Man in Old Russian Literature. "The Tale of Bygone Years" as a Historical and Literary Monument - Literature - Catalog of Articles - Cabinet of Methods

2. The teacher's word

The purpose of the stage cognition: What events are associated with the emergence of ancient Russian literature?

Teacher:

The impetus for the emergence of Old Russian literature was the adoption of Christianity, when the need arose to acquaint Russia with the Holy Scriptures, with the history of the Church, with world history, with the lives of saints. The churches under construction could not exist without service books. And also there was a need to translate from the Greek and Bulgarian originals and distribute a large number of texts. This was the impetus for the creation of literature in the 10th century. Unlike Western European countries, Russia adopted Christianity late, in 988. The initial development of Russian literature took place under the influence of Byzantium - that is, the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. The oldest monuments date back to the 11th century and are written in the old Church Slavonic language. The earliest surviving manuscripts were created in Kiev, then at the crossroads of the most important trade routes and representing one of the most prosperous and cultural cities of medieval Europe. Chernigov, Galich, Rostov, and Novgorod were also centers of books. Books in Ancient Russia were highly valued. They were written mainly by monks scribes in their cells. The greatest interest was aroused by works of a moral, instructive nature, as well as historical works.

Answer: The beginning of Old Russian literature dates back to the 10th century, when writing appeared in Russia.

Question: Listen to the material and answer the question: how does Old Russian literature differ from the literature of modern times?

Teacher: The specific features of Old Russian literature are:

1. Until 1564, Russian literature was handwritten. The problem of book printing existed for a long time, right up to the 18th century, so the creation of a book was a long-term endeavor. Until the 17th century, all works were circulated by correspondence.

2. The works were created on the basis of historical material. Old Russian literature knew no fiction. All texts are based on real historical facts. The presence of fantastic elements in the texts suggests that people in ancient Russia believed that these miracles actually happened.

3. The literature of Ancient Rus preached Christian spirituality and ethics, that is, high morality.

4. Old Russian literature remained anonymous for a long time.

Answer: Old Russian literature was handwritten, most often anonymous, was closely related to religion, based on historical facts.

Teacher: Now let's talk about the genres of Old Russian literature. Old Russian literature is diverse in its genre composition: weather records, stories, parables (about the prodigal son), lives- these are works that told about the life of the saints (the first life - Boris and Gleb, these are the sons of Vladimir), legends (about the foundation of Kiev), teachings(this is a genre of solemn eloquence, they denounced vices, welcomed virtues, instructed believers in Christian morality, for example, the teaching of Vladimir Monomakh), walking or travel (Afanasy Nikitina) - works describing the travels of pilgrims to the shrines of Palestine and Byzantium.

Chronicles, the lives of saints and monks, sermons and several secular stories written in 1030-1240 have come down to us. The most famous of the chronicles is The Tale of Bygone Years. This work was created at the beginning of the XII century by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor the chronicler. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russian land, the first Russian princes and the most important historical events... The peculiarity of the story is its poetry, its author masterfully mastered the word, the text uses various artistic means to make the story more convincing.

Question: How did you understand what a chronicle is?

Answer: weather description of the events that took place in Russia for several centuries.

Answer: Nestor the Chronicler.

Edited by E.A. Molev, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History of Nizhny Novgorod state university them. Lobachevsky

Methodological guidance of the authors' collective of rural Letopis is conducted by the regional department of culture through the methodological department of the central regional library (centralized library system of the region)
For the practical maintenance of the Chronicle, a positive attitude towards it of the local authority - the village council, documented is required. Moreover, this document should contain:
a) who and for how long is involved in the creation of the Chronicle;
b) in what time frame the group of authors (compilers of the Chronicle) reports on their work in this village council.
By the decision of the authority local government about the creation of the Chronicle, only people who are actually working on the Chronicle should be entered.
The statute of the Chronicle is of decisive importance for the creation and maintenance of the rural Chronicle - a relatively large document that reveals in detail all aspects of the activities of the group of authors (compilers of the Chronicle) and their relationship with the village council. This is a very important organizational document for the Chronicle. The statute is approved by the head of the village council administration.

Statute of the Chronicle

1. The purpose and objectives of the rural Chronicle

The creation and maintenance of rural Chronicle is aimed at maintaining an orderly collection of information about events that occurred in this village or associated with this village and have a public significant character, from the moment of creation of the settlement to the present day.

The information entered in the "Chronicle ..." is open to all those interested in history, economics, culture and other factors of the life of the village.

Of particular importance is supposed to inform the younger generation of villagers and students of the rural school about the history of this settlement and the increasing role of local history.

2. The team of authors, the procedure for approval and the terms of work of the team of authors

To maintain the "Chronicle ..." by the decision of the head of the administration of the village council, a team of authors (compilers of the chronicle) is approved, consisting of two people: an official leading the paper version of "Chronicle ..." (optional), having the desire, knowledge, skills and technical capabilities to maintain the "Chronicle ..." in electronic form.

The team of authors in the process of working on the Chronicle independently searches and finds volunteer assistants and informants to collect information on the Chronicle topic. The number of assistants and informants is not limited. Their participation in the creation of the chronicle is recorded in a separate part of the chronicle: "Helpers and Informants"

The team of authors is looking for people who are able not to write under the dictation of the leadership, but who have independent thinking, interest and desire for local history. At the same time, he uses a wide range of searches for these people in the field of culture, education, etc.

The team of authors unites people interested in the history of their land in groups to work together on the preparation of the Chronicle in accordance with the approved statutes of the rural Chronicle. It does this on the basis of decisions of local administrations.

3. What events are included in the rural Chronicle

In the "Chronicle ..." are brought in events of social significance, and concerning both physical and legal entities related to this locality. Somehow:
statistics of births, marriages, divorces and deaths, the total number of the population of the village, township, the number of schoolchildren, conscripts, pensioners, other statistical information;
information of various kinds on culture, economy, infrastructure of the village, township;
information about the organizations located in the village, significant milestones and achievements in their activities, the full name of the leaders from the moment the organization began its activities and up to the present;
educational, labor, combat and other socially significant achievements of the villagers or other persons related to the rural settlement;
decisions of rural and higher administrations and bodies related to the village or rural settlement, both in general and in particular;
information and media articles on issues related to the village;
school events in a village school, events concerning pupils from this village;
information about corporate events and celebrations celebrated in the village
natural events and phenomena on the territory of the village
information about folk crafts, labor activities, hobbies and interests of the villagers;
economic activities of individuals and organizations on the territory of the village;
other events, facts, figures, documents and dates of public importance for the village.

4. The procedure for maintaining the Chronicle, registration, numbering

In accordance with Russian legislation, the document has a paper version of the Chronicle of the rural Chronicle. "Chronicle ...", as a paper document, is registered in the administration of the village council.

All entries in the book are kept in chronological order, as information becomes available, indicating the date of the event, the text of information about the past event and a link to the source of information about the event that took place. As information accumulates on a topic, one can do analyzes, create various generalizations and other materials, but this is secondary. The main approach is chronological.

Each completed page of the "Chronicle ..." is numbered and signed by the compiler of the paper version of the "Chronicle ...". Separate review and thematic materials, which, due to their large volume, cannot be included in the text of the "Chronicle ..." itself, are taken into account in the table of contents of the "Chronicle ..." part of rural Chronicle.

5. Sources of information, their reliability

The principle of referring to the exact source of information - oral, written or electronic - is strictly obligatory. Sources of information can be official and unofficial, written and oral, photo, video and audio recordings. Each source of information has its own meaning, degree of reliability and importance.

Even a plaque on a grave monument, as a source of information, provides three types of information: the date of birth, death and the place of burial of a person. Links to sources of information can be placed in a separate part of the Chronicle, but in any case, a link to the source of information should be.

The most reliable information is from archival and other official documents - if they are repeated more than once (information confirmed by two or more documentary sources).

Less reliable are records based on information from one documentary source, or mass media (mass media).

And the third degree of reliability is the memories of our contemporaries. They are valuable for their primacy and sharpness and will always find a worthy place in the Chronicle. But due to the properties of human memory, the subjectivity of assessing past events, it is not always possible to recall everything "in a bookish way." Therefore, chronicle records based on memoirs should be clarified and supplemented with cross-sectional data from documentary sources. "

6. The order of storage of the Chronicle

In the process of keeping "Chronicle ..." its paper version is kept in the rural library. After completing the next volume, it, together with its electronic copy on a CD-ROM under the accession number, is transferred to rural library... Its paper and electronic copies (on CD) are transferred for storage to the administration of the village council.

7. Obligations of the founder of the Chronicle

The founder of "Letopis" is the administration of the village council. She:

approves the statute of the chronicle;

registers paper and electronic versions of "Chronicle ...";

within the prescribed time frame of the inventory checks the existence of the "Chronicle ...", as a document of the administration of the village council;

after the completion of the next volume of the Chronicle ... makes a decision to transfer it in paper and electronic form (on CD) for permanent storage to the rural library, and its paper and electronic copies to the administration of the village council.

8. Duties and reporting of the group of authors (compilers of the chronicle)

keeps a record of statistical information regarding the village within the time frame agreed with the administration;

gives proposals to the administration of the village council on making additions and changes to the status of the "Chronicle ..."

within the time frame established by the administration of the village council prepares a report on its activities to maintain the "Chronicle ...".

9. The role and place of the electronic version of the rural Chronicle

Simultaneously with the paper text of the "Chronicle ...", an electronic record of the text of the rural Chronicle is being kept. It should completely duplicate the paper text of "Chronicle ...". Under this condition, the electronic version of the "Chronicle ..." is a full-fledged copyright copy of the "Chronicle ...", and in case of loss of the paper version of the "Chronicle ...", the Chronicle must be restored on the basis of its electronic copy.

When the next volume of "Chronicle ..." is completed and handed over to the rural library, its electronic copy is recorded in two copies on a CD, also recorded on the inventory number and deposited one copy at a time in the rural library and the administration of the village council.

It is allowed to copy, duplicate, reprint materials "Chronicle ..." in electronic and paper form, with a mandatory link to

The methodology of textual research, as we have already seen, largely depends on how the ancient Russian scribe worked. The features of the textual study of the chronicles also, to a certain extent, depend on how the ancient Russian chronicler worked.

In the literature on the Old Russian chronicle, there was a lot of controversy about how the chronicles were kept. Some of the researchers saw in the compilers of the summer letters simple, unwise and objective statements of facts. Others, like A. A. Shakhmatov and M. D. Priselkov, suggested on the basis of textual data that the chroniclers were very knowledgeable sources of various material previous annals from the point of view of certain political and historical concepts. The latter are certainly right. It was their ideas that made it possible to unravel the complex composition of the annals and build a general scheme of the history of Russian annals. The application of these views to the textual analysis of the annals turned out to be practically fruitful.

Let us turn to the statements and statements of the chroniclers themselves and take a closer look at their work.

First of all, we note that the nature of the text of the chronicles was largely determined by their acute political orientation.

The chronicle was intimately connected with the class and intra-class struggle of its time, with the struggle between individual feudal centers. In 1241, the Galician prince Daniel ordered his printer Cyril to “write off the plunder of the wicked boyars,” and this report of Cyril made up the bulk of the princely chronicle of Daniel. In another case (1289), Prince Mstislav Danilovich ordered to record the sedition of the inhabitants of Berestye in the chronicle.

The way the chronicler himself looked at his work is shown by the following characteristic entry in the burnt-out Trinity Chronicle. By 1392, bitter reproaches to the Novgorodians for their disobedience to the great princes were read in it: “Besha more people are harsh, unruly, obstinate, unstoppable ... who is not angry from the prince, or who please them from the prince? Even the great Alexander Yaroslavich [Nevsky] did not suit them! " As proof, the chronicler refers to the Moscow chronicle: “And if you want to scatter it, disperse the book The Chronicler of the Great Rus - and read it from the Great Yaroslav to this present prince”.

Indeed, the Moscow chronicle is full of political attacks against the people of Novgorod, Tver, Suzdal, Ryazan, as well as the Ryazan, Tver, Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod chronicles - against the Muscovites. In the annals we meet angry denunciations of the boyars (in Galician, Vladimir, Moscow), the democratic lower classes (in Novgorod), the sharp defense of the "black people" from the living people and the boyars (in some Pskov chronicles), anti-princely attacks of the boyars themselves (in the annals Novgorodian XII century), protection of the foundations of the grand-ducal "monocracy" (in the chronicles of the Tver mid-15th century and in Moscow at the end of the 15th-16th centuries), etc.

The prefaces to the annals also speak of the purely "worldly" political tasks that the chroniclers set themselves. Few of these prefaces have survived, since in all cases of later revisions of the chronicles they were destroyed, as they did not correspond to the new tasks of the chronicle compilations that included them. But even those prefaces that have survived speak quite clearly about the specific political goals that the chroniclers set themselves.

D.S. Likhachev. Textology - St. Petersburg, 2001

Translated literature of the XI-XII centuries

According to the chronicle, immediately after the adoption of Christianity by Russia, Vladimir Svyatoslavich "began to take children to the deliberate children [of noble people], and to start teaching books" (PVL, p. 81). For training, they needed books brought from Bulgaria. The Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) and Old Russian languages ​​are so close that Russia was able to use the ready-made Old Church Slavonic alphabet, and the Bulgarian books, being formally foreign language, essentially did not require translation. This greatly facilitated the acquaintance of Russia with the monuments of Byzantine literature, which for the most part penetrated into Russia in the Bulgarian translation.

Later, at the time of Yaroslav the Wise, people in Russia began to translate directly from Greek. The chronicle informs that Yaroslav collected “a great many scribes, and they are more common from the Greeks to the Slovenian letter. And there are many books written off ”(PVL, p. 102). The intensity of translation activity is confirmed both by direct data (lists of translated monuments that have come down to us or by references to them in original works), and indirect ones: the influx of translated literature at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century. was not only a consequence of the established cultural ties Russia with Bulgaria or Byzantium, but above all it was caused by an urgent need, a kind of state necessity: Russia, which had adopted Christianity, needed literature to carry out divine services, to get acquainted with philosophical

and ethical doctrines new religion, ritual and legal customs church and monastic life. 6

For the activity of the Christian Church in Russia, first of all, liturgical books were needed. The obligatory set of books, which were necessary for worship in each individual church, included the Aprakos Gospel, Aprakos Apostle, Service Book, Trebnik, Psalter, Lenten Triode, Color Triode and General Menaion. 7 If we consider that in the annals in the narration of the events of the IX-XI centuries. Since 88 cities are mentioned (data by B.V. Sapunov), each of which had from several units to several dozen churches, the number of books required for their functioning will amount to many hundreds. 8 Only a few copies of manuscripts of the 11th-12th centuries have survived to us, but they confirm our ideas about the above-mentioned repertoire of liturgical books. nine

If the transfer of liturgical books to Russian soil was dictated by needs church service, and their repertoire was regulated by the canon of liturgical practice, then in relation to other genres of Byzantine literature, one can assume a certain selectivity.

But it is here that we encounter an interesting phenomenon, which D.S.Likhachev characterized as the phenomenon of "transplantation": Byzantine literature in its individual genres not only influenced Slavic literature, but through it into Old Russian literature, but was, of course, in some its part was simply transferred to Russia. ten

Patristics. This applies primarily to Byzantine patristic literature. 11 In Russia, the works of the "church fathers", theologians and preachers were known and enjoyed high authority: John Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzin,

Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria, etc.

Throughout the entire Russian Middle Ages, writers-homilets (authors of teachings and sermons) were highly valued. Their creations not only helped shape moral ideals Christian world, but at the same time forced to think about the properties human character, paid attention to various features of the human psyche, influenced other literary genres with their experience of "human studies". 12

Of the homiletic writers, John Chrysostom (d. 407) enjoyed the greatest authority. In his work, "the assimilation of traditions ancient culture Christian church has reached full and classic completeness. He developed a style of preaching prose, which absorbed a myriad of expressive methods of rhetoric and brought the virtuosity of finishing to stunning expressiveness. " 13 The teachings of John Chrysostom were included in collections starting from the 11th century. 14 From the XII century. preserved list "Zlatostruya", containing mainly the "words" of Zlatoust, a few "words" were included in the famous Assumption collection of the turn of the XII-XIII centuries.

In the lists of the XI-XII centuries. preserved translations of other Byzantine homilets - Gregory the Theologian, Cyril of Jerusalem, "Ladder" by John Climacus, 15 Pandekta Antiochus and Pandekta Nikon Montenegrin. 16 The sayings and aphorisms of the "church fathers" (along with aphorisms extracted from the works of ancient authors) made up a collection popular in Ancient Russia - "Bee" (senior list at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries). In "Izbornik 1076" a significant place is occupied by Gennady's "Stolevets" - a kind of "moral code" of a Christian. 17

The works of the homiletic genre did not hide their edifying, didactic function. By addressing readers and listeners directly, homiletic writers sought to convince

with the logic of their reasoning, they extolled virtues and condemned vices, promised the righteous eternal bliss, while the negligent and sinners were threatened with divine punishment.

Lives of the Saints. Monuments of the hagiographic genre - the lives of the saints - also educated and instructed, but the main means of persuasion was not so much the word - now indignant and denouncing, now insinuatingly instructive, as a living image. A thrilling story about the life of a righteous man, willingly using the plots and plot techniques of the Hellenistic adventure novel, could not fail to interest the medieval reader. The hagiographer turned not so much to his mind as to his feelings and ability for a vivid imagination. Therefore, the most fantastic episodes - the intervention of angels or demons, miracles performed by the saints - were sometimes described with detailed details that helped the reader to see and imagine what was happening. Sometimes in the Lives exact geographical or topographic signs were reported, the names of real historical figures were named - all this also created the illusion of authenticity, was intended to convince the reader of the truth of the story and thereby give the Lives the authority of a "historical" narrative.

Lives can be conditionally divided into two plot types - life-martyrias, that is, narratives about the torment of fighters for the faith in pagan times, and lives, which told about the saints who voluntarily assumed the feat of seclusion or foolishness, distinguished by extraordinary piety, poverty etc.

An example of the life of the first type is the Life of St. Irene. 18 It tells how Irene's father, the pagan king Licinius, at the instigation of a demon, decides to destroy his Christian daughter; she should be crushed by a chariot, according to his sentence, but a miracle happens: the horse, breaking the lines, pounces on the king, bites off his hand and returns to its original place. Irina is subjected to various sophisticated tortures by King Zedekiy, but every time, thanks to divine intercession, she remains alive and well. The princess is thrown into a moat teeming poisonous snakes, but the "bastards" immediately "press" against the walls of the ditch and die. They try to saw the saint alive, but the saw breaks, and the executioners perish. It is tied to a millwheel, but the water "by the command of God to flow around," and so on.

Another type of living is, for example, the legend of Alexei the Man of God. Alexey, a pious and virtuous youth, voluntarily renounces wealth, honor, female

love. He leaves the house of his father - a wealthy Roman nobleman, a beautiful wife, having barely married her, distributes money taken from the house to the poor and for seventeen years lives on alms in the vestibule of the Church of the Virgin in Edessa. When the fame of his holiness spread everywhere, Alexei left Edessa and, after wandering, again found himself in Rome. Unrecognized by anyone, he settles in his father's house, feeds at the same table with the beggars, who are daily allotted by a pious nobleman, patiently endures the bullying and beatings of his father's servants. Another seventeen years pass. Alexei dies, and only then will the parents and the widow recognize their missing son and husband. 19

Patericon. Paterics were widely known in Kievan Rus - collections of short stories about monks. The themes of the patericus legends are quite traditional. Most often these are stories about monks who became famous for their asceticism or humility. Thus, one legend tells how elders, eager for guidance from him, come to a hermit to talk with him. But the recluse is silent, and when asked about the reason for his silence, he replies that he sees the image of the crucified Christ in front of him day and night. "This is the best instruction for us!" - the elders exclaim.

The hero of another story is a stylite. 20 He is so alien to pride that he even spreads alms to the poor on the steps of his refuge, and does not give it from hand to hand, claiming that it is not he, but the Mother of God who bestows the suffering.

The story is told in the patericon about a young nun who gouges out her eyes when she learns that their beauty aroused the lust of a young man.

The omnipotence of prayer, the ability of ascetics to work miracles - these are the subjects of another group of patericus short stories. The righteous old man is accused of adultery, but through his prayer the twelve-day-old baby, when asked “who is his father,” points his finger at the real father. Through the prayer of a pious sailor, on a sultry day, rain falls over the deck, delighting the travelers suffering from heat and thirst. A lion, having met a monk on a narrow mountain path, stands on its hind legs to give him a way, etc.

If divine help accompanies the righteous, then the sinners in the patericus legends await a terrible and, which is especially characteristic, not posthumous, but immediate punishment: the defiler

a dead man gouges out the eyes of the grave; the ship does not move from its place until a woman-child-killer steps off its side into the boat, and the boat with the sinner is immediately swallowed up by the abyss; the servant, planning to kill and rob his mistress, cannot leave the place and stabs himself.

So, in the patericons, a certain fantastic world is depicted, where the forces of good and evil are constantly fighting for the souls of people, where the righteous are not just pious, but exaltedly fanatical, where miracles are performed in the most everyday situations, where even wild animals by their behavior confirm the omnipotence of faith. The plots of the translated patericons 21 influenced the work of Russian scribes: in Russian patericons and Lives we find direct analogies to episodes from the Byzantine patericons.

Apocrypha. The favorite genre of ancient Russian readers was also the apocrypha, the oldest translations of which also date back to the Kiev era. Apocrypha (from the Greek. Ἀπόκρυφα - "secret, hidden") was the name of works that tell about biblical characters or saints, but not included in the circle of monuments revered as sacred scripture or officially recognized by the church. There were apocryphal gospels (for example, "The Gospel of Thomas", "Nicodemus Gospel"), lives ("The Life of Andrew the Fool", "The Life of Basil the New"), legends, prophecies, etc. 22 Apocryphas often contained a more detailed account of events or characters mentioned in the canonical biblical books. There were apocryphal stories about Adam and Eve (for example, about the second wife of Adam - Lilith, about the birds that taught Adam how to bury Abel 23), about the childhood of Moses (in particular, about the test of the wisdom of the boy-Moses by Pharaoh 24), about the earthly life of Jesus Christ.

The apocryphal "Walking of the Mother of God" describes the sufferings of sinners in hell, the "Tale of Agapius" tells about paradise - a wonderful garden, where for the righteous there are prepared "a bed and a meal decorated with stone stone", birds are singing around "with different voices" they have gold, and crimson, and scarlet, and blue, and green ...

Often apocryphal reflections of heretical ideas about the present and future world, were raised to complex philosophical problems. The apocryphal reflects the doctrine that God is opposed by an equally powerful antipode - Satan, the source of evil and the culprit of human misfortunes; so, according to one apocryphal legend, the human body was created by Satan, and God only "put" his soul into it. 25

The attitude of the Orthodox Church towards apocryphal literature was complex. The most ancient indexes (lists) of “true and false books”, in addition to the “true” books, distinguished between “secret”, “secret” books, which were recommended to be read only by knowledgeable people, and “false” books, which were definitely forbidden to read, since they contained heretical views ... However, in practice, it was almost impossible to separate the apocryphal subjects from the subjects found in the books of the "true" ones: the apocryphal legends were reflected in the monuments that enjoyed the highest authority: in the chronicles, paleae, in collections used during divine services (Solemnites, Minea). The attitude to the apocrypha changed over time: some of the popular in the past monuments were subsequently banned and even destroyed, but, on the other hand, in the "Great Menaion Chetya", created in the XVI century. Orthodox churchmen, as a collection of literature recommended for reading, included many texts that were previously considered apocryphal.

Among the first translations carried out during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise or during the following decades, there were also monuments of Byzantine chronography. 26

Chronicle of George Amartol. Among them greatest value for the history of Russian annals and chronography had the "Chronicle of George Amartola." The author, a Byzantine monk 27, outlined in his work the entire history of the world from Adam to the events of the middle of the 9th century. In addition to the events of biblical history, the Chronicle told about the kings of the East (Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius), Alexander the Great, about the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Costantius Chlorus, and then about the Byzantine emperors, from Constantine the Great to Michael III. Even on Greek soil, the Chronicle was supplemented by an extract

from the "Chronicle of Simeon Logofet", and the presentation in it was brought to the death of the emperor Romanus Lacapenus (he was dethroned in 944 and died in 948). Despite its considerable volume and breadth of the historical range, Amartola's work presented world history from a peculiar perspective, primarily as church history. The author often introduces lengthy theological reasoning into his presentation, scrupulously presents the debate on ecumenical councils, he himself argues with heretics, denounces iconoclasm 28 and quite often replaces the description of events with reasoning about them. We find a relatively detailed exposition of the political history of Byzantium only in the last part of the Chronicle, which sets out the events of the 9th - first half of the 10th century. The Chronicle of Amartolus was used in the compilation of a short chronographic code - the Chronograph according to the great exposition, which in turn was involved in the compilation of the Primary Code, one of oldest monuments Russian annals (see below, p. 39). Then they again turned to the Chronicle when compiling the Tale of Bygone Years; it became a part of the extensive Old Russian chronographic vaults - the "Yellinsky Chronicler", "Russian Chronograph", etc. 29

Chronicle of John Malala. The Byzantine Chronicle, compiled in the 6th century, had a different character. by the wicked Syrian John Malala. Its author, according to the researcher of the monument, "set out to give a moralizing, in the spirit of Christian piety, edifying, and at the same time entertaining reading for a wide audience of readers and listeners." 30 In the "Chronicle of Malala" ancient myths (about the birth of Zeus, about the struggle of the gods with the titans, the myths about Dionysus, Orpheus, Daedalus and Icarus, Theseus and Ariadne, Oedipus) are retold in detail; the fifth book of the Chronicle contains a story about the Trojan War. 31 Malala sets out in detail the history of Rome (especially the most ancient - from Romulus and Remus to Julius Caesar), a significant place is given to the political history of Byzantium. In a word, the "Chronicle of Malala" successfully supplemented the exposition of Amartol, in particular, it was through this "Chronicle" that Kievan Rus could get acquainted with the myths of ancient Greece. Separate lists of the Slavic translation of the Chronicle of Malala have not reached us, we know it only as part of the extracts included in Russian chronographic compilations

("Archives" and "Vilensky" chronographs, both editions of the "Yellinsky chronicler", etc.). 32

History of the Jewish War of Josephus Flavius. Perhaps already in the middle of the XI century. in Russia was translated "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius ​​- an extremely authoritative monument in the Christian literature of the Middle Ages. 33 "History" was written between 75-79. n. NS. Joseph ben Mattathie, a contemporary and direct participant in the anti-Roman uprising in Judea, who then went over to the side of the Romans. The Book of Joseph - Valuable historical source, although extremely tendentious, for the author very unequivocally condemns his fellow tribesmen, but he glorifies the art of war and the political wisdom of Vespasian and Titus Flaviev. 34 At the same time, History is a brilliant literary monument... Josephus Flavius ​​skillfully uses the techniques of storytelling, his presentation is replete with descriptions, dialogues, psychological characteristics; The “speeches” of the characters in the “History” are built according to the laws of ancient declamations; even talking about events, the author remains a refined stylist: he strives for a symmetrical construction of phrases, willingly resorts to rhetorical oppositions, skillfully constructed enumerations, etc. Sometimes it seems that for Flavius ​​the form of presentation is no less important than the subject itself about which he writes.

The Old Russian translator understood and appreciated the literary merits of History: he was not only able to preserve the exquisite style of the monument in translation, but in a number of cases entered into competition with the author, either by spreading descriptions using traditional stylistic formulas, or by translating the indirect speech of the original into direct speech, or by introducing comparisons or clarifications that make the story more vivid and imaginative. The translation of the History is convincing evidence of the high culture of the word among the scribes of Kievan Rus. 35

Alexandria. No later than the XII century. from Greek was translated and an extensive story about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great - the so-called pseudo-Callisthenes "Alexandria". 36 It is based on a Hellenistic novel, created, apparently,

in Alexandria in the II-I centuries. BC e., but later subjected to additions and revisions. The original biographical narrative over time became more and more fictionalized, overgrown with legendary and fabulous motives, gradually turning into an adventure novel typical of the Hellenistic era. One of these late versions of Alexandria was translated into Russia. 37

The real history of the deeds of the famous commander can hardly be traced here, buried under the layers of later traditions and legends. Alexander turns out to be no longer the son of the Macedonian king, but the illegitimate son of Olympias and the Egyptian witch-king Nectonava. The birth of the hero is accompanied by miraculous signs. Contrary to history, Alexander conquers Rome and Athens, boldly comes to Darius, posing as a Macedonian ambassador, negotiates with the queen of the Amazons, etc. The third book of Alexandria, where (of course, fictitious) letters of Alexander to mothers; the hero tells the Olympics about the miracles he saw: people of gigantic growth, disappearing trees, fish that can be cooked in cold water, six-legged and three-eyed monsters, etc. Nevertheless, the ancient Russian scribes apparently perceived "Alexandria" as a historical narrative, as evidenced by the inclusion of its full text in the chronographic vaults. Regardless of how the novel about Alexander was perceived in Russia, the very fact that ancient Russian readers got acquainted with this most popular plot of the Middle Ages 38 was of great importance: ancient Russian literature was thereby introduced into the sphere of common European cultural interests, enriched their knowledge of the history of the ancient world.

The story of Akira the Wise. If "Alexandria" genetically went back to the historical narrative and talked about historical character, then "The Tale of Akir the Wise", also translated in Kievan Rus in the 11th - early 12th centuries, is by its origin a purely fictional monument - an ancient Assyrian legend of the 7th century. BC NS. Researchers

did not come to a common conclusion about the ways of penetration of the "Tale of Akira" into Russia: there are suggestions that it was translated from the Syrian 39 or from the Armenian original. 40 In Russia, the Tale lived long life... Its oldest edition (apparently, a translation very close to the original) has been preserved in four copies of the 15th-17th centuries. 41 In the XVI or early XVII century. The story has been radically revised. Its new editions (Brief and ascending to it Distributed), which have largely lost their original oriental flavor, but acquired the features of a Russian folk tale, were extremely popular in the 17th century, and in the Old Believer environment the story continued to exist until our time. 42

The earliest edition of the Russian translation of the Tale told how Akir, the wise adviser to the king of Synagrippa, was slandered by his adopted son Anadan and sentenced to death. But Akir's devoted friend Nabuginail saved him and managed to reliably hide the convict. Some time later, the Egyptian pharaoh demanded that the king of Synagrippus send him a sage who could solve the riddles proposed by the pharaoh and build a palace "between heaven and earth." For this, the pharaoh will pay Synagrippa a "three-year tribute." If the messenger of Synagrippa does not cope with the task, the tribute will be exact in favor of Egypt. All those close to Synagrippa, including Anadan, who has now become Akir's successor as the first nobleman, admit that they are unable to fulfill the demand of the pharaoh. Then Nabuginael informs the desperate Synagrippa that Akir is alive. The happy king forgives the disgraced sage and sends him under the guise of a simple groom to the pharaoh. Akir solves riddles, and then cleverly avoids completing the last task - building a palace. To do this, Akir teaches the eagles to raise a basket in the air; the boy sitting in it yells to be served "stone and lime": he is ready to start building the palace. But no one can deliver the necessary goods to the skies, and the pharaoh is forced to admit himself defeated. Akir returns home with a "three-year tribute", once again becomes an associate of Synagrippa, and the exposed Anadan dies a terrible death.

The wisdom (or cunning) of the hero, freed from the need to complete an impossible task, is a traditional fairy tale motive. 43 And it is characteristic that, with all the alterations of the Tale on Russian soil, it is the story of how Akir guesses the mysteries of the pharaoh and, with wise counter-requirements, forces him to abandon his claims, 44 enjoyed constant popularity, it was constantly revised and supplemented with new details. 45

The story of Barlaam and Joasaph. If "The Tale of Akira the Wise" in many of its elements resembles a fairy tale, then another translated story - about Barlaam and Joasaph - closely resembles the hagiographic genre, although in reality its plot is based on legendary biography Buddha, who came to Russia through the Byzantine medium.

The Tale tells how Tsarevich Joasaph, the son of the Indian pagan king Abner, became a Christian ascetic under the influence of the hermit Barlaam.

However, the plot, potentially replete with “conflict situations”, turns out to be extremely smoothed in the Tale: the author seems to be in a hurry to remove the obstacles that arise or simply “forget” about them. So, for example, Abner imprisons young Joasaph in a secluded palace precisely so that the boy could not hear about the ideas of Christianity and did not learn about the existence of old age, sickness, and death in the world. And nevertheless, Joasaph nevertheless leaves the palace and immediately meets a sick old man, and the Christian hermit Barlaam penetrates into his chambers without any special obstacles. The pagan sage Nahor, according to Abner's plan, in a dispute with the imaginary Barlaam, should debunk the ideas of Christianity, but suddenly, quite unexpectedly, he himself begins to denounce paganism. They bring to Joasaph beautiful princess, she should persuade the young ascetic to sensual pleasures, but Joasaph easily resists the beauty's charms and easily convinces her to become a chaste Christian. There are a lot of dialogues in the Tale, but they are all devoid of individuality and naturalness: Varlaam speaks in the same pompous and "learned" manner,

and Joasaph, and the pagan sages. Before us is like a lengthy philosophical debate, the participants of which are as conditional as the participants in the conversation in the genre of "philosophical dialogue". Nevertheless, The Tale of Varlaam was widely disseminated; especially popular were its apologetic parables, illustrating the ideals of Christian piety and asceticism: some of the parables were included in collections of both mixed and permanent composition (for example, in Izmaragd), and many dozens of their copies are known. 46

Degenievo deed. It is believed that even in Kievan Rus, a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about Digenis Akrit was carried out (the warriors who guarded the borders of the Byzantine Empire were called akrites). According to the researchers, the time of translation is indicated by the language data - the lexical parallels of the story (in the Russian version it received the name "Devgenievo Deyanie") and literary monuments of Kievan Rus, 47 as well as the mention of Devgeniy Akrit in the "Life of Alexander Nevsky". But the comparison with Akrit appears only in the third (according to the classification of Yu. K. Begunov) edition of the monument, created probably in the middle of the 15th century, 48 and cannot serve as an argument in favor of the existence of a translation in Kievan Rus. Significant plot differences between the Devgenian Deeds and the Greek versions of the epic about Digenis Akritus known to us leave open the question of whether these differences were the result of a radical revision of the original during translation, whether they arose in the process of later alterations of the text on Russian soil, or the Russian text corresponds to the one that did not come down before us the Greek version.

Devgeniy (as the Greek name Digenis was rendered in the Russian translation) is a typical epic hero. He possesses extraordinary strength (even as a youth, Devgeniy strangled a bear with his bare hands, and, having matured, destroys thousands of enemy soldiers in battles), he is handsome, chivalrously magnanimous. Significant place

in the Russian version of the monument, there is a story about Devgeniy's marriage to the daughter of the proud and stern Stratig. 49 This episode has all the characteristic features of "epic matchmaking": Devgeniy sings a love song under the girl's windows; she, admiring the beauty and prowess of the young man, agrees to flee with him, Devgeniy in broad daylight takes away his beloved, overcomes her father and brothers in battle, then puts up with them; the parents of the newlyweds arrange a lavish wedding for many days.

Devgeniy is akin to the heroes of the translated novels of chivalry that spread in Russia in the 17th century. (such as Bova Korolevich, Eruslan, Vasily the Golden-haired), and, apparently, this closeness to the literary taste of the era contributed to the revival of the handwritten tradition of "Acts": all three lists that have come down to us date from the 17th-18th centuries. 50

So, Kievan Rus within a short period of time acquired a rich and varied literature. A whole system of genres was transferred to a new soil: chronicles, historical stories, lives, paterics, "words", teachings. The significance of this phenomenon is being investigated and comprehended more and more deeply in our science. 51 It has been established that the system of genres of Byzantine or Old Bulgarian literature was not completely transferred to Russia: Old Russian scribes preferred some genres and rejected others. At the same time, genres arose in Russia that had no analogy in “reference literatures”: the Russian chronicle does not resemble the Byzantine chronicle, and the chronicles themselves are used as material for independent and original chronographic compilations; completely original are "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" and "The Precept" by Vladimir Monomakh, "The Prayer of Daniel the Zatochnik" and "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan". Translated works not only enriched Russian scribes with historical or natural science information, introduced them to the plots of ancient myths and epic legends, they represented at the same time different types of plots, styles, narrative manners, being a kind literary school for old Russian

scribes who were able to get acquainted with the ponderous verbose Amartol and with the laconic, stingy on details and details Malala, with the brilliant stylist Flavius ​​and with the inspired rhetorician John Chrysostom, with the heroic world of the epic about Devgenia and the exotic fantasy of Alexandria. It was rich material for the reading and writing experience, an excellent school literary language; she helped the ancient Russian scribes to visualize the possible variants of styles, to refine the ear and speech on the colossal lexical richness of the Byzantine and Old Slavonic literature.

But it would be a mistake to believe that translated literature was the only and basic school of Old Russian scribes. In addition to translated literature, they used the rich traditions of oral folk art, and above all - the traditions of the Slavic epic. This is not a guess or reconstruction modern researchers: as we will see later, folk epic legends are recorded in the early chronicles and represent a completely exceptional artistic phenomenon that has no analogy in the monuments of translated literature known to us. Slavic epic legends are distinguished by a special manner of plotting, a kind of interpretation of the character of the heroes, their style, which differs from the style of monumental historicism, which was formed mainly under the influence of the monuments of translated literature.

The "historical memory" of the East Slavic tribes stretched back several centuries: legends and legends about the settlement of Slavic tribes, about the clashes of the Slavs with the Avars ("images"), about the founding of Kiev, about the glorious deeds of the first Kiev princes, about distant campaigns were passed down from generation to generation Kiya, about the wisdom of the prophetic Oleg, about the cunning and decisive Olga, about the belligerent and noble Svyatoslav.

In the XI century. chronicle writing appears next to the historical epic. It was the chronicle that was destined for several centuries, up to the time of Peter the Great, to become not just a weather record of current events, but one of the leading literary genres, in the depths of which the Russian storytelling developed, and at the same time a journalistic genre sensitively responding to the political demands of its time.

Study of the chronicle of the XI-XII centuries. presents considerable difficulties: the oldest surviving annals date back to the 13th (the first part of the Novgorod first chronicle of the older edition) or to the end of the 14th century. (Laurentian Chronicle). But thanks to the fundamental research of A.A. Shakhmatov,

MD Priselkova and DS Likhacheva 52 have now created a fairly well-founded hypothesis about the initial stage of Russian chronicle writing, which will undoubtedly be supplemented and refined over time, but which will hardly change in essence.

According to this hypothesis, the chronicle originates at the time of Yaroslav the Wise. 53 At this time, Christianized Russia begins to be weighed down by Byzantine tutelage and seeks to justify its right to church independence, which was invariably combined with political independence, for Byzantium was inclined to view all Christian states as the spiritual flock of the Constantinople patriarchy and as a kind of vassals of the Byzantine Empire. This is precisely what Yaroslav's decisive actions are opposed to: he is seeking the establishment of a metropolitanate in Kiev (which raises the ecclesiastical authority of Russia), 54 is seeking the canonization of the first Russian saints - princes Boris and Gleb. It was in this situation that, apparently, the first historical work was created, the predecessor of the future chronicle - a collection of stories about the spread of Christianity in Russia. Kievan scribes argued that the history of Rus repeats the history of other great powers: "divine grace" descended on Russia just as it once did on Rome and Byzantium; Russia had its own forerunners of Christianity - for example, Princess Olga, who was baptized in Constantinople during the time of the convinced pagan Svyatoslav; there were their martyrs - the Christian Varangian, who did not give his son to the "slaughter" to idols, and the princes-brothers Boris and Gleb, who perished, but did not violate the Christian precepts of brotherly love and obedience to the "oldest". There was also in Russia his "equal to the apostles" Prince Vladimir, who baptized Russia and thus became equal to the great Constantine, who declared Christianity the state religion of Byzantium. To substantiate this idea, according to D.S.Likhachev, a collection of legends about the emergence of Christianity in Russia was compiled. It includes stories about the baptism and death of Olga, the legend about the first Russian martyrs - the Varangians-Christians, the legend about the baptism of Russia (including the "Philosopher's speech", in which the Christian

concept of world history), the legend of the princes Boris and Gleb and extensive praise to Yaroslav the Wise under 1037. All six named works "reveal their belonging to one hand ... the closest relationship between themselves: compositional, stylistic and ideological." 55 This set of articles (which DS Likhachev proposed to conditionally call "The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Russia") was compiled, in his opinion, in the first half of the 40s. XI century scribes of the Kiev Metropolis.

Probably at the same time the first Russian chronographic code was created in Kiev - "Chronograph according to the great exposition". He represented summary world history (with a clearly expressed interest in the history of the church), compiled on the basis of Byzantine chronicles - "The Chronicle of George Amartolus" and "The Chronicle of John Malala"; it is possible that already at this time in Russia other translated monuments are becoming known, setting out world history or containing prophecies about the coming "end of the world": "The Revelation of Methodius of Patarsky" days of creation ", etc.

The next stage in the development of Russian chronicle writing falls on the 60-70s. XI century and is associated with the activities of a monk Kiev-Pechersky Monastery Nikon.

It was Nikon who added to the "Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Russia" legends about the first Russian princes and stories about their campaigns against Constantinople. Possibly, Nikon also entered into the chronicle the "Korsun legend" (according to which Vladimir was baptized not in Kiev, but in Korsun), and finally, the chronicle owes to the same Nikon the placement of the so-called Varangian legend in it. This legend reported that the Kiev princes allegedly descended from the Varangian prince Rurik, who was invited to Russia in order to stop the internecine feuds of the Slavs. The inclusion of the legend in the chronicle made sense: with the authority of tradition, Nikon tried to convince his contemporaries of the unnaturalness of internecine wars, of the need for all princes to obey the Grand Duke of Kiev, the heir and descendant of Rurik. 56 Finally, according to researchers, it was Nikon who gave the chronicle the form of weather records.

Initial vault. Around 1095, a new collection of chronicles was created, which A. A. Shakhmatov proposed to call "Initial". From the moment of the creation of the "Inception Code" there is an opportunity

proper textual research the oldest chronicle... A. A. Shakhmatov drew attention to the fact that the description of events up to the beginning of the XII century. differently in the Laurentian, Radziwil, Moscow-Academic and Ipatiev chronicles, on the one hand, and in the Novgorod first chronicle, on the other. This gave him the opportunity to establish that the Novgorod First Chronicle reflected the previous stage of chronicle writing - the "Primary Code", and the rest of the named chronicles included a revision of the "Primary Code", a new chronicle monument - "The Tale of Bygone Years." 57

The compiler of the Primary Code continued the chronicle with a description of the events of 1073-1095, giving his work, especially in this part, supplemented by him, an obviously journalistic character: he reproached the princes for internecine wars, complained that they did not care about the defense of the Russian land, do not obey the advice of "meaningful husbands."

The Tale of Bygone Years. At the beginning of the XII century. The Primary Code was reworked again: the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, a scribe with a wide historical outlook and great literary talent (he also wrote The Life of Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of the Caves) creates a new chronicle collection - The Tale of Bygone Years ". Nestor set himself a significant task: not only to outline the events of the turn of the XI-XII centuries, of which he was an eyewitness, but also to completely rework the story about the beginning of Russia - "where did the Russian land go who in Kiev began the first princess", as he himself formulated this task in the title of his work (PVL, p. 9).

Nestor introduces the history of Russia into the mainstream of world history. He begins his chronicle by setting out the biblical legend about the division of the land between the sons of Noah, while placing the Slavs in the list of peoples dating back to the "Chronicle of Amartolus" on the banks of the Danube). Nestor slowly and thoroughly tells about the territory occupied by the Slavs, about Slavic tribes and their past, gradually focusing the readers' attention on one of these tribes - the glades, on whose land Kiev, a city that became in his time the "mother of Russian cities". Nestor clarifies and develops the Varangian concept of the history of Russia: Askold and Dir, referred to in the "Primary Code" as "some" Varangian princes, are now called the "boyars" of Rurik;

Emperor Michael; Oleg, referred to in the "Primary Code" as voivode Igor, in the "Tale of Bygone Years" "returned" (in accordance with history) his princely dignity, but at the same time it is emphasized that it was Igor who was the direct heir of Rurik, and Oleg, a relative of Rurik, reigned only in the early years of Igor.

Nestor is even more of a historian than his predecessors. He tries to arrange the maximum of events known to him on a scale of absolute chronology, draws on documents for his narration (texts of treaties with Byzantium), uses fragments from the Chronicle of George Amartol and Russian historical legends (for example, the story of Olga's fourth revenge, the legend of Belgorod jelly "And about the young man of leather). “One can safely assert,” writes DS Likhachev about Nestor's work, “that never before or later, up to the 16th century, did Russian historical thought rise to such a height of scholarly inquisitiveness and literary skill.” 58

Around 1116, on behalf of Vladimir Monomakh, The Tale of Bygone Years was revised by Sylvester, Abbot of the Vydubitsky Monastery (near Kiev). In this new (second) edition of the Tale, the interpretation of the events of 1093-1113 was changed: they were now set forth with a clear tendency to glorify the deeds of Monomakh. In particular, in the text of the Tale, a story was introduced about the blindness of Vasilko of Terebovlsky (in article 1097), for Monomakh acted in the inter-princely strife of these years as a champion of justice and brotherly love.

Finally, in 1118, The Tale of Bygone Years underwent another revision, carried out at the direction of Prince Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh. The story was continued until 1117, some articles for earlier years were changed. We call this edition of the Tale of Bygone Years the third. 59 These are modern views about the history of the most ancient annals.

As already mentioned, only relatively late lists of chronicles have survived, which reflected the above-mentioned ancient vaults. Thus, the "Primary Code" was preserved in the Novgorod first chronicle (copies of the 13th-14th and 15th centuries), the second edition of the "Tale of Bygone Years" is best represented by the Laurentian (1377) and Radziwil (15th century) chronicles, and the third edition came down to us as part of the Ipatiev Chronicle. Through the "Tver Arch of 1305" - a common source of the Laurentian and Trinity Chronicles - "The Tale of Bygone Years" of the second edition was included in the majority of Russian chronicles of the 15th-16th centuries.

Since the middle of the XIX century. researchers have repeatedly noted the high literary skill of Russian chroniclers. 60 But private observations of the style of the annals, sometimes quite deep and fair, were replaced by holistic ideas only relatively recently in the works of D. S. Likhachev 61 and I. P. Eremin. 62

Thus, in the article "The Kiev Chronicle as a Literary Monument" IP Eremin draws attention to the different literary nature of the various components of the chronicle text: weather records, chronicle stories and chronicle stories. In the latter, according to the researcher, the chronicler resorted to a special "hagiographic", idealizing manner of narration.

D.S.Likhachev showed that the difference in stylistic devices that we find in the chronicle is explained primarily by the origin and specifics of the chronicle genre: in the chronicle, articles created by the chronicler himself, telling about the events of contemporary political life, are adjacent to fragments from epic traditions and legends. , with their own special style, special manner of plot narration. In addition, the “style of the era” had a significant influence on the stylistic devices of the chronicler. It is necessary to dwell on this last phenomenon in more detail.

Describe the "style of the era", that is, some general trends in the worldview, literature, art, norms public life etc. is extremely difficult. 63 Nevertheless, in the literature of the XI-XIII centuries. The phenomenon that DS Likhachev called "literary etiquette" manifests itself quite thoroughly. Literary etiquette is a refraction in literary creation"Style of the era", features of the worldview and ideology. Literary etiquette, as it were, determines the tasks of literature and already - its themes, principles of constructing literary plots

and finally yourself pictorial means, highlighting the circle of the most preferred speech turns, images, metaphors.

The concept of literary etiquette is based on the idea of ​​an unshakable and orderly world, where all the actions of people are, as it were, predetermined, where for each person there is a special standard of his behavior. Literature, on the other hand, must accordingly assert and demonstrate this static, "normative" world. This means that its subject should primarily be the depiction of "normative" situations: if a chronicle is being written, then the focus is on descriptions of the prince's accession to the throne, battles, diplomatic actions, death and burial of the prince; moreover, in this latter case, a kind of summary of his life is summed up, summarized in an obituary description. Likewise, in the Lives it must necessarily be told about the childhood of the saint, about his path to asceticism, about his "traditional" (namely traditional, almost obligatory for every saint) virtues, about the miracles he performed during his lifetime and after death, etc.

Moreover, each of these situations (in which the hero of the chronicle or life most clearly appears in his role - a prince or a saint) should have been depicted in similar, traditional speech patterns: it was said about the saint's parents that they were pious, about the child - the future saint, that he shunned games with his peers, the battle was narrated in traditional formulas such as: "and quick to slaughter evil", "some were cut, and some were poimash" (that is, some were hacked with swords, others were captured), etc. 64

DS Likhachev called the chronicle style that most corresponded to the literary etiquette of the 11th-13th centuries "the style of monumental historicism." 65 But at the same time it cannot be argued that the entire chronicle narrative is sustained in this style. If you understand the style as general characteristics the author's attitude to the subject of his narration, then one can undoubtedly talk about the comprehensive nature of this style in the chronicle - the chronicler really selects for his narration only the most important events and deeds of state significance. If, however, one demands from the style and the indispensable observance of certain linguistic features (i.e., the stylistic devices proper), then it turns out that not every line of the chronicle will be an illustration of the style of monumental historicism. First, because diverse

the phenomena of reality - and the chronicle could not but relate to it - could not fit into the previously thought-up scheme of "etiquette situations", and therefore the most vivid manifestation of this style we find only in the description of traditional situations: in the depiction of the arrival of the prince "on the table", in the description battles, in obituary characteristics, etc. Secondly, in the chronicle two genetically different layers of narration coexist: along with the articles compiled by the chronicler, we also find there the fragments introduced by the chronicler into the text. Among them, a significant place is made up of folk legends, legends, which are included in many of the "Tale of Bygone Years" and - albeit to a lesser extent - subsequent chronicle collections.

If the actual chronicle articles were a product of their time, bore the stamp of the "style of the era", were sustained in the traditions of the style of monumental historicism, then included in the chronicle oral legends reflected a different - epic tradition and, naturally, had a different stylistic character. DS Likhachev defined the style of folk legends included in the chronicle as "epic style". 66

The Tale of Bygone Years, where the story of modern events is preceded by reminiscences of the deeds of the glorious princes of the past centuries - Oleg the Prophet, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav, Vladimir, combines both of these styles.

For example, the events of the time of Yaroslav the Wise and his son Vsevolod are described in the style of monumental historicism. Suffice it to recall the description of the battle on Alta (PVL, pp. 97-98), which brought Yaroslav a victory over the "accursed" Svyatopolk, the murderer of Boris and Gleb: Svyatopolk came to the battlefield "in the power of a heavy weight", Yaroslav also collected "a lot of howls, and I oppose him on Lto. " Before the battle, Yaroslav prays to God and his killed brothers, asking for their help "against this opposing murderer and proud." And now the troops moved towards each other, "and covering the field Letskoe wallpaper from a multitude of howls." At dawn ("the rising sun") "was slaughtering evil, but I was not in Russia, and I am slashing by the hands, and stepping three times, as if along the [valleys, hollows] of my mother-in-law's blood." By evening, Yaroslav won a victory, and Svyatopolk fled. Yaroslav ascended the Kiev throne, "wiped sweat with his retinue, showing victory and great work." Everything in this story is intended to emphasize the historical significance of the battle: both an indication of the large number of troops, and details that testify to the fierceness of the battle, and a pathetic ending - Yaroslav solemnly ascends to the Kiev throne, won by him in military labor and the struggle for a "just cause."

And at the same time, it turns out that before us are not so much the impressions of an eyewitness about a particular battle, but rather traditional formulas in which other battles were described in the same "Tale of Bygone Years" and in subsequent chronicles: the traditional turn of the "slash of evil", the traditional ending , informing who "overcame" and who is "running", usually for the chronicle narrative, an indication of the large number of troops, and even the formula "as much as the mother-in-law's blood" is found in descriptions of other battles. In a word, we have before us one of the samples of the "etiquette" image of the battle. 67

The creators of The Tale of Bygone Years write out the obituary characteristics of the princes with special care. For example, according to the chronicler, Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich was "God-loving mock, loving the truth, watching wretchedly [took care of the unfortunate and the poor], saluting the bishop and prezvut [priests], but the exuberant lover of the monasticism, and giving a demand to them" (PVL, p. . 142). This type of chronicle obituary will be used more than once by chroniclers of the 12th and subsequent centuries. 68 The use of literary formulas prescribed by the style of monumental historicism gave the chronicle text a special artistic flavor: not the effect of surprise, but, on the contrary, the expectation of meeting the familiar, familiar, expressed in a “polished”, tradition-sanctified form - this was what had the power of aesthetic influence on the reader. The same technique is well known to folklore - let us recall the traditional plots of epics, threefold repetitions of plot situations, permanent epithets and similar artistic means. The style of monumental historicism, therefore, is not evidence of the limited artistic possibilities, but, on the contrary, evidence of a deep awareness of the role poetic word... But at the same time, this style, naturally, fettered the freedom of plot narration, for it sought to unify, express different life situations in the same speech formulas and plot motives.

For the development of the plot narration, oral folk legends, fixed in the chronicle text, played a significant role, each time differing in the unusual and "entertaining" of the plot. The story of the death of Oleg is widely known, the plot of which was the basis of the famous ballad of A.S. Pushkin,

stories about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, etc. It was in this kind of legends that not only princes could act as heroes, but also insignificant in their own way social status people: an old man who saved Belgorodians from death and Pechenezh captivity, a young man-kozhemyak who defeated the Pechenezh hero. But the main thing, perhaps, is different: it is in such chronicle stories that genetically were oral historical legends, the chronicler uses a completely different - in comparison with stories written in the style of monumental historicism - method of depicting events and characterizing characters.

In works of verbal art, there are two opposite methods of aesthetic impact on the reader (listener). In one case work of fiction influences precisely by its dissimilarity on everyday life and, let us add, on the “everyday” story about it. Such a work is distinguished by a special vocabulary, a rhythm of speech, inversions, special pictorial means (epithets, metaphors) and, finally, a special "unusual" behavior of the characters. We know that people in life do not say that, do not act that way, but it is precisely this unusualness that is perceived as art. 69 Literature of the style of monumental historicism stands on the same position.

In another case, art seeks, as it were, to become like life, and the narrative seeks to create an "illusion of reliability", to bring itself closer to the story of an eyewitness. The means of influencing the reader here are completely different: in this kind of narration, a "plot detail" plays a huge role, a well-found everyday detail, which, as it were, awakens the reader's own impressions of life, helps him see what is being described with his own eyes and thereby believe in the truth of the story.

A significant caveat must be made here. Such details are often called "elements of realism", but it is essential that if in the literature of modern times these realistic elements are a means for reproducing real life (and the work itself is intended not only to depict reality, but also to comprehend it), then in antiquity "plot details" - nothing more than a means to create an "illusion of reality", since the story itself can tell about a legendary event, about a miracle, in a word, about what the author portrays as really the past, but which may not be so. 70

In "The Tale of Bygone Years", the stories performed in this manner widely use the "everyday detail": it is a bridle in the hands

a youth from Kiev, who, pretending to be looking for a horse, runs with her through the camp of enemies, then a mention of how, testing himself before a duel with a Pechenezh hero, a young man pulls out (professionally strong hands) from the side of a bull that ran past "skinned with meat, the hand of a bunny", then a detailed, detailed (and skillfully inhibiting story) description of how Belgorod residents "took onion honey", which they found "medushi for the princes," poured the drink into the "kad", etc. These details evoke vivid visual images in the reader, help him to imagine what is being described, to become, as it were, a witness to the events.

If in stories, executed in the manner of monumental historicism, everything is known to the reader in advance, then in epic legends the narrator skillfully uses the effect of surprise. Wise Olga, as it were, takes seriously the matchmaking of the Drevlyan prince Mal, secretly preparing it for ambassadors terrible death; the prediction given to Oleg the Prophetic, it would seem, did not come true (the horse, from which the prince was supposed to die, had already died himself), but nevertheless the bones of this horse, from which the snake would crawl out, would bring death to Oleg. In a duel with the Pechenezh bogatyr, it is not a warrior that comes out, but a young man of kozhemyak, moreover, a "middle-bodied", and the Pechenezh bogatyr - "great and terrible" - laughs at him. And in spite of this "exposure", it is the adolescent who overcomes.

It is very important to note that the chronicler resorts to the method of "reproducing reality" not only in retelling epic legends, but also in narrating about contemporary events. An example of this is the story "The Tale of Bygone Years" under 1097 about the blindness of Vasilko of Terebovlsky (pp. 170-180). It is no coincidence that it was on this example that researchers examined the “elements of realism” of the Old Russian narrative, it was in it that they found skillful use of “strong details”, and it was here that they discovered the masterful use of “plot direct speech”. 71

The climax episode the story is the scene of the blindness of a cornflower. On the way to the Terebovl volost, assigned to him at the Lyubech princely congress, Vasilko settled down for the night not far from Vydobich. Kiev prince Svyatopolk, yielding to the persuasion of David Igorevich, decides to lure Vasilko and blind him. After persistent invitations ("Do not go on my name day") Vasilko arrives at the "prince's yard"; David and Svyatopolk lead the guest into the "istobka" (hut). Svyatopolk persuades Vasilko to stay, and the frightened himself by his malicious intent

David, "sitting aky is mute." When Svyatopolk came out of the source, Vasilko tries to continue the conversation with David, but - says the chronicler - “there is no voice in David, no obedience [of hearing]”. This is a very rare example for early chronicles when the mood of the interlocutors is conveyed. But then David comes out (supposedly in order to call Svyatopolk), and the prince's servants burst into the source, they rush to Vasilko, knock him to the floor. And the terrible details of the ensuing struggle: in order to keep the mighty and desperately resisting Vasilko, they remove the board from the stove, put it on his chest, sit on the board and press their victim to the floor, "like a persem [chest] of a troscotati" - and the mention that " Torchin Berendi ", which was supposed to blind the prince with a knife, missed and cut the unfortunate face - all these are not simple narrative details, but artistic" strong details "that help the reader to visually imagine a terrible scene of blinding. The story, according to the plan of the chronicler, was supposed to excite the reader, set him up against Svyatopolk and David, convince Vladimir Monomakh of the correctness, who condemned the cruel reprisal of the innocent Vasilko and reprimanded the perjure princes.

The literary influence of The Tale of Bygone Years has been clearly felt for several centuries: chroniclers continue to apply or vary the literary formulas that were used by the creators of The Tale of Bygone Years, imitate its characteristics, and sometimes quote the Tale by introducing fragments into their text from this monument. 72 The Tale of Bygone Years has retained its aesthetic charm to this day, eloquently testifying to the literary skill of the ancient Russian chroniclers.

We know practically nothing about the life of the Monk Nestor the chronicler before he became a resident of the Kiev Caves Monastery. We do not know who he was in terms of social status, we do not know the exact date of his birth. Scientists agree on an approximate date - the middle of the XI century. History has not even recorded the secular name of the first historian of the Russian land. And he has preserved for us invaluable information about the psychological appearance of the holy martyr brothers Boris and Gleb, the Monk Theodosius of the Caves, remaining in the shadow of the heroes of his works. The circumstances of the life of this outstanding figure of Russian culture have to be restored bit by bit, and not all the gaps in his life story can be filled. We celebrate the memory of the Monk Nestor on November 9.

The Monk Nestor came to the famous Kiev-Pechersk monastery as a seventeen-year-old youth. The holy monastery lived according to the strict Studios ustav, which was introduced into it by the Monk Theodosius, having borrowed it from Byzantine books. According to this charter, before taking monastic vows, a candidate had to go through a long preparatory stage. The newcomers first had to wear worldly clothes until they learned well the rules of monastic life. After that, the candidates were allowed to put on the monastic attire and proceed to the tests, that is, to show themselves in work at various obediences. Those who passed these tests successfully accepted the tonsure, but the test did not end there - the last step admission to a monastery was tonsure into the great schema, which not all were awarded.

The Monk Nestor went all the way from a simple novice to a schema monk in just four years, and also received the dignity of deacon. A significant role in this was played, in addition to obedience and virtue, his education and outstanding literary talent.

The Kievo-Pechersk Monastery was a unique phenomenon in the spiritual life of Kievan Rus. The number of the brethren reached one hundred people, which was a rarity even for Byzantium itself. The severity of the communal charter found in the archives of Constantinople had no analogues. The monastery flourished in material terms, although its governors did not care about collecting earthly riches. They listened to the voice of the monastery strongest of the world this, he had a real political and, most importantly, spiritual influence on society.

The young Russian Church at that time was actively assimilating the richest material of Byzantine church books. She was faced with the task of creating original Russian texts in which the national image of Russian holiness would be revealed.

The first hagiographic (hagiography is a theological discipline that studies the lives of saints, theological and historical-church aspects of holiness. - Ed.) Work of the Monk Nestor - "Reading about the life and destruction of the blessed passion-bearers Boris and Gleb" - is dedicated to the memory of the first Russian saints. The chronicler, apparently, responded to the expected all-Russian church celebration - the consecration of a stone church over the relics of Saints Boris and Gleb.

The work of the Monk Nestor was not the first among the works devoted to this topic. However, he did not set out the history of the brothers according to the ready-made chronicle legend, but created a text that was deeply original in form and content. The author of "Reading on the Life ..." creatively reworked the best examples of Byzantine hagiographic literature and was able to express very important ideas for the Russian church and state consciousness. As the researcher of ancient Russian church culture Georgy Fedotov writes, "the memory of Saints Boris and Gleb was the voice of conscience in inter-princely specific accounts, not regulated by law, but only vaguely limited by the idea of ​​clan seniority."

The Monk Nestor did not have a large amount of data about the death of his brothers, but as a subtle artist he was able to recreate a psychologically reliable image of true Christians who resignedly accept death. The truly Christian death of the sons of the baptist of the Russian people, Prince Vladimir, is inscribed by the chronicler in the panorama of the global historical process, which he understands as the arena of the universal struggle between good and evil.

Father of Russian monasticism

The second hagiographic work of the Monk Nestor is dedicated to the life of one of the founders of the Kiev Caves Monastery - the Monk Theodosius. He wrote this work in the 1080s, just a few years after the death of the ascetic, in the hope of an early canonization of the monk. This hope, however, was not destined to come true. The Monk Theodosius was canonized only in 1108.

The internal appearance of the Monk Theodosius of the Caves is of particular importance to us. As Georgy Fedotov writes, “in the person of the Monk Theodosius Ancient Russia found her ideal of a saint, to whom she remained faithful for many centuries. The Monk Theodosius is the father of Russian monasticism. All Russian monks are his children, bearing his family features. " And Nestor the Chronicler was the person who preserved for us his unique appearance and created on Russian soil the ideal type of life story of the monk. As the same Fedotov writes, “Nestor's work forms the basis of all Russian hagiography, inspiring heroism, pointing out the normal, Russian way of working and, on the other hand, filling in the gaps of biographical tradition with common necessary features.<…>All this informs Nestorov's life of exceptional significance for the Russian type of ascetic holiness. " The chronicler did not witness the life and exploits of the Monk Theodosius. Nevertheless, at the heart of his hagiographic story is the testimony of eyewitnesses, which he was able to combine into a coherent, vivid and memorable story.

Of course, in order to create a full-fledged literary life, it is necessary to rely on a developed literary tradition, which has not yet existed in Russia. Therefore, the Monk Nestor borrows much from Greek sources, sometimes making long verbatim extracts. However, they practically do not affect the biographical basis of his story.

Memory of the unity of the people

The main feat of the life of the Monk Nestor was the compilation of the "Tale of Bygone Years" by the years 1112-1113. This work is separated from the first two known literary works of the Monk Nestor by a quarter of a century and belongs to another literary genre - the chronicle. Unfortunately, the set of "Tale ..." has not reached us in its entirety. It was processed by Sylvester, a monk of the Vydubitsky monastery.

The Tale of Bygone Years is based on the chronicle work of Hegumen John, who made the first attempt at a systematic presentation of Russian history since ancient times. He brought his story to 1093. Earlier chronicle records are fragmentary accounts of disparate events. It is interesting that these records contain a legend about Kie and his brothers, briefly informs about the reign of Varangian Oleg in Novgorod, about the destruction of Askold and Dir, and a legend about the death of Prophetic Oleg. The story of Kiev itself begins with the reign of "old Igor", the origin of which is silent.

Hegumen John, dissatisfied with the inaccuracy and fabulousness of the chronicle, restores the years, relying on the Greek and Novgorod chronicles. It was he who first presented "old Igor" as the son of Rurik. Askold and Dir appear here for the first time as Rurik's boyars, and Oleg as his voivode.

It was the vault of Hegumen John that became the basis for the work of the Monk Nestor. He underwent the greatest processing of the initial part of the annals. The original edition of the chronicle was supplemented with legends, monastery records, Byzantine chronicles of John Malala and George Amartol. Saint Nestor attached great importance to oral testimony - the stories of the elder boyar Yan Vyshatich, merchants, soldiers, travelers.

In his main work, Nestor the Chronicler acts as a scientist-historian, and as a writer, and as a religious thinker, giving a theological interpretation of Russian history, which is an integral part of the history of the salvation of the human race.

For the Monk Nestor, the history of Russia is the history of the perception of Christian preaching. Therefore, he records in his chronicle the first mention of the Slavs in church sources - 866, tells in detail about the activities of Saints Equal to the Apostles Cyril and Methodius, about the baptism of Equal to the Apostles Olga in Constantinople. It is this ascetic who introduces into the chronicle a story about the first Orthodox church in Kiev, about the preaching feat of the Varangian martyrs Theodore Varyag and his son John.

Despite the huge amount of heterogeneous information, the chronicle of St. Nestor has become a true masterpiece of ancient Russian and world literature.

In the years of fragmentation, when almost nothing was reminded of the former unity of Kievan Rus, The Tale of Bygone Years remained the monument that awakened in all corners of crumbling Rus the memory of its former unity.

The Monk Nestor died about 1114, having bequeathed the continuation of his great work to the monastic chroniclers of the Caves.

Newspaper " Orthodox faith"No. 21 (545)