoted the ideals of a "pure" spiritual life, free from worldly passions, aimed not at material wealth and hoarding, but at truth, goodness, human dignity and conscience. These behests became characteristic features of Russian culture.

In the XIV-XV centuries, the courage and courage of Russian soldiers is glorified in a military story filled with the spirit of patriotism - one of the key literary genres ("The Tale of the Capture of the City of Vladimir by Baty", "The Word of the Death of the Russian Land", "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Baty", " The Legend of the exploits and life of the Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky "). The "monuments of the Kulikovo cycle" include the famous "Legends of the Mamay Massacre", created in the first quarter of the 15th century, giving a detailed description of Dmitry Donskoy's victory over Mamai, as well as the poem "Zadonshchina", written, as is commonly believed, by Zephany Ryazanets in 80 - 90 -x years XIV century. The author of the poem took as a model ancient monument Kiev literature "The Word about Igor's Campaign". It unites two works, between which two centuries lay, one ideological meaning - a call for the unification of Russian principalities to save the country from enemies. The large chronicle "The Tale of Tokhtamysh's Invasion of Moscow" also adjoins this cycle.

An amazing literary phenomenon was the "Walking Beyond the Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, which testifies to the interest of Russian people in " distant kingdoms, thirty states ". The traveler described in detail and colorfully his impressions of the distant India of the 15th century 30 years before the way to this country was discovered by Vaska de Gama.

The genre of living (hagiography) is becoming widespread. Its origins are Metropolitan Cyprian ("Life of Metropolitan Peter"), Pakhomiy Logofet (Pachomius Serb; "Life of Cyril Belozersky"), who influenced the development of Russian literary language and the spread of Christian ideals. But, perhaps, the most famous author of the hagiographic genre was the monk writer Epiphanius the Wise ("The Life of Stephen of Perm", "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh"). It is characterized by an emotionally expressive style of verbal praise, called "weaving words." It is the hagiographers who most fully reveal such a feature of the literature of this period as “abstract psychologism: if earlier the subject of description was the actions of the characters, now their psychology is revealed to the reader (but not the character, which will be discussed only in the 17th century); writers expressively, although rather schematically and straightforwardly, sought to show the individuality of a person, his emotional response to the events of the outside world.

Already by the 90s of the XIV century, Moscow art possessed all the characteristics of the "grand style", in which there is no student imitation and provincial narrow-mindedness. Moscow, after long years of rivalry with Novgorod and Tver, is turning not only into the political and spiritual, but also the artistic capital of a large Orthodox state. Her authority is recognized both in the Russian lands and in Constantinople. Contacts are developing with Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia. Major clergymen, artists and artisans come.

The activity of Theophanes the Greek (1340 - 1410) had a significant impact on the formation of the metropolitan style. The personality of this Byzantine icon painter plays a huge role in ancient Russian art. Theophanes spent about three decades of his life in Russia, painting churches, decorating manuscripts and creating icons. His pictorial manners fully corresponded to the rise of the national consciousness of the people. The artistic perfection and spiritual depth of the images of this author appeared as an inimitable ideal of creativity. People were delighted with education, exceptional talent, extraordinary creative daring of Theophanes, who served as an example for Russian icon painters. Epiphanius the Wise calls him "a glorified sage, a cunning philosopher," who thinks over the lofty and wise with his mind, who sees reasonable kindness with rational eyes. The influence of the master on church art in the XIV-XV centuries was very fruitful.

In the work of Theophanes the Greek, two main lines of Byzantine spiritual life are embodied: on the one hand, the classical principle, expressed in the contemplation of the beauty of the created world, and on the other, the striving for asceticism, which consists in the renunciation of all perishable material. The master developed his own style of painting in line with the expressive style of Byzantine painting of the XIV century, distinguished by some sketchiness, dynamism and free drawing. The Byzantine works of Theophanes have not survived; the nature of his writing can be judged on the basis of the works created in Russia. Only a small part of them have come down to us: the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin Street (in Novgorod the Great), the icons of the Transfiguration and the Virgin of the Don, the icon of the Assumption (on the back of the Donskoy; perhaps not by his brush); from book miniatures - the initials of "Gospel of the Cat". Together with Semyon Cherny and his disciples, Theophan the Greek painted in the Moscow Kremlin the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Cathedral of the Archangel (1399), and together with Prokhor and Gorodets and Andrei Rublev - the Cathedral of the Annunciation (1405). For the latter, the master and his students also performed the Deesis tier (the second row of the high iconostasis of the temple). This is the first iconostasis in Russia with full-length figures. In addition to the listed works, there are other miniatures and icons that cannot be confidently attributed to the works of this master. For example, the life-size icon of the Apostles Peter and Paul, kept in the Dormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the small icon "The Forty Day". From miniatures - the design of the Psalter of Ivan the Terrible. Research into possible works of Theophanes the Greek is still ongoing.

The life-giving influence of the icon painter Theophanes the Greek was also experienced by the brilliant Andrei Rublev (c. 1360-1370 - 1427), whose art became the pride of our country. The master highly appreciated the expression, psychologism, dynamism of the images of his predecessor, but in his own work he affirmed different, deeply national artistic ideals, combined with the value of spiritual power and greatness of man. It can be assumed that in early period he studied and worked in Byzantium and Bulgaria. Monk Andrew communicated with the best people of his time - military leaders, philosophers, publicists, theologians. The icon painter was well acquainted with Epiphanius the Wise. In spirit, Andrei Rublev is a student of Sergius of Radonezh, who all his life has called for an end to strife in Russia. It was to him that the most famous icon of the creator was dedicated - "Trinity", reflecting the idea of ​​peace, harmonious harmony, love for one's neighbor. To understand its greatest humanistic value, one should pay attention to the historical context of the birth of this work. Reflecting on the Rublev Trinity, the famous scientist-theologian P.A. Florensky writes: “Among the restless circumstances of the time, amid strife, internecine strife, general savagery and Tatar raids, amid this profound insanity that corrupted Russia, an endless, imperturbable, indestructible peace, the“ sublime peace ”of the mountain world opened to the spiritual gaze. The enmity and hatred reigning in the valley were opposed by mutual love, flowing in eternal harmony, in eternal silent conversation, in the eternal unity of the higher spheres ... this inexpressible facies of mutual declinations, this premature silence, wordless, this endless humility before each other - we consider the creative content Trinity ".

The theme of the icon is the Old Testament legend about the hospitality of the forefather Abraham - the reception and treating him to three pilgrims who came to announce to Abraham and his wife Sarah the birth of their son Isaac. Christians see the meaning in this event as translated into New Testament history. Wanderers are both an indication of the Trinity of God, and the incarnation of God the Son and His atoning sacrifice, and the establishment by Christ of the Sacrament of the Sacrament. By the time of Rublev, there was a long and quite uniform pictorial tradition of this biblical episode. But Rublev's icon presented new image a familiar plot, which was based on an original iconographic solution - impeccable from the standpoint of theological reading and at the same time clothed in a perfect artistic form. There are no usual narrative details in it, the living specifics of the episode give way to the sublime image of the pre-eternal counsel and predestination of Christ's sacrifice. The entire field of the mullion is occupied by three figures of Angels, quietly sitting around the table with refreshments; their postures, movements, views become the subject of the icon's dramatic action, the object of contemplation and theological reflection. The trinity of the Divine, one in nature, but plural in persons-hypostases, has never been revealed so convincingly by means of art. The figures of Angels are of equal scale, but each is perceived as a free personality, being in absolute unity with the rest. The right hand of the central Angel, traditionally identified with Christ, blesses the chalice with the head of a calf on the table - an image of the Old Testament sacrifice. The outlines of the bowl are repeated in the form of a space that seems to grow upward, separating the two lateral Angels: the silhouette of the central Angel is "reflected" within the boundaries of the table, outlined bottom their figures. Thin drawing, slight flattening of figures, narrowing of spatial plans contribute to the musical rhythm of such correlations. An antique sense of proportion and proportion is inherent in the artist's brush. Rublev very delicately operates with the categories of space and volume, remaining within the given framework of the iconographic artistic canon. The image of the Rublev Trinity appears as if on the verge of the transition of the flow of time human life into eternity and, conversely, timeless being into historical reality.

The icon of the Trinity was recognized as an obligatory model by the resolution of the Stoglav Cathedral in 1551: "Write icons from ancient translations as an icon painter, as the Greek icon painters wrote, and as Ondrej Rublev and other notorious icon painters wrote, and sign the holy trinity, and from your intentions do nothing." Today it is kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery, but once a year on Trinity Day it is transferred to the museum church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi, where the icon participates in the festive service and becomes available for worship.

The main works of Andrei Rublev more or less confidently include: the iconostasis and murals of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the murals and iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir" for the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod, the Deesis rite from the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin in Savvino-Storozhevsky , murals and iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the murals of the Spassky Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. Many works were done jointly with another remarkable artist of the "golden age" of Russian icons, Daniil Cherny (circa 1350 - 1428).

Andrei Rublev's legacy is inseparable from the history of Russian culture. Each of his images turns into an object of philosophical, artistic contemplation, this is perfect harmony, where truth, love and beauty are combined. The charm of Rublev's art is connected, perhaps, not so much with the highest skill, which is beyond doubt, as with the grace and holiness contained in his works.

In the second half of the 15th century, Dionysius (c. 1440 - 1502), the most major artist this period. Among his grandiose works are frescoes of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery, icons for the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the icon “Our Lady of Odigitria” for the Ascension Monastery, hagiographic icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexei, murals of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery. The spiritual ideals of Dionysius were formed among the scribes and philosophers of that time - Vassian Rylo, Spiridon-Savva, the ideological opponents of Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky, which was reflected in his work. The author's works demonstrate an increased interest in the problem of the human personality, its self-construction. If in the center of Rublev's attention was the innermost life, then Dionysius in the idea spiritual path a person adds an element of external "improvement" through constant improvement, observation and education of his soul. In his work, there is no sharp drama, characteristic of Theophanes the Greek, and there is no philosophical depth of Andrei Rublev. A certain deep restraint is given by the desire for ceremonial splendor during the reign of Ivan III, the requirement to glorify the greatness of the Moscow statehood. The graceful world of Dionysius is filled with lightness, light, joyful rejoicing. The masters of the circle of a talented painter created the icon of the Intercession of the Mother of God from the Suzdal Intercession Monastery, painted the altar barrier and the altar of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow, the Resurrection Cathedral in Volokolamsk. In the next century, his students continued the work of their teacher with dignity, however, according to most researchers, the name of Dionysius marks the last epoch of the heyday of Russian painting.

Ideologeme "Moscow is the third Rome". At the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries, the process of the unification of Russian lands was completed, Muscovite Rus entered the arena of European political life as a powerful unified state. The young autocracy needed not only military and political support, but, above all, spiritual support. Naturally, the culture of the country is entirely subordinate to the cause of serving the Russian state. Clearly and rigorously substantiate the idea of ​​autocracy was succeeded by the elder of the Pskov-Pechersk Monastery Philosopheus in his "Epistle to the Astrologers" (about 1524).

However, the first steps towards the birth of his concept, called "Moscow - the third Rome", so important for understanding the ideology of the Muscovite kingdom, can be found much earlier. In the 15th century, the Moscow chronicle lost its locality and developed the idea of ​​Russian unity. It tended to ascribe to Moscow a central place in history. The formulation of the concept was preceded by the composition of the Moscow Metropolitan Zosima "Statement of Easter", in which for the first time Moscow was openly and officially declared the reigning city. In the 10s of the 16th century, the Tver monk Spiridon-Savva compiled the "Epistle on the Monomakh Crown", which affirms the continuity of the power of the Moscow prince from Augustus Caesar, the Roman emperor. On the basis of the "Message", in turn, the "Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" was created, containing a number of legends about the origin of the Russian Grand Dukes from Augustus and about the acquisition of royal regalia by Vladimir Monomakh from the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. It is also known that Philotheus called Moscow the third Rome under the influence of the Bulgarian translation of the Chronicle of Constantine Manasseh, which proclaimed Tarnovo "the new Constantinople".

The cult of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, thanks to which, according to the chronicles in 1395, Moscow was miraculously saved from the army of the Tatar Khan Tamerlane, can reasonably be considered the archetypal source of the doctrine of Philotheus. There is a clear parallel between the cult of the main Constantinople icon of Our Lady of Hodegetria, who guarded the Byzantine capital, and the cult of the Vladimir icon. The latter protects Moscow, and this means that the patronage of the Mother of God has been transferred to the Russian city, thus it is equal and similar to Constantinople - the second Rome - and has the right to call itself the third Rome.

According to Philotheus, only Moscow preserved the true Christian faith, “the first Rome” and “the second Rome” (Constantinople) fell victims of heresies. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) actually coincided with the final overthrow of the Tatar domination in Russia (1480), therefore both of these events were naturally associated and interpreted as moving the center of world holiness. "Two Romes have fallen, the third is standing, and the fourth will never be."

Researchers Yu.M. Lotman and B.A. Ouspensky emphasize the duality of the idea "Moscow is the third Rome": the symbol of Byzantium splits into two symbolic images - Constantinople was understood as the new Jerusalem (the holy theocratic city) and at the same time as the new Rome, the imperial state capital of the world. Both ideas are embodied in the understanding of Moscow as a new Constantinople, on the one hand, and the third Rome, on the other [Ibid]. Thus, the concept of Philotheus was designed to shape the ideological image of Moscow, to justify the government's actions to create a strong centralized state.

Russian art culture XVI century. The new political concept was deeply reflected, first of all, in the literature of the 16th century, full of edification and instructiveness. The book culture that supports the autocratic power is represented by such works as Stoglav, Great Minea-Chetiya, Domostroy. They laid down a program of cultural stabilization, defining order in all areas of life: spiritual, secular, brownie.

In each of the twelve volumes of the "Great Menaion-Chetikh" (reading by months), written under the direction of Archbishop Macarius of Novgorod, there were collected the lives of the saints whose memory was commemorated in a certain month. The narration is conducted in the hagiographic genre from the position of the highest spiritual meaning, which instructs the reader to abandon "all everyday care" and reflect on "the eternal."

"Domostroy" Archpriest Sylvester contains the rules of private life, house construction. This is the ideal model of the Orthodox world in its closest approach to a person, his everyday concerns and the little things of life.

"Stoglav" includes the decisions of the Stoglav church council of 1551 and reflects the clash of different views on the complex problems of church rituals, the spiritual life of a person and society. The book contains calls from Ivan the Terrible for protection Christian faith from “godless books”, from “arganniks and guselniks”, from “icons” who write not “from ancient samples”, but “self-thinking”. Stoglav consolidates the official ideology and proposes the prohibition of any innovations of a church and cultural nature.

The talented publicist of the first half of the 16th century I.S. Peresvetov, who wrote "The Legend of Tsar Constantine", "The Legend of Mohammed-Saltan", "Predictions of philosophers and doctors of Latin about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich" and others. ...

The particular paradoxical world are the works of Ivan the Terrible himself, on the one hand, preaching God's commandments, and on the other, cursing dissenting words to the point of foul language. Among his literary texts, the epistles to Prince A.M. Kurbsky, who fled from Moscow to Livonia. In them the tsar-despot tried to prove the necessity of unlimited autocratic power for the prosperity of the Moscow state.

Analyzing the cultural mechanism of the marginal behavior of Ivan the Terrible, Yu.M. Lotman shows that the main reason for the king's extreme unpredictability is a kind of deliberate experiment to implement the theory of permissiveness, the desire to overcome any prohibitions. In the behavior of the king, the scientist points out the following points: a) playing the role of God Almighty; b) unpredictable transitions of Ivan the Terrible from holiness to sin and vice versa, arising from the infinity of his power); c) playing the role of a holy fool, in which the roles of God, the devil and a sinful person are combined; d) the constant implementation of opposite actions: on the one hand, an unlimited ruler, and on the other, a defenseless exile.

In general, according to Yu.M. Lotman, the tsar's actions were based on tyranny, elevated to the state norm. His behavior was not consistent, but a series of unpredictable explosions. However, it is precisely the change in outbursts of cruelty and excesses of repentance that allows us to speak of their undoubted orderliness. Perhaps the personality is capable of highlighting significant trends in the development of culture, and the personality of Ivan the Terrible is embodied in different forms of Russian culture, “realizing itself in the categories of an explosion” [Ibid, p. 269]. This is the specificity and, at the same time, the drama of her destinies.

It is practically impossible to prohibit the development of culture in any historical period; nevertheless, the decisions of the Stoglava Cathedral had serious consequences for the art that flourished in the 16th century. As L. Lifshits notes, it has turned into a normative system, where only that which is consecrated by tradition, the authority of the church and the state is valued. Personal spiritual experience was replaced by a sum of knowledge that precisely determines the meaning of all the phenomena of life. The problems of the relationship of the individual with God and the world were translated into the plan of the relationship of the individual with the state. Even moral norms were now considered from the point of view of state benefits. From art, according to the art critic, the poetic intonation of calm contemplation is leaving.

A great event in the cultural life of the country in the 16th century was the acquaintance of our compatriots with the achievement of European technical thought - printing, which became a state monopoly. In 1553 the first printing house was opened in Moscow. The outstanding educator Ivan Fedorov organized the Printing House 10 years later. The first Russian dated book, The Apostle, published in 1564, was distinguished by its high design technique. For unknown reasons, Ivan Fedorov left the Moscow state, but the work was continued by his students (Nikifor Tarasyev, Timofey Nevezha, Andronik Timofeev Nevezha).

The development of metropolitan architecture at the end of the 15th – 16th centuries was due to the close cultural ties of Moscow, the rise of which put an end to the isolation of the principalities. On this basis, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal and Pskov-Novgorod architecture are borrowed. The monumental construction was of national importance for the capital. The Kremlin became the symbol of her power, the walls of which were rebuilt during the reign of Ivan III. The Italian engineers Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo and others were invited to rebuild the Kremlin, who managed to preserve the old layout of the walls, making them even more majestic. Under their leadership, the Taynitskaya, Vodovzvodnaya, Spasskaya, Borovitskaya towers were erected. After the completion of the construction of the walls and towers, the Kremlin became one of the best fortresses in all of Europe.

The idea of ​​statehood of that period was also answered by the construction of a new Cathedral of the Assumption, designed to surpass in its grandeur the Novgorod Sofia and become the main temple of Russia. The talented architect Fiorovanti managed to combine the beauty of Old Russian architecture with his Renaissance views. Such features of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral as a five-domed, post-mark covering, an arcature belt on the facades, promising portals were repeated in the Moscow one, which nevertheless surpassed its original model in majesty.

After the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin, new buildings were built: the Archangel Cathedral, located on central square, intended to be the burial vault for the Moscow tsars (Italian architect Aleviz Novy); The Annunciation Cathedral, which serves as the home church of the royal family and grand dukes, is the only one of the main churches of the Moscow Kremlin, created by Russian craftsmen.

In the 16th century, the modification of the Pre-Renaissance (as the art critic G.K. Wagner called the monologic-edifying artistic culture of Russia of this period) was expressed in the emergence of new types of temples - tent and pillar-like. In architecture, the modification was associated with the fact that the language of the Renaissance had to convey a rather abstract symbolism, coming from Christian antiquity. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye became the first and, perhaps, the most perfect monument of hipped-roof architecture (pillar-like structures with a tent-shaped top structure). In the Kolomna church, a break with the Byzantine tradition is noticeable, an original architectural idea is embodied. It became the emblem of the sacred power of the sovereign, a monumental symbol of the might of the Moscow state. The birth of a new architectural form, different from the usual five-domed, was enthusiastically received by contemporaries. Temples appeared, imitating the Kolomna Church (for example, the Church of the Resurrection in the village of Gorodnya near Kolomna).

Another remarkable architectural monument that reflected the main tendencies of architecture of the 16th century was the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Moat, better known as the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, erected to commemorate the victory over Kazan. Barma and Postnik, the masters who supervised the construction, managed to achieve the unity of elements of different styles and origins: actually Russian, Renaissance and Gothic. Its volumetric-plan solution combines the forms of the tent-roofed Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, the Church of the Resurrection in the Kremlin, built by Petrok the Small, and many-sided temples such as the cathedral of the Abraham Monastery; in constructive solutions and decor - forms borrowed from buildings created by Italians who worked in Moscow, and from gothic architecture western neighbors.

The erected building became an icon-temple, in the appearance of which the idea of ​​the inseparability of the Sacred history and the political history of "Moscow - the Third World" then being created was reflected. The powerful correlation of the architecture of St. Basil's Cathedral with abstract concepts demonstrates the strengthening of allegorism characteristic of that time. A close analogy to this grandiose temple is the remarkable tent-roofed Church of the Transfiguration in the village of Ostrov near Moscow, built around the same time.

The negative aspects of the decisions of the Stoglav Cathedral could not but affect the architecture. The requirement of didactic visualization, forcing architects to resort to analogies, leads to a certain weighting of forms and a complication of compositional principles. The features of aristocracy and grace inherent in the temples of the period of the reign of Vasily III and preserved in the architecture of the thirties of the XVI century are being lost.

Stoglav also impeded the organic development of the Russian school of icon painting. Starting from the middle of the 16th century, the official art of Muscovite Rus gradually loses its dignity. According to M.V. Alpatov, a template begins to prevail in it, handicraft becomes stronger. Unsurprisingly, there is as much difference between 15th-century icons and 16th-century icons as there is between Greek originals and Roman copies. In the icon painting of the 16th century, the symbolic and allegorical genre with its edifying and moralizing is widely spread. The compositions of icons could combine abstract religious ideas and concrete images taken from life, which was unacceptable for icon painting of the 15th century. The range of scenes depicted includes everyday life with its details. This was especially true of the icons painted in honor of the new Russian saints. So, the life of St. Sergius of Radonezh was often depicted not according to canon, but according to the artist's "self-reflection" (a life-size hagiographic icon of Sergius of Radonezh). The icon "Militant Church" ("Blessed is the army of the heavenly king"), exalting the apotheosis of the Moscow army under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible, clearly demonstrates the ideological and political motives in the painting of the 16th century.

Russian culture XIV – XVIIcenturies

The cultural development of Ancient Rus, which has accumulated extensive experience in the construction and improvement of cities, has created wonderful monuments of architecture, frescoes, mosaics, icon painting, was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led the state to economic and cultural decline. The revival of Russian culture became possible only at the end XIII - early. XIV centuries Moscow became the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which gradually turned into the political and cultural center of the Russian lands.

Forming towards the end Xv century, the centralized Russian state put forward the task of widely deploying the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital - Moscow - to erect temples and palaces that correspond to its importance (before the Mongols prohibited stone construction, fearing the construction of defensive structures). For this, architects from other Russian cities, as well as Italian architects and engineers were invited to the capital (one of the outstanding Italian architects who worked in Russia was Aristotle Fioravanti, who built the Assumption Cathedral and the Kremlin's Palace of Facets). The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, the Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half Xv v. expanded to its current size. To the east of the Kremlin, Red Square arose, and it itself was surrounded by a wall of white stone (later the white brick was replaced with red).

The new tasks of state building were directly reflected in literature. Old Russian writing fully recorded the change in the people's consciousness, embodied in the desire for national unification. Numerous editions of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo ("The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev", "The Word about the Zadonshchina", etc.) present it as a nationwide feat. In many subsequent literary sources, Prince Dmitry Donskoy appears as a national hero, and his heirs, the Moscow princes, as national sovereigns. Ideology also did not stand aside. Its task was to search for new ideological forms of state building.

The definition of the vector of spiritual development was concretized with the fall, under the onslaught of the Turks, of the Byzantine Empire. Russia, the most powerful country in the Orthodox world, began to strive for a dominant position among other Orthodox states, turning into an outpost of the true (Orthodox) Church. While the Turks destroyed all the Orthodox monarchies of the East and captured all the patriarchates, Moscow took upon itself the responsibility of preserving and supporting Orthodoxy both at home and throughout the East. The Moscow prince was now becoming the head of the entire Orthodox world (especially after the marriage of Ivan III on the heiress of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Palaeologus). The Pskov monk ("elder") Filofey developed a theoretical basis for such aspirations, expressed in the formula "Moscow is the third Rome": "like two Romes fell, and the third (Moscow) stands, and the fourth does not exist." This attitude led the Moscow authorities to the determination to make Muscovy"Kingdom" through the official acceptance of the title of "Caesar" by the Grand Duke - in our interpretation of the "king", to accept the coat of arms of the Roman and Byzantine empires (double-headed eagle).

Already in the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was reviving. Novgorod, Rostov and Tver became the centers of its new development. The Novgorod and Pskov schools paid special attention to fresco painting. One of the brightest representatives of this trend was Theophanes the Greek. His images, embodying ascetic religious ideals, are distinguished by psychological tension, his writing technique - by the dynamics and originality of his techniques, the coloring is extremely restrained.

Towards the end of XIV - beginning of XV cc. the artistic role of Moscow is increasing. Feofan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local craftsmen, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's style. In 1408 Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft, harmonious tones of the painting, are imbued with a sense of peace. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art the bright sides of life and the state of mind of a person. In his works, the inner confusion of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is replaced by the beauty of mental balance and the power of conscious moral righteousness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, national character. In the wonderful Trinity icon, written for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. In the last third Xv v. Dionysius begins his artistic career. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, a certain uniformity of techniques increases, the attention of masters to the artistic form, features of festivity and decorativeness. The works of Dionysius are solemn and graceful, but psychologically they are inferior to Rublev.

The revival of decorative and applied arts proceeded more slowly. This was due to the fact that many craftsmen were taken prisoner and a number of craft skills were lost. But gradually Russian jewelry art is also reviving. Embossing, enamel, painting on ground enamel, casting and other techniques were mainly guided by floral and animal ornamentation performed in a patterned oriental style. Excessive enthusiasm for the splendor of the ornament, to XVII v. led to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, which were used to compose patterns previously made of gold. Even in iron products, there is a fascination with patterned forms (for example, the Tsar Cannon of Andrei Chokhov). In the surviving monuments of bone and wood carving, plant and animal motifs also prevailed. In addition, carvings were often variegatedly colored. Sewing also had a lot to do with painting. V XVII v. in Russia, golden lace with geometric mesh motifs or with plant elements is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, colored drilled stone were introduced into the patterns.

Polish-Swedish intervention began XVII v. delayed the development of art, but by the middle of the century, artistic creativity noticeably revived. During this period, a new genre appeared in Russian art - the portrait. The first portraits were painted in the icon-painting traditions, but gradually the techniques of Western European painting appeared in them - an accurate depiction of facial features and a three-dimensional figure. The expansion of the fields of culture, associated with the technical achievements of that time, was reflected in such a direction as book publishing.

Traditionally, in Russia, books were written by hand. At the same time, the text was decorated with ornaments, exposed in a rich (often with gold and precious stones) cover. But beauty did not always compensate for the shortcomings of handwritten books, first of all - the duration of writing and errors that appear during repeated rewriting of texts. The Church Council of 1551 was even forced to develop a decree to prevent the rewriting of books with distorted text. The need to correct and unify church texts, not least of all, influenced the opening of the first printing workshop in Moscow. Its founders were Dyak Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. During the 12 years of the printing house's existence (from 1553 to 1565), 8 large books of not only religious but also secular character were printed in it (for example, Hours, which became the first alphabet).

However, book printing during that period did not receive proper development, like many other areas of art and science characteristic of European culture. The reason for this lies in the desire for a kind of isolation of Russian culture, especially manifested in Xvi century. The explanation for these conservative tendencies should be sought primarily in the history of the formation of the Moscow state, which was continuously subjected to external aggression from both the West and the East. Cultural identity in critical periods of Russian history became almost the only saving and unifying factor. Over time, the cultivation of its own traditional culture took on hypertrophied forms and rather hindered its development, closing the possibility of penetration of the achievements of art and science of other countries into Russia. The obvious lag (primarily in the scientific and technical sphere) was overcome only by Peter I in a decisive and controversial way.

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Other documents like Russian culture of the XIV-XVII centuries

abstract

on the theme "Russian culture of the XIV - XVII centuries"

Tula 2008

Introduction

1. Architecture

2. art

Bibliography

Introduction

From the X century. almost half of the European part of Russia became part of the feudal Old Russian state, where a distinctive artistic culture developed with a number of local schools (southwestern, western, Novgorod-Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal), which accumulated experience in the construction and improvement of cities, created wonderful monuments of ancient architecture, frescoes, mosaics, icons. Its development was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led Ancient Russia to economic and cultural decline and to the isolation of the southwestern lands, which became part of the Polish-Lithuanian state. After a strip of stagnation in the Old Russian lands located on the territory of Russia from the end of the XIII century. the actual Russian (Great Russian) artistic culture begins to take shape. In its development, the influence of the urban lower classes, which became an important social force in the struggle to get rid of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and unite the Russian lands, manifested itself more tangibly than in the art of Ancient Rus. Leading already in the XIV century. this struggle, grand-ducal Moscow synthesizes the achievements of local schools and from the 15th century. becomes an important political and cultural center, where a deep belief in beauty is formed moral feat the art of Andrei Rublev and the architecture of the Kremlin commensurate with man in its grandeur. The apotheosis of the ideas of uniting and strengthening the Russian state was embodied by the temples-monuments of the 16th century.

Architecture

With the development of economic and public relations in the 17th century. the isolation of individual regions is finally eliminated, and international ties are expanding, and secular features are growing in art. Without leaving as a whole almost until the end of the 17th century. beyond the framework of religious forms, art reflected the crisis of the official church ideology and gradually lost the integrity of the perception of the world: direct life observations destroyed the conventional system of church iconography, and details borrowed from Western European architecture came into conflict with the traditional composition of the Russian temple. But this partly prepared the way for the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the Church, which took place by the beginning of the 18th century. as a result of the reforms of Peter I.

For a long time after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicles mention only the construction of wooden structures that have not come down to us. From the end of the XIII century. in the escaped ruin of North-Western Russia, stone architecture, above all military, is being revived. Stone city fortifications of Novgorod and Pskov, fortresses on riverside capes (Koporye) or on islands, sometimes with an additional wall at the entrance, forming together with the main protective corridor - "zhab" (Izborsk, Porkhov), are being erected. From the middle of the XIV century. the walls are strengthened by mighty towers, at the beginning above the gate, and then along the entire perimeter of the fortifications, which in the 15th century received a layout close to regular. Uneven masonry of roughly hewn limestone and boulders endowed the structure with painting and enhanced their plastic expressiveness. The same was the masonry of the walls of small one-domed four-pillar temples of the late 13th - 1st half of the 14th centuries, which were given a monolithic look by the coating of the facades. The temples were built at the expense of boyars, wealthy merchants. Becoming the architectural dominants of individual districts of the city, they enriched its silhouette and created a gradual transition from a representative stone Kremlin to irregular wooden residential buildings following the natural relief. It was dominated by 1-2-storey buildings on basements, sometimes three-part, with a vestibule in the middle.

In Novgorod, its previous layout developed, and the streets leading to Volkhov were added. The stone walls of Detinets and Okolny Gorod, as well as churches built at the expense of individual boyars, merchants and groups of townspeople, changed the look of Novgorod. In the XIII-XIV centuries. At the end of the facades of churches, architects move from semicircles-zakomar to more dynamic pediments - "tongs" or more often to three-blade curves corresponding to the shape of the vaults lower above the corners of the temple. The temples of the 2nd half of the XIV century are majestic and elegant. - the heyday of the Novgorod Republic, which more fully reflected the worldview and tastes of the townspeople. Slender, elongated proportions, with a coating of eight slopes along three-blade curves, which was later often converted into a pinched one, they combine the picturesqueness and plastic richness of architectural decor (stepped blades on the facades, decorative arcades on the apses, patterned brickwork, embossed "eyebrows" above the windows , pointed ends of perspective portals) with tectonic clarity and compactness of the composition directed upwards. The wide arrangement of pillars inside made the interiors more spacious. In the XV century. Novgorod churches are becoming more intimate and comfortable, and porches, porches, and storerooms in the subchurch appear. From the XIV-XV centuries. in Novgorod, stone residential buildings with basements and porches appeared. The one-pillar "Faceted Chamber" of the courtyard of Archbishop Euthymius, built with the participation of Western craftsmen, has Gothic ribbed vaults. In other chambers, the walls were divided by shoulder blades and horizontal belts, which passed into the monastery refectory of the 16th century.

In Pskov, which became independent from Novgorod in 1348, the main Trinity Cathedral had, judging by the drawing of the 17th century, zakomars located at different levels, three vestibules and decorative details similar to those of Novgorod. Placed in the Kremlin (Krom) on a high promontory at the confluence of Pskova and Velikaya, the cathedral dominated the city, which grew to the south, forming new parts, enclosed by stone walls, cut through the streets leading to the Kremlin. Subsequently, the Pskovites developed a type of a four-pillar, three-apse parish church with a posakomarny and, later, an eight-pitched pliers covering. Galleries, side-altars, porches with thick round pillars and belfries gave these squat buildings, as if sculpted by hand, erected outside the Kremlin, a special picturesqueness. In the Pskov pillarless one-apse churches of the 16th century. the drum with a dome rested on intersecting cylindrical vaults or on stepped arches. In Pskov, as in Novgorod, the streets had log pavements and were also built up with wooden houses.

With the beginning of the revival of Moscow in it in the 1320-1330s. the first white-stone temples appear. The not preserved Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor with belts of carved ornament on the facades ascended in type to the four-pillar with three apses Vladimir temple of the pre-Mongol period. In the second half of the XIV century. the first stone walls of the Kremlin are being built on a triangular hill at the confluence of the Neglinnaya with the Moskva River. To the east of the Kremlin there was a posad with a main street parallel to the Moscow River. Similar in plan to the earlier, the temples of the late XIV - early XV centuries. thanks to the use of additional kokoshniks at the base of the drum, raised on the supporting arches, a tiered composition of the tops was obtained. This gave the buildings a picturesque and festive character, enhanced by the keeled outlines of the zakomars and the tops of the portals, carved belts and thin semi-columns on the facades. In the cathedral of the Moscow Andronikov Monastery, the corners of the main volume are greatly lowered, and the composition of the top is especially dynamic. In the pillarless churches of the Moscow school of the XIV- early XV centuries. each facade was sometimes crowned with three kokoshniks.

Formation by the end of the 15th century. the centralized state put forward the task of widely deploying the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital - Moscow - to erect temples and palaces that meet its significance. For this, architects and masons from other Russian cities, Italian architects and fortification engineers were invited to the capital. Brick has become the main building material. The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, the Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half of the 15th century. expanded to its present size, and the posad embraced it from three sides and was cut by radial streets. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin; part of the settlement was surrounded in the 1530s. stone wall and then a stone wall White city and the wood-earth wall of Zemlyanoy Gorod surrounded the capital with two rings, which determined the radial-circular layout of Moscow. Fortress-monasteries, which defended the approaches to the city and were consonant with the Kremlin in their silhouette, eventually became the compositional centers of the outskirts of Moscow. Radial streets with log pavements led to the center through the gates of the Zemlyanoy and Bely cities crowned with towers. Residential development of city streets consisted mainly of wooden houses with two or three floors on basements, separate roofs over each part of the house, middle canopy and a porch.

The kremlins of other cities, as well as in Moscow, followed the terrain in their plans, and on level ground had regular rectangular plans. The fortress walls became taller and thicker. Hinged loopholes and dovetail-shaped battlements, used by Italian architects in the Moscow Kremlin, also appeared in the Kremlin of Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, and others. Later, the towers were decorated with shovels and horizontal rods, and loopholes - with platbands. The fortresses of the distant Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries were freer from new influences, with powerful walls and towers made of large boulders and almost devoid of decorations.

The surviving part of the Grand-Ducal Kremlin Palace in Moscow with a huge one-pillar hall is endowed with features of Western architecture (faceted rustic, paired windows, Renaissance cornice), but the entire composition of the palace, composed of separate buildings with passages and porches, is close to the composition of a wooden choir. In the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, which was proposed to be built like the cathedral of the same name in the 12th century. in Vladimir, the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture have undergone a significant rethinking. The majestic five-domed temple with rare slit-like windows cut into mighty drums and in the smooth surface of the walls, surrounded by an arcature frieze, is more powerful in proportion and more monumental than its prototype. An impressive contrast to the somewhat austere facades of the cathedral is the interior with six evenly spaced tall thin pillars, giving it the appearance of a ceremonial hall. The bell tower of Ivan the Great, which dominated not only the Kremlin, but all of Moscow, became a traditional model for similar high-rise dominants in other Russian cities. An attempt to transfer the motives of the early Venetian Renaissance to the Russian temple led to a discrepancy between the tiered articulations of the facade. In other churches of the second half of the XV-XVI centuries. there are those characteristic of Moscow architecture of the XIV-XV centuries. tiers of keeled zakomars, but their rhythm is less dynamic, and the measured division of the facades, decorated with arcature friezes, patterned masonry with terracotta details, make the temples elegantly stately. Terracotta details are found in Belozerye and the Upper Volga region, for example, in the palace chamber in Uglich, where the crowning tongs above smooth walls are filled with patterned brickwork with terracotta inserts. The facades of other secular buildings of this time, as a rule, are more modest.

From the XIV-XVI centuries. several wooden churches have survived. Earlier - "kletskie", reminiscent of a hut with a gable roof and annexes. Churches of the XVI century. - high, octahedral, covered with a tent, and the annexes on two or four sides have curved roofs - "barrels". Their slender proportions, contrasts of figured "barrels" and austere tent, harsh chopped walls and carvings of the gallery and porches, their inextricable connection with the surrounding landscape are evidence of high skill folk craftsmen- "woodworkers" who worked as artels.

The growth of the Russian state and national identity after the overthrow of the Tatar yoke was reflected in the stone temples-monuments of the 16th century. Being a high achievement of Moscow architecture, these majestic buildings dedicated to important events, as it were, combined the dynamism of wooden hipped-roof churches and tiered endings of temples of the XIV-XV centuries. with the monumentality of the 16th century cathedrals. In stone churches-towers, the leading forms are inherent in stone - tiers of zakomar and kokoshniks around the tent cut by the windows. Sometimes the tent was replaced by a drum with a dome, or the towers with domes surrounded the central, tent-covered tower. The predominance of verticals endowed the upwardly directed composition of the temple with jubilant dynamism, as if growing out of the open "gulbis" surrounding it, and the elegant decor gave the structure a festive solemnity.

In the temples of the late 15th and 16th centuries. the use of the so-called cross vault, resting on the walls, relieved the interior of supporting pillars and made it possible to diversify the facades, which received either a three-bladed or an imitating zakomara finish, or were crowned with tiers of kokoshniks. Along with this, they continued to build four-pillar five-domed temples, sometimes with galleries and side-altars. Stone one-pillar refectory and residential monastery buildings of the 16th century. have smooth walls topped with a simple cornice or patterned masonry belt. Residential architecture was dominated by wood, from which were built both houses with 1-2 floors, and boyar and episcopal palaces, which consisted of multi-frame groups connected by transitions on basements.

In the XVII century. the transition to a commodity economy, the development of domestic and foreign trade, the strengthening of central power and the expansion of the country's borders led to the growth of old cities and the emergence of new ones in the south and east, to the construction of living rooms and administrative buildings, stone dwelling houses of boyars and merchants. The development of the old cities proceeded within the framework of the already established layout, and in the new fortified cities they tried to introduce regularity into the layout of streets and the shape of neighborhoods. In connection with the development of artillery, the cities were surrounded by earthen ramparts with bastions. In the south and in Siberia, wooden walls with earthen backfill were also built, which had towers with hinged fighting and low hipped roofs. The stone walls of Central Russian monasteries at the same time lost their old defensive devices, became more ornate. The plans of the monasteries have become more regular. The enlargement of the scale of Moscow caused the addition of a number of Kremlin buildings. At the same time, they thought more about the expressiveness of the silhouette and the elegance of the decoration than about improving the defensive qualities of the fortifications. The complex silhouette and rich white-stone carving of cornices, porches and curly platbands were given to the terem palace built in the Kremlin. The number of stone residential buildings is increasing. B XVII century. they were usually built according to a three-part scheme (with a vestibule in the middle), had utility rooms on the ground floor and an outer porch. The third floor in wooden buildings was often framed, and in stone buildings - with a wooden ceiling instead of vaults. Sometimes the upper floors of the stone houses were wooden. In Pskov, houses of the 17th century. almost devoid of decorative decoration, and only in rare cases were windows framed by platbands. Central Russian brick houses, often asymmetric, with roofs of different heights and shapes, had cornices, interfloor belts, embossed window frames made of profile bricks and were decorated with coloring and tiled inserts. Sometimes a cruciform plan was used, a connection at right angles of three-part buildings, internal stairs instead of external ones.

Palaces in the 17th century evolved from picturesque scattering to compactness and symmetry. This can be seen from the comparison of the wooden palace in the village of Kolomenskoye with the Lefortovo Palace in Moscow. The palaces of the church lords included a church, and sometimes, consisting of a number of buildings, were surrounded by a wall with towers and looked like a Kremlin or a monastery. Monastic cells often consisted of three-part sections, forming long buildings. Administrative buildings of the 17th century looked like residential buildings. Gostiny Dvor in Arkhangelsk, which had 2-storey buildings with housing above and warehouses below, was at the same time a fortress with towers dominating the surrounding buildings. The expansion of cultural ties between Russia and the West contributed to the appearance of order forms and glazed tiles on the facades of houses and palaces, in the dissemination of which the Belarusian ceramists who worked with Patriarch Nikon on the construction of the New Jerusalem monastery in Istra played a role. They began to imitate the decoration of the Patriarchal Cathedral and even tried to surpass it with elegance. At the end of the 17th century. order forms were made in white stone.

In churches throughout the 17th century. the same evolution took place from complex and asymmetric compositions to clear and balanced ones, from picturesque brick "ornamental" facades to order decoration clearly placed on them. For the first half of the 17th century. typical pillarless with a closed vault "patterned" churches with a refectory, aisles and a bell tower. They have five chapters, domes over the side-altars, tents over the porches and the bell tower, tiers of kokoshniks and cornices inspired by residential architecture, platbands, and milled belts. With their fractional decor, picturesque silhouette and complexity of volume, these churches resemble multi-trumpet rich mansions, reflecting the penetration of the secular principle into church architecture and losing the monumental clarity of the composition.

2. Fine arts

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. In the context of greatly reduced international and interregional ties in the 2nd half of the XIII century and at the beginning of the XIV century. the old schools of painting were finally crystallized and new ones were formed.

In icons and miniatures of Novgorod's manuscripts already from the second half of the XIII century. the purely local features that have developed here in the paintings of the 12th century are determined: a clear image, not complicated by allegories, a somewhat elementary large drawing, decorative brightness of color. On the temple icon of the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipno, performed by Alexa Petrov, Nicholas the Wonderworker is presented as an attentive mentor and helper to people. Rounded lines, elegant ornamentation reflected the influence of decorative trends in folk art.

In the cities of north-eastern Russia that survived the invasion, painting for a long time developed on a pre-Mongol basis. Artistic workshops were focused on bishops and princely courts, and their works have a church or caste princely character. Rostov icons of the XIII-XIV centuries. characterized by translucent paints, delicate and warm colors. The hagiographic icons were very popular, in which the literary narrative beginning was clearly expressed. Several outstanding icons and facial manuscripts of the 13th-14th centuries are associated with Yaroslavl. The icon "Boris and Gleb" stands out for its solemn beauty, but the place of its writing has not been precisely established.

In the 70-80s of the XIII century. the Tver school of painting arose. The frescoes of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Tver, executed by local masters, were the first attempt at turning to monumental painting after the Tatar invasion. For not very high quality Tver icons and manuscripts, whitish highlights and decorative combinations of white, red, and blue are characteristic. A little later, the Moscow school arose in Tver, the early monuments of which testify to its close ties with Rostov and Yaroslavl.

In the XIV century, with the beginning of the extensive construction of stone churches, fresco painting was revived. The frescoes of the cathedral of the Svyatogorsk monastery near Pskov are still close in style to those of Novgorod, such as those of the Nerditsky. Novgorod paintings of the 2nd half of the XIV century. more free in nature. Some of them were executed by immigrants from Byzantium: frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Ilyin Street and the Assumption on Volotovo Pole. Others were painted by the southern Slavs: frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Kovalev and the Nativity in the cemetery and the church of Michael the Archangel of the Skovorodsky monastery.

The most impressive are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street, executed by Theophanes the Greek, as well as Volotov's frescoes, striking in their spiritualized pathos of images and artistry. The Theophanes' paintings for their severe expressiveness, exceptional freedom of composition and writing are unmatched not only in Russia, but also in Byzantium. The frescoes of the corner chamber in the choir are well preserved: the images embodying ascetic ideals are distinguished by psychological tension, the writing technique - by the dynamics and originality of the techniques, the coloring is extremely restrained. Deity and saints appear in Theophanes in the form of a formidable force designed to rule a person and remind him of exploits in the name of a higher idea. Their dark faces with fluently laid white highlights, in contrast to which the whitened yellow, crimson, and blue tones of clothes acquire a special sonority, have a direct and deep impact on the viewer. The frescoes of the Church of Theodore Stratilates are stylistically close to those of the Savior on Ilyin Street. It is possible that Russian masters who studied with the Greeks took part in their performance.

The fresco also influenced the style of Novgorod icons of the 14th century, which became freer and more picturesque. Works of Pskov icon painters of the XIV century. They stand out for their bold color modeling and unusual coloring based on a combination of orange-red, green, brown and yellow tones. The gloomy expressiveness of the images of the saints on the Pskov icons reveals their known closeness to the works of Theophanes the Greek.

In the north in the XIV century. the Vologda school of painting was formed. Its famous representative is the icon painter Dionisy Glushitsky. Dark, somewhat muted tones prevail in Vologda icons. Archaic traditions, persistent in the north, make icons of northern writing of the XIV-XV centuries. often similar in style to the monuments of an earlier period.

The heyday of Novgorod painting took place in the 15th century. On Novgorod icons there is a specific selection of saints: Ilya, Vasily, Flor and Laurus, Paraskeva Friday, Anastasia, Nikola, George. They were associated in the popular consciousness with the forces of nature and were called upon to protect man, his home and economy. Iconography reveals traces of the influence of pagan remnants, folklore, local historical events, and everyday life. The extraordinary activity and the well-known democratism of public life in Novgorod contributed to the formation in local painting of a special ideal of a person - decisive, energetic, strong. Novgorod icons are characterized by a confident harsh drawing, symmetrical compositions, bright cold tones.

From the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries. the artistic role of Moscow is increasing. Feofan the Greek, Prokhor s Gorodets, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. In the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Theophanes slightly increased the size of the icons of Christ, the Mother of God and the saints and achieved a clear expressiveness of the silhouette ("Deesis rite"). This rank was of great importance for the subsequent development of the Russian high iconostasis. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local craftsmen, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's style. In 1408, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft harmonious tones of the painting are permeated with a sense of pacification. The icons of the Zvenigorod rank painted a little later by Rublev are a purely Russian interpretation of the Deesis theme. The image of the blessing Christ is full of inner strength and wise tranquility. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art the bright sides of life and the state of mind of a person. In his works, the inner confusion of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is replaced by the beauty of mental balance and the power of conscious moral righteousness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, national character. In the remarkable Trinity icon, written for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. The figures of angels, sitting with their heads bowed to each other in silent conversation, form a circle - a symbol of eternity, and smooth, harmonious lines evoke a mood of light concentrated thoughtfulness. Delicate, subtly coordinated tones, among which golden and sonorous blue predominate, the inner freedom of a precisely found composition with its expressive rhythm is in close relationship with the deeply human intention of this brilliant piece.

In the last third of the 15th century. Dionysius begins his artistic career. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, created during the formation of the Russian centralized state headed by Moscow, there is an increase in a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of masters to the artistic form, features of festivity and decorativeness. The delicate drawing and exquisite coloring of the icons of Dionysius, with strongly elongated graceful figures, are full of elegant solemnity. But psychologically, his images are inferior to those of Rublev. The paintings of the Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Kirillov, created by Dionysius and his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, are marked by a special softness of color, the beauty of compositions subordinate to the plane of the wall with, as it were, sliding graceful figures. The numerous works of Dionysius and the artists of his school caused widespread irritation to him. At the end of the 15th century. Moscow artists go to Novgorod, Pskov, to the North, to the cities of the Volga region, and the best masters of these art centers go to work in Moscow, where they get acquainted with the creative techniques of metropolitan painters. Moscow art is gradually leveling local schools and subordinating them to a common model.

In the XVI century. the strengthening of the state and the church was accompanied by a theoretical elaboration of questions about the royal power, about the attitude of the church towards it, about the role of art in worship, about the ways of translating church stories. Under the influence of the theological literature of the book, art becomes far-fetchedly complex, scholasticly abstract. Numerous speculative allegories and symbols often obscure the content and overload the composition. The letter becomes shallow, the style loses its monumentality and clarity. The unpreserved painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, based on the "Legend of the Vladimir Princes", clearly illustrated the idea of ​​the continuity of power of the Moscow autocrats. Painted on the occasion of the capture of Kazan, the icon-painting "Militant Church", representing the apotheosis of Ivan the Terrible, is filled with allegories and historical parallels. In such works, political, secular tendencies became predominant. These tendencies were even more pronounced in the miniatures of a number of handwritten books. The largest book-writing workshops were located in Novgorod, Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The fundamental "Facial vault" contains about 16 thousand miniatures. Military and genre scenes with everyday details drawn from life are made in a graphic manner and tinted with watercolors. Multi-faceted constructions of space, a real landscape appear in them. Typography, the first experiments of which fell on the 50s. XVI century, marked the beginning of Russian engraving. Ivan Fedorov found an artistic solution for her, independent of icon and miniature painting.

At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. in Moscow, two trends in painting were formed, conventionally called by the names of their zealous supporters "Godunovsky" and "Stroganov". The first of them gravitated towards the strict style of icons and monumental painting of the 15th-16th centuries, but found it also typical of the masters of the 16th century. love for regal splendor, and when illustrating psalters revived old tradition registration of manuscripts with drawings in the margins. The Stroganov school cultivated small, dapperly refined writing, combining colors with gold and silver; icons were painted for home chapels of rich feudal lords - connoisseurs of sophisticated craftsmanship. The somewhat pampered beauty and defenseless weakness of the saints in colored clothes, the background with a complex fantastic landscape are characteristic of the works of the masters of this school - Emelyan Moskvitin, Stephen Pakhiri, the royal icon painters Procopius Chirin, the Savin family, and others.

Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the 17th century. delayed the development of art, but by the 1640s, artistic creativity noticeably revived. The social contingent of customers has expanded. Along with the royal court, clergy and boyars, merchants and wealthy townspeople were intensively building and decorating stone churches and chambers. The number of artists, sometimes not professionally trained enough, is growing, which reduces the overall level of skill. But among immigrants from the urban lower classes and state peasants there were many people with a bright talent, who created paintings, icons, miniatures, striking with freshness of the worldview, freedom and variety of interpretation of plots, and bold techniques. Art is being democratized, becoming more comprehensible and accessible, and it is getting closer to the people's perception of the world. Many names of the masters of the 17th century are known. - Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, most often working in large artels: some masters outlined compositions on the walls of the church, others painted faces, others - clothes and draperies, fourth - architecture and landscapes, fifth - ornaments, etc. Collective creativity developed a clear uniformity. In the icon painting of the 1st half of the 17th century. the traditions of the Stroganov school are traced. The author of the icon "Alexy, Metropolitan of Moscow" lovingly colors the splendid robe of the saint, the intricate clouds of the background, and the landscape spreading below. In the icons, designed for perception from a distance, the shapes are larger, the line is more energetic, the silhouette is more expressive, the coloring is simpler and duller. Monumental painting develops under the noticeable influence of icon painting and Western European engraving. Plots multiply, reduced to an entertaining story with everyday details, the scale of figures decreases, the drawing loses its former laconic expressiveness, individual images are crowded out endlessly by repeating types.

In the middle of the 17th century. The Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, which strongly influenced Russian art in general, became the center of artistic painting. Its painters were masters of the broadest range: they painted murals, icons and miniatures, painted furniture and household utensils, painted royal portraits, decorated church and secular holidays, etc. And although the frequent change of occupation developed stereotyped techniques among the masters, the Armory Chamber supported art at a very high professional level... Here, the first in the history of Russian art, special treatises on painting, written by Joseph Vladimirov and Simon Ushakov, appeared, posing the problem of the plausibility of icon images in life. In painting, Ushakov paid the main attention to the shading of the form, achieving soft transitions, three-dimensional images, persistently seeking the impression of their reality.

In the XVII century. in Russian art a new genre appeared for him - a portrait. Until the middle of the 17th century. the authors of the portraits still follow the principles of icon painting, and their works differ little from icons. Later, not without the influence of foreigners working in Russia, techniques of Western European painting appeared in the portrait, facial features were precisely fixed, the volumetric figure was revealed, although the interpretation of clothes remained flat, and the image as a whole froze motionless.

The murals of Yaroslavl and Kostroma icon painters, who also worked in Moscow, Rostov, Romanov and Borisoglebskaya Sloboda, Vologda, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and other cities, are marked by inexhaustible imagination, the interest of the surrounding reality. The craftsmen knew how to add amusement and decorativeness to multi-figured, full of dynamics, multicolored paintings covering the walls and vaults of temples with a picturesque carpet. A number of scenes are composed in narrative cycles with many subtly noticed everyday details and with motives of real landscapes. These murals, like the icons in the Yaroslavl Church of Elijah the Prophet and several excellent icons of Semyon Kolmogorodts, are permeated with the optimistic outlook of people who still timidly but joyfully reveal the beauty of earthly life.

Art of the 17th century, mainly narrative and decorative, strove for literary and external expressiveness, which was often achieved through a very free interpretation of iconographic scenes and saturation of them with everyday details. This, as well as the constant interest of artists in portraits and in depicting real buildings and landscapes, prepared Russian art for the transition to the path of secular development. This transition was impossible, however, without the decisive liberation of art from the influence of the Church, without the introduction of the secular principle into culture, which the reforms of Peter I brought with them.

Sculpture occupied a special place in the artistic life of the Russian Middle Ages. The official church regarded it negatively as a relic of idolatry, but could not but reckon with its popularity among the people. In those moments of history, when the unification of all the forces of the people was especially important, the sculpture gained access to the temple, serving as an effective conductor of current ideas. Therefore, plots prevail in it, which in the popular consciousness were associated with a heroic or high moral and aesthetic principle.

Usually sculptures were made in wood, although some works in metal are known: a self-portrait of the master Abram on the trophy bronze gates of St. Sophia of Novgorod, collected by him at the turn of the XII-XIV centuries. ; silver figure of Tsarevich Dmitry by Gavrila Ovdokimov "with comrades". There is also a sculpture in stone: "George" by V. D. Ermolin, large commemorative crosses with reliefs. Typically, wood sculpture was polychrome. Local painting with tempera paints brought it closer to the icon. This proximity was aggravated by the fact that the reliefs did not protrude beyond the plane of the untouched edge of the board framing the image, and the flattened figures, designed for strictly frontal perception, were placed in icon cases with a colored background, the density of color and the weight of the volume, reinforcing each other, create a special intensity of the decorative sound of the sculpture ... Shapes unfolded on a plane preserve the integrity and power of the rounded block of the tree. Shallow geometrized cuts, denoting clothing and armor, emphasize the monumentality of the volume and the impenetrable hardness of the mass, in contrast to which the finely modeled facial features acquire increased spirituality, revealing an inner life concentrated in majestic, frozen figures. As in painting, in sculpture, the sublime idea was expressed by rhythm, proportions, the silhouette of closed compositions, endowing the bodily appearance of the saints with an intense spirituality, devoid of individual traits.

During the XIV - XVII centuries. sculpture underwent, in general terms, the same evolution as painting, from a lapidary, generalized treatment of static figures to a greater narrative and freedom in the transmission of movement. Not directly related to the Byzantine tradition, sculpture was freer to embody the local understanding of the ideals of moral beauty and strength. In some local schools, echoes of pre-Christian traditions are felt. These traditions, although they caused decisive measures on the part of the church to eradicate them, found their direct development in folk sculpture of the 18th - 19th centuries.

The revival of decorative and applied arts in the post-Mongol period was complicated by the fact that many craftsmen were taken prisoner, and a number of craft skills were lost. From the middle of the XIV century. jewelry art revives. The setting of the Gospel of Boyar Fyodor Cats with chased relief figures in multi-bladed frames and with the finest filigree, jasper chalice by Ivan Fomin with embossing and filigree, chased censers, "sions" reproducing the forms of hipped and domed temples, brothers, ladles, chalice, cast with the panagiarism of the Novgorod master Ivan retains the tectonic clarity of form and ornamentation, emphasizing the structure of the object. In the XVI century. chasing and filigree are complemented by enamel. In the XVII century. vegetative ornamentation develops, completely braiding products. Moscow and Solvychegodsk enamel, losing in the subtlety of performance and the integrity of the color range, wins in brightness and richness of shades, competing with the brilliance of precious stones. By order of the Stroganovs in Solvychegodsk, objects of the "Usolsk case" are made, painted with bright fabulous flowers on white ground enamel. Appear subject images bearing the imprint of Western European influence. Since the XVI century. the mobile is used with a clear beautiful pattern, corresponding to the shape of the products. From the 2nd half of the 17th century. and patterning grows in the mob, oriental motifs spread. Only by the end of the century a more austere ornament was revived. Basma is widespread, covering wood products, decorating the backgrounds of icons. In the XIV - early XV centuries. it uses an ornament in the form of flowers in circles, borrowed from Byzantine and Balkan manuscripts. In the XVII century. her bizarre floral patterns take on a purely Russian character. Hobby in the 17th century. lush ornamentation leads to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects with precious stones and pearls, from which patterns that were previously made of gold are assembled. Casting from non-ferrous metals underwent the same evolution - from the Tsar Cannon of Andrei Chokhov to the bronze canopy of Dmitry Sverchkov in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral and to the tin openwork cast frames for icon cases of the 17th century. Even in iron products, there is a fascination with patterned forms: forged lattices of the Moscow Church of St. George of Neokesaria, gates made of cut iron in the Ryazan Assumption Cathedral, hinges and door handles of ordinary buildings.

In the monuments of bone carving of the 15th century. unreported forms of the "animal style" in the openwork ornament are visible. In the "Crucifixion" of the XVI century. The Uglich Historical and Art Museum was influenced by the elongated and graceful proportions of the figures of Dionysius. In the XVII century. the art of carvers from Kholmogory is highly valued in Moscow, where they work decorating their products with birds and animals "in the grasses". Especially good are the numerous caskets with large through-flowing floral ornaments.

A few large examples of woodcarving of the 14th-16th centuries have come down to us. Such is the sharp silhouette of the Lyudogoshchinsky cross from Novgorod, decorated with intricate ornamentation and images of saints. More small wooden items have survived, among which the work of the master Ambrose stands out for the subtlety and beauty of execution. In the XVI century. elements of oriental art penetrate into wood carving. Virtually fine flat-relief openwork carving of the royal gates from the Church of St. John the Theologian on Ishna near Rostov, made by the monk Isaiah. The throne of Ivan the Terrible with a tent and carved historical scenes and places of worship of the 16th-17th centuries. with a relatively fractional pattern, they are distinguished by the architectural clarity of complexly arranged completions. The sophisticated Yaroslavl openwork carving resembles metal with the clarity of its forms. From the middle of the 17th century. a number of Belarusian carvers, headed by Klim Mikhailov, came to Moscow, who introduced Western European baroque forms. "Belarusian carving" became widespread in iconostases, striking in the richness and variety of details. Its forms were also used in the outdoor white stone decor. If a variety of wooden ladles and dishes of the XVI-XVII centuries. differed in soft plastic rounded shapes shaded with a light geometric ornament, then large openwork floral motifs were used in the furniture. Geometric three-sided chamfered carvings adorned caskets, candle boxes, tables. Often, the furniture used forms borrowed from architectural decor. Carved items were often variegatedly colored.

The painting was predominantly ornamental. In terms of technique and character, for a long time she maintained a connection with icon painting. Apparently, in the XVI century. a "golden" painting of wooden dishes appeared, later known as Khokhloma. The painting extends to the walls, window glass, carved decor in the interior. Often, ornamental shoots completely cover the surface of objects. These motives existed in the Russian regions until recently. In the XVII century. "everyday writing" appears on furniture and dishes - everyday scenes, fairy-tale creatures, and so on.

Household ceramics of the XIV-XV centuries rough and primitive in form. Only from the XVI century. "staining" and burnishing are applied. On flasks of the 17th century. geometric ornamentation appears, and then flat-relief images of figures. Many products reproduce metal shapes; the influence of wood carving can be seen in the ornamentation. From the end of the 15th century. curly balusters and red terracotta tiles, decorated with palmettes, and sometimes covered with light ocher glaze, are included in the decor of the facades. In the XVII century. green tiles with embossed domestic and military scenes are made for the decoration of buildings. From the middle of the 17th century. Belarusian craftsmen made multicolored tiles for the Cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery in Istra.

Sewing had a lot to do with painting. The best sewing workshops were in the 16th century. concentrated in Moscow at the royal court. Two large shroud came out of the Staritskys' workshop, differing in deeply psychological characteristics of the characters and impeccable artistic technique.

Heaps of the 16th-17th centuries along with geometric and plant motifs, possibly dating back to pre-Mongolian patterns, they reproduce eastern and western ornaments of imported silk fabrics. At the end of the 17th century. a three- and four-color heel appears. During the XIV-XVII centuries. there was a highly developed patterned weaving, as evidenced by the pavolok of the icon of the "Zvenigorod rank" by Andrei Rublev. In the XVII century. gold lace with geometric mesh motifs or with plant elements is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, colored drilled stone are introduced into the patterns. Some patterns of the 17th century. lived in cotton linen lace until the 20th century.

In the XIV-XVII centuries. art in Russia developed under the great influence of the church. V architectural monuments churches predominate, icons in the monuments of painting. There was also a strong influence of Byzantine motives on the development of Russia during this period. Only part of the crafts not subject to this influence developed independently. The emergence of Russian art from the influence of the church began only at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, which gave a powerful impetus for development.

The next civilization cycle in development national culture associated with the formation of Russian national identity in the era of the Muscovite kingdom (XVI-XVII centuries)

Mongol-Tatar invasion 1237-1241 and the invasion of German knights in the north-west of Ancient Russia put the country on the brink of destruction. Chronicle stories about the battle on Kalka in 1223, "The Word about the Death of the Russian Land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky"

The Mongol-Tatar yoke delayed the development of Russia: cities and villages were destroyed on its land, handicraft culture was partially lost, and the population sharply decreased.

Only from the second half of the XIV century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). This event became important step on the way of liberating the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land. At this time, the leading role of Moscow is determined, which leads the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands.

The Moscow princes, overcoming the feudal fragmentation of Russia, led the struggle against the Golden Horde and by the end of the 15th century. completed the process of creating a unified and independent state. In written sources of the 15th century. the words "Russia", "Russian land" appear.

The formation of Muscovite Rus was largely determined by its complex and contradictory relationship with the Golden Horde. The socio-political system that emerged in the young state bore the features of a strong Eastern influence, especially from the middle of the 14th century, when the Horde converted to Islam.

After the fall of Constantinople in 1451, the Russian Orthodox Church gained independence and moved away from the Western Christian world. Russia sees itself as the only defender of Christianity. She takes upon herself the mission of saving Orthodoxy, recognizes herself as "holy Russia", and her capital, Moscow, as "the third Rome." If in the West society during this period gradually frees itself from the influence of the church, then in Moscow, on the contrary, there is an increase in the influence of the church on the life of the state and the daily life of people. The clergyman Joseph developed the theory of theocratic absolutism, which strengthened the authority of the secular government and strengthened the position of the church. Heretics (who demanded a cheap church, denied theological dogmas about the Trinity of God, denied monasticism and church land tenure, fought for free thought in literature and science) were condemned in 1490 by the Church Council and in the 15th century. the canonical requirements were tightened.

It was from the 16th century. the history of the culture of the Russian people begins in the proper sense of the word, since at this time the specific features of the Russian national identity were formed:

The combination of spirituality, expressed in Orthodoxy, with the desire for freedom;

Collectivism and poorly expressed personal consciousness;

Commitment to the values ​​of Orthodoxy;

Priority of state principles, the interests of the state; power is the main national treasure and its interests are above personal interests.

Achievements of Russian culture of the 14-17 centuries

Russian craftsmen built a number of the largest fortifications: in 1367 the white-stone Moscow Kremlin was built, but at the end of the 15th century. The Kremlin of Dmitry Donskoy was dilapidated and the Moscow Kremlin was built of bricks, thick walls with a length of more than 2 km with 18 towers, the Pskov and Novgorod Kremlin of the beginning of the 15th century, stone kremlin in Kazan, Astrakhan, Smolensk in the 16th century. The Assumption Cathedral (15th century), the Annunciation Cathedral (the home church of the Grand Dukes, built in 1489), the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of the Moscow princes, built in 1508). The pomegranate chamber (the throne room for receiving ambassadors, built in 1491) created the unique look of the Moscow Kremlin. Architecture of the 15th-16th centuries reflected the increased international authority of Russia as a living embodiment of the ideas of the era of the formation of the Russian national state. The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century. was construction temple of the tent type. This new type of stone temple borrowed its forms from folk wooden architecture. The achievement of construction technology was the erection in 1532 of the tent-roofed Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 62 m high (the "pillar" which easily rises upwards of a huge height is crowned with a twenty-meter high stone tent of exceptional beauty), in 1560 the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed (47 m high), the Pokrovsky ensemble cathedral, consisting of 9 temples of various heights. In general, the architecture of the XV-XVI centuries. in scale, variety and originality of creative solutions belongs to the most striking stages in the history of Russian architecture.

The formation of a unified state entailed the development of the rudiments of scientific knowledge for state needs (measurement of land allotments, compilation of geographic maps, determination of soil fertility, development of arithmetic, medicine).

In the years 1466-1472. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin went by dry route to India and left detailed notes "Walking over the Three Seas". (The sea route to India was opened in the West later, in 1498 by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.)

Since the XIV century. and especially at the end of the 15th century. artillery was developed, cannons were invented, which were loaded not from the muzzle, but from the "breech end". In the West, this type of weapon was invented much later. The giant "Tsar Cannon" was installed in the XV v. in the Moscow Kremlin.

The patriotic upsurge after the Battle of Kulikovo increased interest in the brilliant past of Russia, in its culture. The work of Zaphony Ryazants "Zadonshchina", dedicated to the historical victory over the Tatars, also included memoirs from "The Lay of Igor's Host." Historical literature of the 16th century. imbued with the tasks of strengthening the autocracy, strengthening its alliance with the church. Generalizing chronicle works are created - the Front Chronicle Code - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

In the XVI century. the gap between folklore and writing begins to be bridged (for the first time books in Russia began to be printed in 1553, but anonymously, and then, in 1563, Ivan Fedorov under Ivan the Terrible opened a printing house with funds from the royal treasury, the first printed book "Apostle" (1564 .), the first Russian primer (1574) .. Until the end of the 16th century, about 20 books of church and religious content were published).

The code of everyday life was presented in "Domostroy", which defended the patriarchal way of life in the family and the despotic power of the head of the family.

Moscow painting of the 14th-15th centuries I knew no equal. Theophanes the Greek (1340-1405) painted cathedrals and towers in Moscow, for example, the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral. Frescoes (painting on wet plaster with paints diluted on water), icons of Theophanes the Greek are distinguished by their monumentality, expressiveness of images, he embodied the inner strength and spirituality of the saints.

The greatest artist of Russia Andrei Rublev (1360-1430) created masterpieces of icons: "Trinity", "Savior", "Archangel Michael", "Transfiguration", painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Annunciation Cathedral, etc. The art of Andrei Rublev is imbued with sublime bright mood, a sense of harmony, harmony, serenity and humanity, golden color. Among the surviving works of Andrei Rublev are frescoes on the theme “ The last judgment”In the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408), even here Rublev's images are full of humanity, there is no excessive severity. Andrei Rublev was the first Russian painter, in whose work national features were clearly expressed: high humanism, a sense of human dignity.

A major master of icon painting at the turn of the 16th century. was Dionysius. For icon painting of the 16th century. characterized by the exaltation of political ideas and events by means of art. Dionysius painted the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Theotokos in the Ferapontov Monastery, etc. His icons and frescoes are marked by exquisite designs, lush decorativeness, festivity and elegance. The proportions of human bodies are elongated, the movements are magnificent and important, the themes of the paintings are mainly devoted to the Mother of God - the patroness of Moscow. Much attention was paid to mosaics and frescoes.

Russian art was characterized by traditionalism, a religious character, locality, isolation, an authoritarian style of thinking and strict obedience to the canon: the center of the icon was in the eye, the image seemed to be "turned out" to the viewer, strictly followed the colors: yellow - divine, red, white - color blood and joy of God; cherry - uniting; black - the secrets of God.