Who developed atomic weapons. Who invented a nuclear bomb

The investigation took place in April-May 1954 in Washington and was called on American manner, hearing.
Physics participated in the hearings (with a capital letter!), But for the scientific world of America, the conflict was unprecedented: not a dispute about priority, not a hollow struggle of scientific schools and not even the traditional confrontation of ahead of the genius and crowd of mediocre envious. In the proceedings, the keyword sounded the keyword - "loyalty". The accusation of "disloyment", which found a negative, terrible sense, attracted punishment: depriving admission to the work of higher secrecy. The action took place in the Atomic Energy Commission (CEA). Main characters:

Robert Oppenheimer, Native of New York, Pioneer Quantum Physics in the United States, Scientific Director of the Manhattan Project, "Father of Atomic Bomb", Successful Scientific Manager and Refined Intellectual, after 1945 National Hero of America ...

"I am not the easiest person - I noticed the American physicist Isididid Aizek Rabi. "But compared to Openerhimer, I am very and very simple." Robert Oppenheimer was one of the central figures of the twentieth century, the "complexity" itself, which absorbed the political and ethical contradictions of the country.

During World War II, a brilliant physicist Ažulius Robert Oppenheimer headed the development of American nuclear keys to create the first atomic bomb in the history of mankind. The scientist led a secluded and closed lifestyle, and it gave rise to suspicion of treason.

Atomic weapons - the result of the entire preceding development of science and technology. The discoveries that are directly related to its occurrence were made at the end of the XIX century. A huge role in the disclosure of the mystery of the atom was played by Research A. Becquer, Pierre Curie and Maria Sklodovskaya-Curie, E. Rostford, etc.

In early 1939, French physicist Jolio-Curie concluded that a chain reaction was possible, which would lead to an explosion of monstrous destructive power and that uranium could become a source of energy as a conventional explosive substance. This conclusion has become an impetus for developing nuclear weapons.

Europe was the eve of World War II, and the potential possession of such powerful weapons pushed militaristic circles to the fastest creation, but the problem of the problem of the presence of a large number of uranium ore for large-scale research. Physics, England, USA, Japan, understanding that, without a sufficient number of uranium ore, it is impossible to maintain work, the United States in September 1940, without a sufficient number of uranium ore, the United States has purchased a large number of required ore in Belgium, which allowed them to work on creating nuclear weapons in full swing.

From 1939 to 1945, more than two billion dollars was spent on the Manhattan project. In Oak Ridge, Tennessee, a huge uranium cleaning plant was built. H.C. Urey and Ernest O. Lawrence (Cyclotron Inventor) proposed a purification method based on the principle of gas diffusion with the subsequent magnetic separation of two isotopes. Gas centrifuge separated light uranium-235 from more severe uranium-238.

On the territory of the United States, in Los Alamos, in the deserted expanses of New Mexico, in 1942 the American Nuclear Center was created. A lot of scientists worked on the project, the main thing was Robert Oppenheimer. Under his beginning, the best minds of the time not only the United States and England were collected, but practically all Western Europe. A huge team worked on the creation of nuclear weapons, including 12 laureates of the Nobel Prize. Work in Los Alamos, where the laboratory was located, did not stop for a minute. In Europe, in the meantime, the Second World War, and Germany conducted mass bombings of the cities of England, which was dangerously engaged in the English Atomic Project "TUB ALLOYS", and England voluntarily transferred its development and leading scientists to the United States, which allowed the United States to take a leading position in the development of nuclear physics (creating nuclear weapons).

"The father of the atomic bomb," he at the same time was an enemy of the American nuclear policy. Wearing the title of one of the most prominent physicists of his time, with pleasure I studied the mysticism of the ancient Indian books. Communist, traveler and convinced American patriot, a very spiritual person, nevertheless was ready to betray his friends to defend against attacks of anti-communists. A scientist who developed a plan for the cause of the greatest damage to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, cursed himself for "innocent blood on his hands."

Write a challenge about this contradictory person, but interesting, and the twentieth century is marked by a number of books about him. However, the saturated life of the scientist continues to attract biographers.

Oppenheimer was born in New York in 1903 in the family of secured and educated Jews. Oppenheimer was brought up in love for painting, music, in an atmosphere of intellectual curiosity. In 1922, he entered Harvard University and in just three years he received a diploma with honors, his main subject was chemistry. In the next few years, a developed young man has visited several European countries, where he worked with physicists engaged in the problems of studying atomic phenomena in the light of new theories. Just a year after graduating from the University, Oppenheimer published a scientific work, which showed how deeply it understands new methods. Soon he, together with the famous Max Born, developed the most important part of the quantum theory, known as the Born-Oppenheimer method. In 1927, his outstanding doctoral dissertation brought him worldwide glory.

In 1928 he worked in Zurich and Leiden Universities. In the same year he returned to the United States. From 1929 to 1947, Oppenheimer taught at the University of California and the California Institute of Technology. From 1939 to 1945 actively participated in the work on the creation of an atomic bomb under the Manhattan project; Heading the Los Alamos Lab specially created for this.

In 1929, Opönheimer, an upward star of science, took off suggestions of two of several fantastic for the right to invite him universities. Spring semester He taught in a lively, young California Institute of Technology in Pasaden, and autumn and winter - at the University of California in Berkeley, where he became the first teacher of quantum mechanics. In fact, the scholar-erudite had to adapt some time, gradually reducing the level of discussion to the capabilities of his students. In 1936, he fell in love with Jean Taqlock, restless and prone to the change of mood a young woman, whose passionate idealism found a way out in communist activities. As many thinking of the people of that time, Openheimer studied the ideas of the left movement as one of the possible alternatives, although he did not enter the Communist Party that he had made his younger brother, daughter-in-law and many of his friends. His interest in politics, as well as the ability to read in Sanskrit, was the natural result of a constant aspiration for knowledge. According to his own words, he was also deeply alarmed by an explosion of anti-Semitism in fascist Germany and Spain and invested $ 1,000 per year from its annual earnings of $ 15,000 to projects related to the activities of communist groups. After meeting with Kitty Harrison, who became his wife in 1940, Oppenheimer broke up with Jean Tanklock and moved away from the circle of her friends with the left convictions.

In 1939, the United States learned that, as part of the preparation for the Global War, Hitlerovskaya Germany opened the splitting of the atomic nucleus. Oppenheimer and other scientists immediately guessed that German physicists would try to receive a managed chain reaction, which could be the key to creating weapons, much more destructive than any existing at that time. Having enlisted by the support of the Great Scientific Genius, Albert Einstein, concerned scientists in his famous letter warned President Franklin D. Roosevelt about the danger. Signifying the financing of projects aimed at creating an incomplete weapon, the president acted in the situation of strict secrecy. For the irony of fate, together with American scientists in laboratories scattered throughout the country, worked many leading scholars in the world, forced to flee from their homeland. One part of the university groups investigated the possibility of creating a nuclear reactor, others undertake to solve the problem of separating uranium isotopes needed to release energy in the chain reaction. Oppenheimer, who before that was busy with theoretical problems, was offered to engage in the organization of a wide front of work only in early 1942.

The US Army program to create an atomic bomb received the code name "Project Manhattan", it was headed by the 46-year-old Colonel Leslie R. Groves, a professional military. Groves, who characterized scientists who worked on the creation of an atomic bomb, as "expensive collection of nuts,", however, recognized that Opönheimer had the ability to have not been demanded, to manage his colleagues-debaters when the atmosphere was heating. The physicist suggested that all scientists unite in the same laboratory in the quiet provincial town of Los Alamos, New Mexico, in the area he knew well. By March 1943, a closed guesthouse for boys was turned into a strictly protected secret center, whose scientific director became Oppenheimer. Invisible on the free exchange of information between scientists, which is strictly-setting, it was forbidden to leave the center of the Center, Oppenheimer created an atmosphere of confidence and mutual respect, which contributed to amazing success in work. Without sparing herself, he remained the head of all directions of this complex project, although his personal life suffered from this. But for a mixed group of scientists - among which there were more than a dozen of the then or future Nobel laureates and from which a rare person did not possess the pronounced individuality-Popenheimer was an unusually devoted cause by the leader and a subtle diplomat. Most of them would agree that the lion's share of merit in the final success of the project belongs to him. By December 30, 1944, Grovers, who became the general by the General, could say with confidence that at the time spent two billion dollars will be created to the action of the bomb by August 1 of the next year. But when, in May 1945, Germany recognized his defeat, many of the researchers worked in Los Alamos began to think about the use of new weapons. After all, Japan probably would soon capitulate without atomic bombing. Does the United States need to become the world's first country that applied such a terrible device? Harry S. Truman, who became the president after the death of Roosevelt, appointed the Committee to study the possible consequences of the use of an atomic bomb in which Oppenheimer entered. Experts decided to recommend to reset the atomic bomb without warning on a large Japanese military object. Oppenheimer's consent was obtained.
All these alarms would, of course, controversial, if the bomb did not work. The first atomic bomb test was conducted on July 16, 1945 at about 80 kilometers from the aviation base in Alamogordo, New Mexico. The test device, called for its convex form "fat man", attached to the steel tower installed in the desert terrain. Exactly 5.30 am, a detonator with remote control led a bomb into action. A giant violet-green-orange fiery ball shot down with a discontinuous echoker on a plot with a diameter of 1.6 kilometers in the sky. The earth shuddered against the explosion, the tower disappeared. The white pole of smoke rapidly rose to the sky and began to gradually expand, taking at an altitude of about 11 kilometers by the frightening form of the fungus. The first nuclear explosion was struck by scientific and military observers who were near the test site, and spoke them heads. But Oppenheimer remembered the lines from the Indian epic poem "Bhagavadgit": "I will become death, the fighter of the worlds." Until the end of his life, a sense of responsibility for the consequences has always been adopted to satisfying scientific success.
On the morning of August 6, 1945, it was clear over Hiroshima, a cloudless sky. As before, approaching the east of two American aircraft (one of them was called Enola Gay) at an altitude of 10-13 km did not cause anxiety (because every day they were shown in the sky of Hiroshima). One of the aircraft spliced \u200b\u200band dropped something, and then both planes turned and flew away. The scuffed object on the parachute slowly descended and suddenly at an altitude of 600 m above the ground exploded. It was a bomb "Kid".

Three days after the "baby" was blown up in Hiroshima, an accurate copy of the first "fat man" was discarded on the city of Nagasaki. On August 15, Japan, whose determination was finally broken by this new weapon, signed unconditional surrender. However, the voices of skeptics have already been heard, and Openerheimer himself predicted two months after Hiroshima, that "humanity will curse Los Alamos and Hiroshima names."

The whole world was shocked by the explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. What is characteristic, the Oppenheimer managed to combine experiences on the test of the bomb on the peaceful citizens and the joy that the weapon was finally verified.

Nevertheless, next year, he accepted the appointment as Chairman of the Scientific Council of the Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), becoming the most influential adviser to the government and military on nuclear issues. While the West and the Soviet University headed by Stalin was seriously preparing for the Cold War, each of the parties focused on the arms race. Although many of the scientists entering the "Project Manhattan" did not support the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a new weapon, the former employees of Oppenheimer Edward Teller and Ernest Lawrence considered that the US National Security requires the earliest developing a hydrogen bomb. Oppenheimer came to horror. From his point of view, two nuclear powers and so already opposed each other as "two scorpions in a bank, each able to kill the other, but only with a risk for their own life." With the spread of a new weapon in wars, there would no longer be the winners and defeated - only the victims. And the "father of the atomic bomb" made a public statement that he was against the development of a hydrogen bomb. Always felt at the Oppenheimer not in his plate and clearly envied his achievements, Teller began to make efforts to lead a new project, implying that Oppenheimer no longer should take part in the work. He told the investigators of the FBI that his opponent keeps his authority to scientists from working on a hydrogen bomb, and discovered the secret that in the youth of Openheimer suffered from the attacks of severe depression. When President Truman gave consent to finance work on the creation of a hydrogen bomb, Teller could celebrate victory.

In 1954, Oppenheimer's enemies launched a campaign to remove him from power, which they succeeded - after the searches for "black spots" in his personal biography. As a result, a displacement case was organized, in which many influential political and scientific figures were opposed to Oppenheimer. As Albert Einstein, Oppenheimer's problem was spoken about this: "The Oppenheimer's problem was that he loved a woman who did not love him: the US government."

Allowing the talent of Oppenheimer, America defended him to death.

Oppenheimer is known not only as the creator of the American atomic bomb. It owns many works on quantum mechanics, theory of relativity, physics of elementary particles, theoretical astrophysics. In 1927, he developed the theory of interaction of free electrons with atoms. Together with Borne created the theory of the structure of diatomic molecules. In 1931, he and P.Erefest formulated the theorem, the use of which to the nitrogen core showed that the proton-electronic hypothesis of the structure of the nuclei leads to a range of contradictions with known nitrogen properties. Investigated the inner conversion G-lace. In 1937, he developed a cascading theory of cosmic rainfall, in 1938 made the first calculation of the model of a neutron star, in 1939 predicted the existence of "black holes".

Oppenheimer belongs to a number of popular books, including - Science and everyday knowledge (Science and The Common Understanding, 1954), Outdoor Mind (The Open Mind, 1955), some reflections on science and culture (Some Reflections on Science and Culture, 1960) . Oppenheimer died in Princeton on February 18, 1967.

Work on atomic projects in the USSR and the United States began simultaneously. In August 1942, secret "Laboratory No. 2" began working in one of the buildings in the yard of Kazan University. Her leader was appointed Igor Kurchatov.

In Soviet times, it was argued that the USSR decided its atomic task completely independently, and Kurchatov was considered the "father" of the domestic atomic bomb. Although there were rumors about some secrets stolen from Americans. And only in the 90s, after 50 years, one of the main persons then persons - Julius Khariton told about a significant role of intelligence in the acceleration of the sentenced Soviet project. And American scientific and technical results mined Claus Fuchs arrived in the English group.

Information from abroad helped the leadership of the country to take a difficult decision - to begin work on nuclear weapons during the hardest war. Intelligence allowed our physicists to save time, helped to avoid "drying" at the first atomic test that had a huge political significance.

In 1939, the chain reaction of the division of uranium-235 nuclei was opened, accompanied by excretion of colossal energy. Soon after that, articles on nuclear physics began to disappear from the pages of scientific journals. This could indicate the real term of creating an atomic explosive and weapons based on it.

After the discontinuation of the spontaneous division of uranium-235 nuclei and determining the critical mass into the residency on the initiative of the head of the HTR L. Khomnikov, the corresponding directive was sent out.

In the FSB of Russia (the former KGB of the USSR), 17 volumes of archival business N 13676 are repurchased under the vulture of "Store forever", where they documented who and as attracted US citizens to work on Soviet intelligence. Only a few of the top leadership of the KGB of the USSR had access to the materials of this case, the vulture of secrecy from which only recently was removed. The first information about the work on the creation of an American atomic bomb Soviet intelligence received in the fall of 1941. And already in March 1942, extensive information about the research in the United States and England, research lay on the table I. V. Stalin. According to Y. B. Harriton, in that dramatic period it was more reliable to use for the first of our explosion already tested by the Americans a bomb scheme. "Given the government interests, any other decision was then unacceptable. The merit of Fuchs and other assistants abroad is undoubted. However, we have implemented the American scheme for the first test not so much of the technical, as from political considerations.

The message that the Soviet Union took possession of the secret of nuclear weapons caused the US ruling circles a desire to unleash a preventive war as soon as possible. A plan "Troyan" was developed, which provided for the combat operations on January 1, 1950. At that time, the United States had 840 strategic bombers in the system parts, 1350 - in reserve and over 300 atomic bombs.

In the area of \u200b\u200bSemipalatinsk, a test landfill was built. Exactly at 7.00 am On August 29, 1949, the first Soviet nuclear device under the code name "RDS-1" was undermined at this test site.

The plan "Troyan", according to which atomic bombs should have been discarded on 70 cities, was torn due to the threat of a response strike. The event that happened at the Semipalatinsky landfill was informed about the creation of nuclear weapons in the USSR.

External intelligence not only attracted the attention of the country's leadership to the problem of creating atomic weapons and thereby initiated such work in our country. Thanks to the information of foreign intelligence, according to Academics A. Maleksandrov, Y.Khariton and others, I. Kurchantov did not make big mistakes, we managed to avoid dead-end directions in creating atomic weapons and create an atomic bomb in the USSR in just three years. Whereas the United States spent four years to have spent on its creation five billion dollars.
As noted in an interview with the newspaper Izvestia dated December 8, 1992, the first Soviet atomic charge was made on an American pattern using the information received from K. Fuks. According to the academician when government awards were awarded to the participants of the Soviet Atomic Project, Stalin, satisfied that the American monopoly in this area does not exist, noticed: "If we were late for one year and a half, then probably would try this charge for yourself ".

Changing the US military doctrine from 1945 to 1996 and basic concepts

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On the territory of the United States, in Los Alamos, in the deserted expanses of New Mexico, in 1942 the American Nuclear Center was created. At its base, work was deployed to create a nuclear bomb. The general management of the project was entrusted with the Talented Nuclear Physics of R. Oppenheimer. Under his beginning, the best minds of the time not only the United States and England were collected, but practically all Western Europe. A huge team worked on the creation of nuclear weapons, including 12 laureates of the Nobel Prize. There was no lack of financial resources.

By the summer of 1945, the Americans managed to collect two atomic bombs, which received the names "Kid" and "fat man." The first bomb weighed 2722 kg and was equipped with enriched uranium-235. "Tolstik" with a charge of plutonium-239 with a capacity of more than 20 kt had a mass of 3175 kg. On June 16, the first polygon test of a nuclear device was held, dedicated to the meeting of the leaders of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France.

By this time, the relationship between former associates changed. It should be noted that the United States, as soon as the atomic bomb appeared, they strove to the monopoly law of possession of it to deprive other countries the opportunity to use atomic energy at their discretion.

US President of the city of Truman became the first political leader who decided to apply nuclear bombs. From a military point of view, there were no such bombardments of the densely populated Japanese cities. But political motives during this period prevalted over the military. The leadership of the United States strove to the primacy in the entire post-war world, and nuclear bombing, in their opinion, should have become a significant reinforcement of these aspirations. For this purpose, they began to seek the adoption of the American "Baruch Plan", which would have consolidated the US monopoly ownership of atomic weapons, in other words, "Absolute Military Excellence".

The fatal hour has come. On August 6 and 9, the crews of the aircraft B-29 "ENOLA GAY" and "BOCKS CAR" dropped their deadly load on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Common human losses and the scale of destruction from these bombers are characterized by the following numbers: instantly died of heat radiation (the temperature of about 5000 degrees C) and the shock wave - 300 thousand people, another 200 thousand were injured, burns, irradiated. On an area of \u200b\u200b12 square meters. km were completely destroyed by all buildings. Only in one Hiroshima of 90 thousand buildings 62 thousand were destroyed. These bombards shook the whole world. It is believed that this event marked the beginning of the rice of nuclear weapons and the opposition of two political systems of that time at a new qualitative level.

The development of American strategic offensive arms after World War II was carried out depending on the provisions of the military doctrine. Her political party defined the main goal of the US leadership - the achievement of world domination. The main obstacle to these aspirations was considered the Soviet Union, which in their opinion was supposed to be liquidated. Depending on the alignment of forces in the world, the achievements of science and technology changed its basic provisions that there was a corresponding reflection in the adoption of certain strategic strategies (concepts). Each subsequent strategy has not replaced the fully preceding it, but only upgraded it mainly in matters of determining the construction of armed forces and methods of warfare.

From mid-1945 and to 1953, the American military-political leadership in the construction of strategic nuclear forces (SPEY) proceeded from the fact that the United States is monopolized by nuclear weapons and can achieve world domination by eliminating the USSR during the Nuclear War. Preparation for such a war began almost immediately after the defeat of Hitler's Germany. This is evidenced by the Directive of the Joint Committee of Military Planning No. 432 / d dated December 14, 1945, where the task was to prepare the atomic bombing of 20 Soviet cities - the main political and industrial centers of the Soviet Union. At the same time, it was planned to use the entire cash bombs (196 pieces) reserve at that time, which were upgraded B-29 bombers. The method of their application is determined - a sudden atomic "first strike", which should put the Soviet leadership before the fact of the futility of further resistance.

The thesis about the "Soviet threat" is becoming a political substantiation of such actions, one of the main authors of which can be considered an attorney in USSR J. Kennan. It was on February 22, 1946 that he sent a "long telegram" to Washington, where in eight thousand words outlined the "vitality", as if those who were hung over the United States, and suggested a confrontation strategy with the Soviet Union.

The President of Truman gave an indication to develop a doctrine (later received the name "Doctrine Truman") of the policy from the position of force in relation to the USSR. To centralize planning and improving the efficiency of strategic aviation in the spring of 1947, a strategic aviation command (SAC) is created. At the same time, the task of improving strategic aviation equipment is being implemented.

By mid-1948, the headquarters' heads were drawn up in the Committee of the headquarters with the USSR, which received the code name "Chariotir". He provided that the war should begin "with concentrated raids using atomic bombs against government, political and administrative centers, industrial cities and elected enterprises of the oil industry with bases in the Western Hemisphere and England." Only in the first 30 days was scheduled to reset 133 nuclear bombs on 70 Soviet cities.

However, as US military analysts were calculated, it was not enough to achieve a quick victory. They believed that during this time the Soviet army would be able to master key areas of Europe and Asia. In early 1949, a special committee was created from the highest ranks of the army, aviation and fleet under the leadership of Lieutenant-General H. Harmona, who was tasked with the task of trying to appreciate the political and military consequences of the intended atomic attack on the Soviet Union from the air. Conclusions and calculations of the Committee explicitly testified that the United States to the Nuclear War is not yet prepared.

In the conclusions of the Committee, it was necessary to increase the quantitative composition of SAC, to increase its combat capabilities, replenish nuclear arsenals. To ensure the application of a massive nuclear strike by the United States to the United States, it is necessary to create a network of bases along the borders of the USSR, from which nuclear-weapon carriers can carry out combat departures along the shortest routes to the planned goals in Soviet territory. It is necessary to deploy the serial production of heavy strategic intercontinental bombers in-36, capable of acting from the bases in the American territory.

The message that the Soviet Union took possession of the secret of nuclear weapons caused the US ruling circles a desire to unleash a preventive war as soon as possible. A plan "Troyan" was developed, which provided for the combat operations on January 1, 1950. At that time, sak had 840 strategic bombers in the system parts, 1350 - in reserve and over 300 atomic bombs.

To appreciate his vitality, the Committee of Headquarters ordered the Lieutenant General D. Halla group to test the chances of disagreement of nine most important strategic areas in the Soviet Union. Having lost the air offensive against the USSR, Halla analysts summed up: the likelihood of achieving these purposes is 70%, which will entail the loss of 55% of the bomber's cash line. It turned out that the US strategic aviation in this case would quickly lose its combat capability. Therefore, the question of preventive war in 1950 was removed. Soon the American leadership could actually make sure that such assessments are correct. In the course of the B-29 bombers that began in 1950, the B-29 bombers suffered severe losses from attacks of reactive fighter aircraft.

But the situation in the world quickly changed, which was reflected in the American strategy of "massive retaliation", adopted in 1953. It was based on the superiority of the United States over the USSR in the number of nuclear ammunition and the means of their delivery. The mainstream nuclear war against the countries of the Socialist Camp was envisaged. The main means of achieving victory was to be strategic aviation, to the development of which up to 50% of the financial resources allocated to the Ministry of Defense for the purchase of armaments were sent.

In 1955, Sak had 1565 bombers, 70% of which were reactive in-47, and 4750 nuclear bombs for them with a capacity of 50 CT to 20 MT. In the same year, a severe strategic bomber in-52 is adopted, which gradually becomes the main intercontinental carrier of nuclear weapons.

At the same time, the US military-political leadership begins to realize that in the context of rapid increase in the possibilities of Soviet facilities, heavy bombers will not be able to solve the task of achieving victory in the nuclear war. In 1958, the ballistic missiles of the medium range "Tor" and "Jupiter" are sent, the deployment of which is conducted in Europe. A year later, the first intercontinental rockets "Atlas-D" are put on combat duty, the commissioning of the nuclear submarine "J. Washington "with Polaris-A1 missiles.

With the appearance of a ballistic missile as part of the ballistic missiles, the possibility of applying a nuclear strike in the United States is significantly increasing. However, in the USSR, by the end of the 50s, intercontinental nuclear weapons are created, which can cause a retaliatory blow to the territory of the United States. Soviet ICBMs called a particularly alarm of the Pentagon. Under these conditions, the leaders of the United States considered that the "massive retaliation" strategy does not fully comply with modern realities and should be adjusted.

By the beginning of 1960, nuclear planning in the United States takes a centralized character. Prior to this, each type of armed forces planned to use nuclear weapons on their own. But an increase in the number of strategic carriers demanded the creation of a single body for planning nuclear operations. They became the joint headquarters for planning strategic objectives, subordinate to the Commander of the SAC and the Committee of the headquarters of the US Armed Forces. In December 1960, the first single plan for maintaining a nuclear war was drawn up, which received the name "Unified Complex Operational Plan" - SIOP. He envisaged, in accordance with the requirements of the "massive retaliation" strategy, maintaining the USSR and China only a universal nuclear war with unlimited use of nuclear weapons (3.5 thousand nuclear warheads).

In 1961, a "flexible response" strategy was adopted, reflecting changes in official views on the possible nature of the war from the USSR. In addition to the Universal Nuclear War, American strategists began to allow the possibility of limited use of nuclear weapons and wars by ordinary means of damage to short time (no more than two weeks). The choice of methods and means of warfare should have been carried out, taking into account the established geostrategic situation, the relationship between the forces and the availability of resources.

On the development of American strategic armaments, new installations affected very significantly. Begins a rapid quantitative growth of ICBM and BRPL. Special attention is paid to improving the latter, as they could be used as the means of "advanced basing" in Europe. At the same time, the US government no longer needed to search for them possible areas of accommodation and persuade Europeans to give their consent to the use of their territory, as it was during the period of deployment of medium-range missiles.

The US military-political leadership believed that it was necessary to have such a quantitative composition of SAYAS, the use of which would ensure the "guaranteed destruction" of the Soviet Union, as a viable state.

In the first years of this decade, a significant MBR group was deployed. So, in the early 1960s, in the combat composition of SAK, there were 20 missiles of only one type - "Atlas-D", by the end of 1962 - already 294. By this time, the intercontinental ballistic missiles "Atlas" modifications "E" were adopted and "F", "Titan-1" and "Minitmen-1a". The last ICBMs in the degree of perfection stood a few orders of their predecessors. In the same year, the tenth American plast was published on combat patrol. The total number of BRPL "PLARIS-A1" and "PLORIS-A2" reached 160 units. The last of the ordered heavy bombers in-52n and medium bombers in-58 entered the system. The total number of bombers in the strategic aviation command was 1819. Thus, the American nuclear triad of strategic offensive forces (parts and compounds of ICBM, nuclear rocket submarines and strategic bombers), each component of which harmoniously complemented each other. It was over 6,000 nuclear fuel charges.

In mid-1961, SIP-2 plan was approved, reflecting the "flexible response" strategy. He envisaged five interrelated operations to destroy the Soviet nuclear arsenal, suppressing the air defense system, the destruction of bodies and points of military and government, large groups of troops, as well as deposits by cities. The total number of objectives in the plan was 6 thousand. At the place of topics, the plan's developers took into account and the possibility of applying to the Soviet Union of a response nuclear strike through the United States.

In early 1961, a commission was formed, the duties of which was charged to develop promising paths of the development of American shenas. Subsequently, such commissions were created regularly.

In the autumn of 1962, the world was again on the verge of a nuclear war. The crisis-broken crisis forced politicians around the world to look at the nuclear weapon from the new side. For the first time, it clearly played the role of deterrent factor. Sudden for US, the appearance of Soviet missiles of medium-range in Cuba and the absence of an overwhelming superiority in the amount of ICBM and BRPL over the Soviet Union made a military path of conflict resolution impossible.

American military leadership immediately declared the need to bring, in fact, taking the course to unleash the race of strategic offensive arms (START). The wishes of the military found due support in the US Senate. A huge money was allocated for the development of START, which made it possible to better improve the SIAS. In 1965, the "Tor" rocket and Jupiter, "Atlas" of all modifications and Titan-1 were completely removed from the armament. For the replacement, they were received by the intercontinental missiles "Minitmen-1B" and "Minitmen-2", as well as severe ICBR "Titan-2".

Significantly quantitatively and qualitatively grew by the Navy. Considering such factors as the US Navy and the United NATO Unified NATO Fleet on the Overalls of the World Ocean in the early 1960s, high vitality, secrecy and mobility of the plars, the American leadership decided to significantly increase the number of deployed underwater missiles who could successfully replace the Middle Rockets range. Their main objectives were to become large industrial and administrative centers of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries.

In 1967, 41 places with 656 missiles were 41 in a combat system with 656 rockets, of which more than 80% were BRPL "Polaris-A3", 1054 MBR and more than 800 heavy bombers. After removal from the weapon of obsolete aircraft type B-47, nuclear bombs intended for them were eliminated. In connection with the change in strategic aviation tactics for Equipment of the B-52, the winged missiles AGM-28 "Hound Dog" with a nuclear head part.

The rapid growth in the second half of the 60s of the number of Soviet MBR type "OS" with improved characteristics, the creation of a pro, made the likelihood of achieving America to the fast victory in the possible nuclear war of meager.

The race of strategic nuclear weapons put all new and new tasks in front of the US military industrial complex. It was required to find a new way to quickly extend nuclear power. The high scientific and production level of leading American rocket-building firms allowed to solve this task. Designers have found a way to significantly increase the number of risen nuclear charges without increasing the number of their carriers. Separate headsets (RGCH) were developed and implemented with scattering combat elements, and then with individual guidance.

The US leadership decided that it was time to somewhat correct the military-technical side of his military doctrine. Using the tested thesis about the "Soviet rocket threat" and "US lag", it easily achieved allocating funds for new strategic weapons. Since 1970, the deployment of ICBM "Minitmen-3" and the Poseidon-C3 BRPL with RGC type "Mirv" began. At the same time, outdated "Minitmen-1B" and "Poland" starred from combat duty.

In 1971, a "realistic intimidation" strategy was officially adopted. It was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bnuclear superiority over the USSR. The authors of the strategy took into account the advancing equality in the number of strategic carriers between the United States and the USSR. By that time, without taking into account the nuclear forces of England and France, the next balance of strategic arms was formed. UBR of ground-based basing - in the US 1054 against 1300 at the Soviet Union, according to the number of BRPL - 656 against 300 and on strategic bombers - 550 against 145, respectively. The new strategy in the field of STAR development envisaged a sharp increase in the number of nuclear combat units on ballistic missiles while improving their tactical and technical characteristics, which should have been provided to provide high-quality superiority over the Soviet Union.

Improving strategic offensive forces has been reflected in the next plan - SIP-4 adopted in 1971. It was developed taking into account the interaction of all components of the nuclear triad and provided for the defeat of 16 thousand goals.

But under pressure from the world community, the US leaders had to go to negotiations on nuclear disarmament. Methods for conducting such negotiations regulated the concept of "negotiations from the position of force" - an integral part of the "realistic intimidation" strategy. In 1972, an agreement was concluded between the United States and the USSR on the restriction of systems about and a temporary agreement on some measures in the field of STAR limiting (ASS-1). However, the increasing strategic nuclear potential of opposing political systems continued.

By the mid-70s, the deployment of Minitmen-3 and Poseidon missile systems was completed. All Lafayette Type Playt, equipped with new rockets, was upgraded. Heavy bombers were asleep with nuclear ur sram. All this led to a sharp increase in the nuclear arsenal, enshrined behind strategic carriers. So in five years from 1970 to 1975, the number of combat units increased from 5102 to 8,500 pieces. In total, the improvement of the combat management system of strategic arms was carried out, which made it possible to implement the principle of rapid rewriting combat blocks to new goals. To completely recalculate and replace the flight task for one rocket now required only a few dozen minutes, and the entire MBR SNS grouping could be rewriting in 10 hours. By the end of 1979, this system was introduced on all launchers of intercontinental missiles and start control points. At the same time, the protection of mine starting installations of the ICBM "Minitman" has increased.

The qualitative improvement in the US START made it possible to move from the concept of "guaranteed destruction" to the concept of "choosing goals", which provided for multivariate actions - from a limited nuclear strike with several missiles to a massive impact throughout the complex of the intended lesion objects. The SIP-5 plan was drawn up and approved in 1975, which concluded shocks on the military, administrative and economic objects of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Country Economic Objects to 25 thousand.

The main form of application of the American START was considered a sudden massive nuclear strike by all the MBC and BRPL comboshes, as well as a certain number of heavy bombers. By this time, BRPL became leading in the US Nuclear Triade. If, before 1970, most of the nuclear charges were listed for strategic aviation, in 1975, in 1975, 4536 combat blocks were installed on 656 maritime basing missiles (1054 MBR - 2154 charges, and on heavy bombers - 1800). Changed and views on their application. In addition to the application of strikes by cities, given the small flowing time (12 - 18 minutes), submarines rockets could be used to defeat the starting Soviet ICBMs at the active site of the trajectory or directly in the starting plants, prevent their starts to the Foundation of American ICBM. The lattice of the task of defeating high-breeded goals and primarily the SPU and command points of the RVSN missile parts were imposed. Thus, the Soviet response-counter nuclear strike through the territory of the United States could be ripped or significantly weakened. Heavy bombers were planned to be used to defeat the preserved or newly identified goals.

Since the second half of the 70s, the transformation of the views of the American political leadership for the prospects of nuclear war begins. Considering the opinion of the majority of scientists about the fraud for the United States of even the response Soviet nuclear strike, it decided to adopt the theory of a limited nuclear war for one TVD, and specifically, European. For its implementation, new nuclear weapons were needed.

The administration of President J. Carter allocated funds for the development and production of the highly efficient Strategic Safety System "Trident". The implementation of this project was envisaged in two stages. At the first planned to rearma 12 plain type "J. Madison "Rockets" Trident-C4 ", as well as build and put into operation 8 of the new generation of type" Ohio "with 24 such rockets. At the second stage, it was assumed to build another 14 plarsb and arm all the boats of this project of the new BRPL "Trident-D5" with higher tactical and technical characteristics.

In 1979, President J. Carter decides on the full-scale production of the Intercontinental Ballistic Rocket "Piskper" ("MX"), which in its characteristics should have exceeded all the existing Soviet ICBMs. Its development was conducted from the mid-70s along with the PRSHING-2 BRSD and a new type of strategic armament - the wedding rockets of the large range of ground and air basic.

With the arrival of the administration of the President of the R. Reagan, the "Neoglobalism doctrine" appeared on the world, reflecting the new views of the US military-political leadership in the way of achieving world domination. She envisaged a wide range of activities (political, economic, ideological, military) on "discarding communism", direct use of military force against those countries where the United States disrupts the presence of a threat to its "vital interests". Naturally the military technical side of the doctrine was also adjusted. For the 1980s, it was the basis of "direct confrontation" with the USSR in a global and regional scale, aimed at achieving "full and indisputable US military superiority."

Soon in the Pentagon, "Directive Guidelines for the construction of the US Armed Forces" were developed in the coming years. In particular, it was determined that in the Nuclear War "the United States should be over and to be able to force the USSR in a short time to terminate military actions under the US conditions." Military plans envisaged maintaining both universal and limited nuclear war under one TVD. In addition, the task was to be ready to lead an effective war from space.

Based on these provisions, the concepts of the development of the SNA were developed. The concept of "strategic sufficiency" required to have such a combat composition of strategic carriers and nuclear combat units to them in order to ensure the "intimidation" of the Soviet Union. " The concept of "active counteraction" provided for the way to ensure the flexibility of the application of strategic offensive forces in any environment - from the single use of nuclear weapons to the use of the entire nuclear arsenal.

In March 1980, the President approves SIP-5D plan. The plan provided for the application of three variants of nuclear strikes: preventive, response and response. The number of lesion objects was 40 thousand, which included 900 cities with a population of over 250 thousand each, 15,000 industrial and economic objects, 3,500 military goals in the territory of the USSR, the countries of the Warsaw Treaty, PRC, Vietnam and Cuba.

In early October 1981, President Reagan declared his "strategic program" in the 1980s, which contained the installation for further increasing strategic nuclear potential. At the six meetings of the Committee on Military Affairs of the US Congress, the latest hearings on this program took place. Representatives of the President, the Ministry of Defense, leading armament scientists were invited. As a result of comprehensive discussions of all structural elements, the strategic arms increase program has been approved. In accordance with it, since 1983, 108 BRSD-2 launchers "Pershing-2", 464 BGM-109G terrestrial rockets were deployed as nuclear best-based basic.

In the second half of the 1980s, another concept was developed - "substantial equivalence". It was determined, as in the context of the reduction and elimination of some types of START due to improving the combat characteristics of others, to provide high-quality superiority over Sachs of the USSR.

Since 1985, the deployment of 50 ICBM "MX" of mine basing began (another 50 missiles of this type in the mobile version were planned to put on combat duty at the beginning of the 90s) and 100 heavy bombers B-1B. The production of BGM-86 air base missiles was carried out with a complete move for equipping 180 B-52 bombers. The 350 ICBM "Minitmen-3" was established a new RGC with more powerful combat blocs, the control system was simultaneously upgraded.

An interesting situation has developed after placing the Persing-2 missiles in Western Germany. Formally, this grouping was not part of the US SNA and was a nuclear agent of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the United Armed Forces of NATO in Europe (US representatives always occupied). The official version for the world community, its deployment in Europe was the reaction to the emergence of RSD-10 missiles (SS-20) and the need to bring NATO in front of a rocket threat from the east. In fact, the reason was of course another, which was confirmed by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the United Armed Forces NATO in Europe General B. Rogers. In 1983, he said in 1983: "Most people believe that we are making upgrading our weapons due to SS-20 missiles. We would carry out modernization and in the event that there were no SS-20 missiles. "

The main purpose of the "Permisses" (the "SIOP" fee) was the application of the "beading strike" on the command items of the strategic formations of the Armed Forces of the USSR and RVSN in Eastern Europe, which was to disrupt the exercise of the Soviet response. To do this, they possessed all the necessary tactical and technical characteristics: a small time of a focus (8-10 minutes), high shooting accuracy and a nuclear charge capable of hitting highly stable targets. Thus, it became clear that they were intended to solve strategic offensive tasks.

Hazardous weapons began the winged rockets of ground-based bases, also considered NATO nuclear agents. But their use was envisaged in accordance with the SIOP plan. Their main advantage was in high shooting accuracy (up to 30 m) and flight secureness, which occurred at a height of several tens of meters, which, in combination with a small effective area of \u200b\u200bdispersion, made interception of the air defense system of such rockets is extremely difficult. The objects of the lesion for the Kyrgyz Republic could have any point high-breed targets of the type of command items, the ShPU, etc.

However, by the end of the 1980s, the USA and the USSR have accumulated such a huge nuclear potential that it has long been converted reasonable limits. A situation was created when it was necessary to make a decision that to do next. The situation was exacerbated by the fact that half of the ICBM (Minitman-2 and part "Minitmen-3") were in operation 20 or more. Maintaining them in a combat vehicle did each year more and more expensive. Under these conditions, the leadership of the country decided on the possibility of 50% of the reduction in START, subject to the response step by the Soviet Union. Such an agreement was concluded at the end of July 1991. His provisions largely identified ways of developing strategic arms in the 1990s. Installation was given, on the development of such START, to parry a threat from them, the USSR would need to spend large financial and material tools.

The situation has radically changed after the collapse of the Soviet Union. As a result, the United States reached world domination and remained the only "superpower" of the world. Finally, the political part of the American military doctrine was performed. But with the end of the Cold War, according to the B. Clinton administration, the threats for the US interests are preserved. In 1995, a report "National Military Strategy" appeared, submitted by the Chairman of the Committee of Headquarters of the Sun, and Directed Congress. He became the last of the official documents in which the provisions of the new military doctrine were set out. It is based on a "strategy of flexible and election involvement". Certain adjustments in the new strategy are made to the mainstream strategic concepts.

The military-political leadership still makes a bet on strength, and the Armed Forces are preparing for warfare and achieve "victory in any wars, where and when they arose." Naturally, the military structure is performed, including strategic nuclear forces. They assign the task of deterrent and intimidation of a possible enemy, both in the peaceful period and the entrance of a general or limited war using conventional means of defeat.

A significant place in theoretical developments is paid to the place and methods of the SNA Action in the Nuclear War. Taking into account the current ratio of forces between the United States and Russia in the field of strategic arms, US military-political leadership believes that the goals in the nuclear war can be achieved as a result of multiple and time-spaced nuclear strikes on the facilities of military and economic potentials, administrative and political governance. By time, this can be both proactive and response-counter actions.

The following types of nuclear strikes are envisaged: selective - for the defeat of various controls, limited or regional (for example, in groupings of the enemy's troops during the usual war with the unsuccessful development of the situation) and massive. In this regard, a certain reorganization of the US START was conducted. Further change in American views on the possible development and application of strategic nuclear weapons can be expected at the beginning of the next millennium.

Ancient Indian and ancient Greek scientists assumed that matter consists of the smallest indivisible particles, in his treatises they wrote about it long before the start of our era. In V c. BC e. Greek scientist Levkipp from Mi-Summer and his student Democritus formulated the concept of an atom (Greek. Atomos "indivisible"). Over the centuries, this theory remained rather philosophical, and only in 1803 the English chemist John Dalton was proposed a scientific theory of an atom confirmed by experiments.

In the late XIX early XX century. This theory was developed in their writings, Joseph Thomson, and then Ernest Rutherford, called the father of nuclear physics. It was found that atom contrary to its name is not an indivisible final particle, as stated earlier. In 1911, physicists adopted a "planetary" system of Rangeford Bora, according to which an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons rotating around it. It was later established that the kernel is also not indivisible it consists of protons charged positively and not having neutron charges that consist, in turn, from elementary particles.

As soon as the scientist has become more or less understandable to the structure of the atomic nucleus, they tried to exercise the long-standing dream of alchemists. Transformation of one substance to another. In 1934, French scientists Frederick and Irene Zolio-Curie in the bombing of aluminum alpha particles (the nuclei of the helium atom) were obtained by radioactive phosphorus atoms, which, in turn, passed into a steady isotope of silicon of a heavier element than aluminum. An idea arose to carry out such experience with the hardest natural element of uranium, open in 1789 by Martin Claprotom. After in 1896, Henri Beququel discovered the radioactivity of uranium salts, this element was seriously interested in scientists.

E. Rootford.

Mushroom nuclear explosion.

In 1938, German chemists Otto Gan and Fritz Shtrasman had experience, similar to Jolio-Curie experiment, however, taking instead of aluminum uranium, they expected to get a new super heavy element. However, the result was unexpected: instead of the super heavy, light elements from the middle part of the periodic table turned out. After some time, the physicist Lisa Maitnener suggested that the bombardment of uranium neutrons leads to splitting (division) of its nucleus, resulting in a nucleus of light elements and there is some number of free neutrons.

Further studies have shown that the natural uranium consists of a mixture of three isotopes, and the least stable of them is uranium-235. From time to time, the kernel of its atoms is spontaneously divided into parts, this process is accompanied by the release of two or three free neutrons, which rushing at a speed of about 10 thousand CMS. The nucleus of the most common isoto-PA-238 in most cases simply capture these neutrons, less often the transformation of uranium into neptune and then in Plutonium-239. When neutron hit in the core of uranium-2 3 5 instantly occurs its new division.

It was obvious: if we take a large piece of pure (enriched) uranium-235, the reaction of dividing nuclei in it will go avalanche-like this reaction called the chain. When dividing each nucleus, a huge amount of energy is highlighted. It was estimated that with the full division of 1 kg of uranium-235, the same heat is distinguished as the combustion of 3 thousand tons of coal. This tremendous emission of energy released in the resulting moments was supposed to show himself as an explosion of monstrous force, which, of course, was immediately interested in military departments.

Spouses of Jolio Curie. 1940s.

L. Maitner and O. Gan. 1925

Before the beginning of World War II in Germany and some other countries, there were strictly classified work on the creation of nuclear weapons. In the US, research marked as "Manhattan project" was started in 1941, a year later in Los Alamos, the world's largest research laboratory was founded. The administrative project was subordinate to General Grovsu. Scientific guide was carried out by Professor of the University of California Robert Oppenheimer. The following authorities in the field of physics and chemistry took part in the project, including 13 Nobel Prize laureates: Enrico Fermi, James Frank, Nils Bohr, Ernest Lawrence, etc.

The main task was to obtain a sufficient amount of uranium-235. It was found that Plutonium-2 39 can also be charged for a bomb, so the works were carried out at once in two directions. The accumulation of uranium-235 was to be carried out by separating from the main mass of natural uranium, and plutonium could be obtained only as a result of a controlled nuclear reaction during the irradiation of uranium-238 neutrons. The enrichment of natural uranium was produced at the plants of the company "Westinguz", and for the production of plutonium it was necessary to build a nuclear reactor.

It was in the reactor that the process of irradiation of uranium neutron rods was happening, as a result of which part of Uranium-238 was to turn into plutonium. The sources of neutrons at the same time were divided by uranium-235 atoms, but neutron capture uranium-238 did not allow the chain reaction to begin. The discovery of Enrico Fermi was helped to solve the problem, which discovered that neutrons, slow down to a speed of 22 ms, cause a chain reaction of uranium-235, but not captured by uranium-238. As a retarder, Fermi proposed a 40-centimeter layer of graphite or severe water, which includes a deuterium hydrogen isotope.

R. Oppenheimer and Lieutenant L. Grows General. 1945

Calutron in OK-Ridge.

An experienced reactor was built in 1942 under the tribunes of the Chicago Stadium. On December 2, his successful experimental launch took place. A year later, a new processing plant was built in the city of Ok Ridge and the reactor for industrial production of plutonium was launched, as well as the Kalutron device for the electromagnetic separation of uranium isotopes. The total cost of the project was about 2 billion dollars. Meanwhile, in Los Alamos, work went directly above the bomb device and ways of detonation charge.

On June 16, 1945, near the city of Alamogordo in New Mexico, the first nuclear device with a plutonium charge and an implosive (using chemical explosives) was blown up with a chemical explosive (using a chemical explosive) in the world of TRINITY (Trinity. The power of the explosion was equivalent to the explosion of 20 kiloton trotyl.

The next step was the combat use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which, after the surrender of Germany, one continued the war against the United States and their allies. On August 6, the bomber B-29 "Enola Gay" under the control of Colonel Tibbets dropped on Hiroshima Little Boy bomb ("Kid") with a uranium charge and a cannon (using the connection of two blocks to create a critical mass) by the undermining circuit. The bomb fell on a parachute and exploded at an altitude of 600 m from the ground. On August 9, the "Boxing Car" aircraft Major Suiney dropped the Fat Man's plutonium bomb on Nagasaki ("Tolstik"). The effects of explosions were terrible. Both cities were almost completely destroyed, more than 200 thousand people died in Hiroshima, about 80 thousand in Nagasaki. Later, one of the pilots admitted that they saw the worst thing this second that only a person could see. Unable to withstand new weapons, the Japanese government capitulated.

Hiroshima after atomic bombing.

The explosion of the atomic bomb put the point in World War II, but in fact began a new war "Cold", accompanied by an unrestrained nuclear weapon race. Soviet scientists had to catch up with Americans. In 1943, the secret "laboratory number 2" was created, which was headed by the famous physicist Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov. Later, the laboratory was transformed into the Atomic Energy Institute. In December 1946, the first chain reaction was carried out on the experimental nuclear uranium-graphite reactor F1. Two years later, in the Soviet Union, a first plutonium plant with several industrial reactors was built, and in August 1949, a test explosion of the first Soviet atomic bomb was conducted at the Semipalatinsk polygon with a plutonium charge of RDS-1 with a capacity of 22 kilotons.

In November 1952, the first thermonuclear charge, the destructive strength of which arose due to the energy released during the nuclear synthesis of light elements in the course of the nuclear synthesis of light elements was blew up on the ENIVOK atom in the Pacific Ocean. In nine months at the Semipalatinsky landfill, Soviet scientists experienced RDS-6 Thermonuclear, or hydrogen, 400 kiloton bomb, developed by a group of scientists under the leadership of Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov and Julia Borisovich Harriton. In October 1961, a 50-mega-ton "tsar-bomb" was blown up at the archipelago site of the archipelago, the most powerful hydrogen bomb from all events.

I. V. Kurchatov.

At the end of the 2000s, the United States had about 5,000, and Russia is 2800 units of nuclear ammunition at the deployed strategic carriers, as well as a significant number of tactical nuclear weapons. This stock is enough to destroy the entire planet several times. Only one medium-sized medium-air bomb (about 25 megaton) is equal to 1500 "Hiroshimams".

In the late 1970s, studies were conducted on the creation of neutron weapons of a variety of low power nuclear bombs. The neutron bomb differs from the usual nuclear fact that it artificially increased the share of the explosion energy, which is distinguished in the form of neutron radiation. This radiation amazes the lively enemy strength, affects its weapons and creates a radioactive contraction of the area, while the impact of the shock wave and light radiation is limited. However, no army of the world has never taken neutron charge charges.

Although the use of an atom energy put the world on the line of destruction, it also has a peaceful hyposta, however, it is extremely dangerous when leaving due to control, this clearly showed accidents at the Chernobyl and Fukushimian nuclear power plants. The first NPP with a capacity of only 5 MW was launched on June 27, 1954 in the village of Obninskaya Kaluga region (now the city of Obninsk). To date, more than 400 NPPs are operated in the world, 10 of them in Russia. They produces about 17% of all world electricity, and this indicator is most likely to be only increased. Currently, the world cannot do without using nuclear energy, but I want to believe that in the future, humanity will find a safer power source.

Atomic station control panel in Obninsk.

Chernobyl after disaster.

In the August days 68 years ago, namely, on August 6, 1945 at 08:15 local time, the American bomber B-29 "ENOLA GAY", piloted by Paul Tibbets and the scorer Tom Ferebi, dropped on Hiroshima the first atomic bomb called "Kid" . On August 9, the bombardment repeated - the second bomb was reset to the city of Nagasaki.

According to official history, the Americans were the first in the world in the world made an atomic bomb and hurried to apply it against Japan, So that the Japanese fasterly capitulated and America could avoid colossal losses during the landing of soldiers to the island, which Admirals were already tightly prepared. At the same time, the bomb was a demonstration before the USSR of his new opportunities, because Comrade Jugashvili in May1945 has already thought to spread the construction of communism to La Mansha.

Seeing the example of Hiroshima, What will be with Moscow Soviet party figures have lost their fervor and accepted the right decision to build socialism not beyond eastern Berlin. In parallel, they left all the forces on the Soviet Atomic project, Dipped somewhere the talented academician Kurchatov and the atomic bomb focus quickly for Jugashvili, which then the Secretary of the UN tribune, and the Soviet propagandists threw her before the audience - Mol Yes, we sew pants bad but« we made an atomic bomb». This argument is almost the primary for many lovers of the Council. However, the time comes to refute these arguments.

Somehow did not knit the creation of an atomic bomb with the level of Soviet science and technology. This is incredible that the slave-owned system can issue such a complex scientific and technological product independently. Over time, somehow did not even denounce, As Kurchatov also helped people with Lubyanka, bringing ready-made drawings in the beak, but academics are all completely denied, minimizing the merit of technological intelligence. In America for the transfer of the USSR atomic secrets, spouses of Rosenberg were executed. The dispute between official historians and citizens who want the story to revise the currently long ago, almost openly, however, the true state of affairs is far from both the official version and the ideas of its critics. And things are such that the atomic bomb is first asand many things in the world, made the Germans to the 1945th. And even experienced it at the end of 1944.The Americans prepared an atomic project as it were, but received the main components as a trophy or under the contract with the top of the Reich, therefore they did everything much faster. But when the Americans blew up a bomb, they began to look for German scientists in the USSR, whichand made their contribution. Therefore, so quickly in the USSR created a bomb, although by the calculation of the Americans he could make a bomb before1952- 55 years.

The Americans knew what they were talking about if the rocket technique helped to make a brown von, their first atomic bomb was completely German. For a long time, the truth managed to hide, but for decades after 1945, someone leaving the resignation unleashed the language, then accidentally declassified a couple of leaves from secret archives, then journalists sniffed something. The land was full of rumors and rumors that bomb discarded on Hiroshima is actually Germanwalked starting from 1945th year. People whispering over smoking and scrambled forehead over logicestekin inconsistencies and mysterious issues until one fine day in the early 2000s, Mr. Joseph Farrell, famous theologians and an alternative look at the modern "science" did not combine all the well-known facts in one book - Black Sun Third Reich. Battle for "Weapon Retribution".

The facts were repeatedly checked by a lot and much, what was the author's doubts in the book did not enter, nevertheless the facts of these to reduce the debit with a loan more than enough. For each of them, you can argue (that the official men of the United States are doing), try to refute, but all the facts are prevalent, all together. Some of them, such as the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, are not at all irrefutable scientists of the Mushes of the USSR, neither more scientists in the US men. Jugashvili decided to give "enemies of the people"Stalinskyprize (about the lower)So it was for what.

We will not retell the whole book of Mr. Farrela, we simply recommend it to compulsory reading. We give only someki. For example, a few quotes, govaboutthe German bomb has been tested about the fact that the German bomb and people have seen it:

A certain person, according to the surname, Cinsser, a specialist in anti-aircraft missiles, spoke about what he witnessed: "In early October 1944 I flew out of Ludwigslusta. (south of Lubeck), located from 12 to 15 kilometers from the atomic landfill, and suddenly saw a strong bright glow that climbed the entire atmosphere, which lasted for about two seconds.

From the cloud formed during the explosion, a clearly visible shock wave broke out. By the time she became visible, she had a diameter of about one kilometer, and the color of the clouds often changed. After a short period of darkness, it was covered by a variety of bright spots, which, unlike a regular explosion, had a pale blue color.

Approximately ten seconds after the explosion, the distinct outlines of the explosive cloud disappeared, then the cloud itself began to bright on the background of a dark gray sky, tightened with solid clouds. The diameter is still visible to the shock wave naked eye, at least 9000 meters; Apparently she remained at least 15 seconds. My personal feeling from monitoring the color of the explosive cloud: it took a blue-purple okey. Throughout the whole phenomenon, red-colored rings were visible, very fast-changing color on dirty shades. From my observation aircraft, I felt a weak impact in the form of light shoes and jerks.

About an hour later I flew to He-111 from the airfield Ludwigslust and headed in the eastern direction. Shortly after takeoff, I flew through a solid cloud zone (at a height of three to four thousand meters). Above the place where the explosion occurred was a mushroom-like cloud with turbulent, vortex layers (at an altitude of approximately 7000 meters), without any visible ties. Strong electromagnetic indignation manifested itself in the impossibility of continuing radio communication. Since American fighters "P-38" acted in the Vitgenberg-Bersburg area, I had to turn to the north, but it became better for me the lower part of the cloud above the explosion place. Note: It's not very clear to me why these tests were carried out in such a tightly populated area "

Ari:Thus, a certain German pilot observed the test of the device, according to all signs suitable on the signs of the atomic bomb. There are dozens of such evidence, but Mr. Farrell cites only officialdocumentation. And not only the Germans, but also the Japanese, with whom the Germans according to his version also helped to make a bomb and those have experienced it at the landfill.

Shortly after the end of World War II, American intelligence in the Pacific received an amazing report: the Japanese were built before the capitulation itself and successfully experienced an atomic bomb. Works were carried out in the city of Conan or in its surroundings (Japanese name of the city of Hynnam) in the north of the Korean Peninsula.

The war ended before this weapon saw combat use, and the production, where it was made, is now in the hands of Russians.

In the summer of 1946, this information was made wide public. David Svell, an employee of the twenty-fourth investigative department who worked in Korea ... After his dismissal, he wrote about it in the Atlanta Konvenyushn newspaper.

Snell's statement was based on the unfounded allegations of the Japanese officer who returned to Japan. This officer told Snell that he was instructed to ensure the security of this object. Snell, posing in his words in the newspaper article of the testimony of the Japanese officer, claimed:

In the mountains in the mountains near Conan, people worked, leading a race with time, completing the work on the assembly of "Genjay Bakuan" - so in Japanese called an atomic bomb. It was August 10, 1945 (Japanese time), just four days after the atomic explosion ripped off the sky

Ari: Among the arguments of those who do not believe in the creation of the German bombs, such an argument that is not known about significant industrial facilities in the Hitler's Rech, who were sent to the German atomic project, as was done in the United States. However, this argument is refuted by onean extremely curious fact associated with the concern "I. Farben ", which, according to the official legend, released syntheticesky rubber and therefore consumed more electricity than Berlin of the time. Just really in five years of work there was not even a kilogram of official products, and most likely it was the main center for uranium enrichment:

Concern "I. Farben "took an active part in the atrocities of Nazism, creating a huge plant for the production of synthetic rubber of Buna in Auschwitz (German name of the Polish town of Auschwitz) in the Polish part of Silesia.

The concluded concentration camp, which first worked on the construction of the complex, and then served it, subjected to unheard of cruelty. However, at the hearings of the Nuremberg Tribunal over military criminals, it turned out that the bunga complex in Auschwitz was one of the greatest mysteries of the war, because despite the personal blessing of Hitler, Himmler, Gering and Kaitel, despite the infinite source of both qualified waged training and slave labor From Auschwitz, "Works constantly prevented failures, delays and sabotage ... However, despite anything, the construction of a huge complex for the production of synthetic rubber and gasoline was completed. Through the construction site, over three hundred thousand prisoners of the concentration camp took place; Of these, twenty-five thousand died of exhaustion, not withstanding the exhaust work.

The complex turned out to be gigantic. So huge that "he consumed more electricity than all Berlin." However, during the tribunal over the war criminals of investigators, the winning officers puzzled not this long list of terrible details. They put them in a dead end that, despite such a huge investment of money, materials and human lives, "never a single kilogram of synthetic rubber was produced."

On this, as if obsessed, the director and the management of Farbena insisted on the dock's bench. Consult more electricity than all Berlin - at the time the eighth largest city in the world - so that absolutely nothing to produce? If this is true, it means that the invisible costs of funds and labor and the enormous consumption of electricity did not make any significant contribution to the German efforts. Undoubtedly, there is something wrong.

Ari: Electrical energy in crazy quantities is one of the main components of any atomic project. It is needed for the production of heavy water - it is obtained by evaporating tons of natural water, after which the water itself remains at the bottom. Electricity is needed for the electrochemical separation of metals, another uranium is not mined. And it also needs a lot. Based on this historians, they argued that since the Germans did not have such energy-intensive factories for the enrichment of uranium and obtaining heavy water, it means that the atomic blomb was not. But as you can see - everything was there. Only called differently - by type as in the USSR, then there was a secret "sanatorium" for German physicists.

An even more amazing fact is the use of the German bombs by the Germans of an unfinished atomic bomb.

The final chord of this chapter and the exciting spirit by an indication of other secrets, which will be investigated later in this book, will be a report, declassified by the National Security Agency only in 1978. In this report, apparently, the decryption of the intercepted message passed from the Japanese embassy in Stockholm to Tokyo. He is entitled "Report on the bomb based on the splitting of an atom." It is best to give this striking document entirely, with those missions that turned out when decrypting the original message.

This bomb, revolutionary in its impact, will completely translate all established concepts of the ordinary war. I am aiming you collected together all reports on what is called an atom splitting bomb:

It is reliably known that in June 1943, the German army at a point at a distance of 150 kilometers southeast of Kursk experienced a completely new type of weapon against Russians. Although the whole 19th rifle regiment of Russian, just a few bombs (each with a combat charge less than 5 kilograms) turned out to be enough to destroy it completely, right up to the last person. The following material is given according to the testimony of Lieutenant Colonel UE (?) Kendie, an attache adviser in Hungary and in the past (who worked?) In this country, who accidentally saw the consequences of what happened immediately after it happened: "All people and horses (? In the area? ) The explosion of shells was vague to black, and even the ammunition was even down. "

Ari:Nevertheless, even withvoi Sameofficial documents official scholars of the US men are tryingrefute - they say, fake these all reports, reports and protocolsdew. But the balance still does not converge because by August 1945 the United States had a sufficient amount of uranium for production asminimmind two, and possibly four atomic bombs. Without uranium there will be no bombs, and it is mined for years. By 1944, the United States had no more than a quarter of the necessary uranium, it was necessary to preach the rest for at least five years. And suddenly Uranus as if it fell on his head from the sky:

In December 1944, a very unpleasant report was prepared, very upset those who got acquainted with him: "Analysis of the supply (gun uranium) has been displayed in the last three months ...: With the preservation of the current pace, we will have time to 7 February with approximately 10 kilograms of uranium, and By May 1 - 15 kilograms. " These were really very unpleasant news, because to create a uranium-based bomb, according to the initial estimates made in 1942, from 10 to 100 kilograms of uranium, and by the time of the preparation of this memorandum, more accurate calculations were given the value of the critical mass required for the production of uranium Atomic bomb, equal to about 50 kilograms.

However, problems with the missing uranium had not only at the Manhattan Project. Germany, it seems, also suffered from the "missing uranium syndrome" in the days of the previously preceding the end of the war and immediately after it. But in this case, the volumes of missing uranium were estimated not tens of kilograms, but hundreds of tons. In this place, it makes sense to bring a high excerpt from the brilliant work of Carter Hidrik to comprehensively explore this problem:

Since June 1940, and until the end of the war, Germany was taken out of Belgium three and a half thousand tons of urnes-containing substances - almost three times more than Grovsa extended ... and placed them in salt mines under the StasSfurt in Germany.

Ari: Leslie Richard Groves (English Leslie Richard Groves; August 17, 1896 - July 13, 1970) - Lieutenant-General of the US Army, in 1942-1947 - Military Head of the Program for the creation of nuclear weapons (Manhattan Project).

Groves declares that on April 17, 1945, when the war was already nearing completion, the allies managed to seize about 1,100 tons of uranium ore in Strassturt and 31 more tons in the French port of Toulouse ... And he claims that more uranium ore in Germany never had, Thed one showing that Germany never has enough material or uranium processing in raw materials for a plutonium reactor, or to enrich it by electromagnetic separation.

It is obvious that if at one time there was 3,500 tons in the Starssefurt, and only 1130 was captured, there were even about 2730 tons - and this is still twice as much more than the "Manhattan project" held throughout the war ... the fate of this missing ore Unknown to this day ...

According to the historian Margaret Goweng, by the summer of 1941, Germany enriched 600 tons of uranium to the form of oxide necessary to ionize raw materials into a gaseous form in which uranium isotopes can be separated by a magnetic or thermal method. (Italic mine. - D. F.) Also oxide can be converted to metal for use as raw materials in a nuclear reactor. In fact, Professor Rekhl, during the war that was responsible for the entire uranium, who was at the disposal of Germany, claims that the true figure was significantly higher ...

Ari: Thus, it is clear that without obtaining enriched uranium from somewhere from the outside, and some underlying technologies, Americans could not have a test, nor blow their bombs over Japan in August 1945. And they got, as it turns out,missing components from the Germans.

In order to create a uranium or plutonium bomb, uroasitating raw materials are necessary at a certain stage to turn into a metal. For plutonium bombs, metal U238 is obtained, U235 is needed for the uranium bomb. However, due to the cunning characteristics of uranium, this metallurgical process is extremely difficult. The United States early to engage in this problem, but learned to successfully turn uranium into a metal form in large quantities only at the end of 1942. German specialists ... By the end of 1940, it was already transformed into metal 280.6 kilograms, more than a quarter of a ton "......

In any case, these figures clearly indicate that in 1940-1942, the Germans have significantly averaged the allies in one very important component of the production of the atomic bomb - in the enrichment of uranium, and, therefore, it also allows us to conclude that they are at that time They broke out far ahead in the race for the possession of the current atomic bomb. However, these figures also raise one alarming question: where did this whole uranium fit?

The answer to this question gives the mysterious incident with the German submarine U-234 captured by the Americans in 1945.

The history of the U-234 is well known to all researchers engaged in the history of the Nazi Atomic Bomb, and, of course, the "Allies' Legend" states that the materials on board the captured submarine were not in any way used in the Manhattan Project.

All this absolutely does not correspond to the truth. U-234 was a very large underwater mined barrier, adapted to carry a large cargo under water. Think over what to the highest degree of strange cargo was on board U-234 at that last flight:

Two Japanese officers.

80 from the inside of gold cylindrical containers containing 560 kilograms of uranium oxide.

Several wooden barrels filled with "heavy water".

Infrared non-contact fuses.

Dr. Heinz Slocker, the inventor of these fuses.

When the U-234 was loaded in the German port before entering the latter swimming, the radist of submarine Wolfgang Hirschfeld drew attention to the fact that the Japanese officers write "U235" on paper in which containers were wrapped before downloading them in the hold of the boats. It is hardly necessary to say that this remark caused all the flurry of the exposure criticism, which skeptics usually meet the stories of eyewitnesses UFOs: the low location of the sun over the horizon, poor lighting, a long distance, not allowed to consider everything clearly, and the like. And this is not surprising, because if Hirschfeld really saw what he saw the frightening consequences of this obvious.

The use of containers coated from the inside of gold is explained by the fact that uranium, highly corroding metal, is rapidly contaminated, entering into contact with other unstable elements. Gold, according to the protection against radioactive radiation, not inferior to the lead, in contrast to lead is a very clean and extremely stable element; Consequently, its choice is obvious to store and long transportation of highly enriched and pure uranium. Thus, uranium oxide, which was on board U-234, was a highly enriched uranium, and, most likely, U235, the last stage of raw materials before turning it into a weapon or metal uranium, suitable for the production of bombs (if it was no longer a weapon uranium) . Indeed, if the inscriptions made by Japanese officers on containers corresponded to reality, it was very likely that it was about the last stage of cleaning raw materials before turning into a metal.

The cargo that was on board U-234 was so sensitive that when on June 16, 1945, representatives of the US Navy made it inventory, uranium oxide from the list disappeared without a trace .....

Yes, it would be the easiest way if there was no unexpected confirmation from a certain Peter Ivanovich Titarenko, a former military translator from the headquarters of Marshal Rodion Malinovsky, who at the end of the war took Japan's surrender from the Soviet Union. As the German magazine "Spiegel" wrote in 1992, Titarenko wrote a letter to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In it, he reported that in reality three atomic bombs were reset, one of which, discarded on Nagasaki before the city exploded "fat man", did not explode. Subsequently, this bomb was transferred to Japan to the Soviet Union.

Mussolini and the translator of the Soviet Marshal are not the only one who confirms the version of the strange number of bomb dropped on Japan; Perhaps at some point in the game also participated in the fourth bomb, which was transported to the Far East aboard the heavy cruiser of the American Navy "Indianapolis" (the onboard number CA 35), when he sank in 1945.

These strange testimonies again raise questions to the "legend of the Allies", because, as already was shown, in the late 1944 - early 1945 "Manhattan project" faced with a critical lack of weapons uranium, and by that time it was not solved by the problem of fuses for plutonium bombs. So the question is: if these reports correspond to reality, where did an additional bomb come from (and then a few bombs)? It is difficult to believe that three, and then four bombs, ready to use in Japan, were manufactured in such shortest possible time - unless they were military prey exported from Europe.

Ari: In fact, the storyU-234. It begins on 1944th, when after opening 2 fronts and failures on the Eastern Front, it was possible on the instructions of Hitler, a decision was made on the start of trade with the allies - an atomic bomb in exchange for guarantees of integrity for party tops:

Be that as it may, first of all, we are interested in the role that Borman played in the development and implementation of the plan for the secret strategic evacuation of the Nazis after their military defeat. After the Stalingrad catastrophe in early 1943, Borman, as well as other high-ranking Nazis, became obvious that the military collapse of the Third Reich is inevitable if their secret armory projects do not bring fruit on time. Borman and representatives of various armaments, industrial industries and, of course, the SS gathered to a secret meeting, on which plans for exporting material values, qualified personnel, scientific materials and technologies were developed ......

First of all, the Jioa Director of the Paroon, appointed by the project manager, was a list of the most qualified German and Austrian scientists, which Americans and British were used for decades. Although journalists and historians have repeatedly mentioned this list, none of them said that Werner Ozenberg, who occupied the position of the head of the Gestapo Scientific Department during the war, was attended. The decision to attract OzenbSrga to this work was made by the US Captain Navy by Ransom Davis after consultations with the Joint Committee of Headquarters ......

And finally, the list of Ozenberg and the interest of Americans appeared to him, it seems to confirm another hypothesis, namely that the nature of the nature of the Nazi projects, which the Americans have had, as evidenced by the unmistakable actions of General Pattone to find secret research centers of Cammler, could Enter only from the most Nazi Germany. Since Carter Heidrik very convincingly proved that Borman personally led the transfer of secrets of the German atomic bomb to the Americans, it would be safely argued that he ultimately coordinated the flow of other important information regarding the "Cammler's headquarters", in the American intelligence agencies, since no one knew him better about The character, content and staff of German black projects. Thus, the thesis of Carter Heidrik on the fact that Borman helped to organize transportation in the United States on the U-234 submarine not only enriched uranium, but also ready to use an atomic bomb, it looks very believable.

Ari: In addition to uranium itself, there is still a lot of uranium for the atomic bomb that, in particular, fuses based on red mercury. In contrast to the usual detonator, these devices should explode superproof, collecting the uranium mass into a single whole and running the nuclear reaction. This technology is extremely difficult, it did not have it and therefore the fuses were included. And since there was no question on the fuses - the Americans dragged the German nuclear officers to their consultation before loading the atomic bomb on the board of the aircraft flying to Japan:

Another fact takes place that does not fit into the post-war legend of allies regarding the inability to create the German bombs: German Philant Fleisman's physics was delivered to the US aircraft to interrogations before the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Why did such an acute need for consultation with the German physicist in the nuclear bombardment of Japan? After all, according to the legend of the allies, we had nothing to learn from Germans in the field of atomic physics ......

Ari:Thus, no doubt remains - in Germany in May 1945, the bomb was. WhyHitlershe did not apply it? Because one atomic bomb is not a bomb. So that the bomb becomes weapons must be sufficientnumber, multiplied by the means of delivery. Hitler could destroy New York and London, could choose a couple of divisions moving to Berlin from the face of the earth. But the outcome of the war would not solve it in his favor. But the allies would come to Germany in a very bad mood. The Germans and so in 1945 it got, but in the case of the use of Germany's nuclear weapons, it would be so much more. Germany could erase from the face of the Earth, as, for example, Dresden. Therefore, Mr. Hitler although they consider somefromw.mastered, nevertheless a crazy politician, he was also sober all suspensionin Quietly merged the second world: we give you a bomb - and you do not give the USSR to walk to La Manha and guarantee the quiet old age by the Nazi tip.

So separable concernsaboutin April 1945, described in the cinemarabout 17 moments of spring, really had a place to be. But only at such a level that there was no pastor with a shogue.aboutgitler himself led himself. And physicsRunga there was no because of the Stirlitz chasing Manfred von Ardenne

already experienced readyweapons - as a minium in 1943on theTOa urvoy arc, as a maximum - in Norway, no later than 1944.

According tonitivebondandwe, the book of Mr. Farrell, in the West, do not spoil in Russia, not everyone caught her eyes. But the information makes himself a way and one day about how nuclear weapons have been done will know even stupid. And it will be veryjacket The situation will have to be reviewedall officialhistorylast 70 years.

However, the worst of everything will be official scientists in Russiaiof the federation, which for many years told the old MbutnTRU: M.butwe can have a tires and bad, but we createlie Atomic Bomb.yBut as it turns out - even to American engineers, the nuclear device was not on the teeth, at least 1945. The USSR is not at all in cases - today the Russian Federation would compete with Iran on the subject who will make a bomb faster,if it were not for one but. But are prisoner German engineers who have done for Jugashvili nuclear weapons.

Academicians of the USSR are reliably known, it does not deny that 3,000 prisoners of Germans worked on the USSR missile project. That is, they are essentially launched Gagarin into space. But over the Soviet atomic project worked as much as 7,000 specialists from Germany, So it is not surprising that the tips made an atomic bomb before they flew into space. If the United States still had his own way in the nuclear race, then in the USSR, just stupidly reproduced German technology.

In 1945, a group of Colonels was engaged in the search for specialists in Germany, who were actually not colonels, and secret physicists, the future academicians Arzimovich, Kikooin, Khariton, Schelkin ... The operation was led by the first deputy addict of the internal affairs of Ivan Serov.

Over two hundred of the most prominent German physicists were brought to Moscow (about half of them were Dr. Science), radio engineers and masters. In addition to the equipment of the Lab Ardenne, the equipment of the Berlin Kaiserovsky Institute and other German scientific organizations, documentation and reagents, films and paper stocks for self-examiners, photopores, wire tape recorders for telemetry, optics, powerful electromagnets and even German transformers have delivered to Moscow. And then the Germans under the fear of death began to build an atomic bomb for the USSR. They built from scratch because in the USA by 1945 there were some kind of developments, the Germans were just strongly averaged, but in the USSR, in the kingdom of "science" of academicians like Lysenko on the nuclear program there was nothing. This is what managed to accumulate researchers of this topic:

In 1945, German Physics in 1945 was submitted to the Sinop and Agudzer Sanatoriums, which were in Abkhazia. This was the beginning of the Sukhumi Physico-Technical Institute, which was then included in the system of super secret objects of the USSR. "Sinop" was called in the documents of the object "A", headed His Baron Manfred von Ardenne (1907-1997). This personality in world science is legendary: one of the founders of television, the developer of electron microscopes and many other devices. During one meeting, Beria wanted to impose the leadership of an atomic project on Ardenne von. Ardenne himself recalls: "I had no more than ten seconds for thinking. My answer is literally: I consider such an important offer as a greater honor for me, because This is an expression of extremely big confidence in my abilities. The solution to this problem has two different directions: 1. Development of an atomic bomb itself and 2. Developing methods for obtaining a delayship isotope of uranium 235U on an industrial scale. The separation of isotopes is a separate and very difficult problem. Therefore, I suggest that the separation of isotopes was the main problem of our institute and German specialists, and the leading nuclei of the Soviet Union sitting here would fulfill great work on creating an atomic bomb for their homeland. "

Beria took this proposal. After many years in one government admission, when Manfred von Ardenne was submitted to Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR Khrushchev, he reacted like this: "A, you are the same Ardenne, who so skillfully took his neck from the loop."

Background Ardenne later estimated his contribution to the development of an atomic problem as "the most important thing to which the post-war circumstances led me." In 1955, the scientist was allowed to go to the GDR, where he headed the Research Institute in Dresden.

Sanatorium "Agudzer" received a conditional name of the object "G". Gustav Hertz led them (1887-1975), the nephew of the famous Herin Hertz, known to us from school bench. Gustav Hertz in 1925 received the Nobel Prize for the opening of the laws of the electron collision with an atom - the famous experience of Frank and Hertz. In 1945, Gustav Hertz became one of the first German physicists delivered to the USSR. He was the only foreign Nobel laureate, who worked in the USSR. Like other German scientists, he lived, without knowing the refusal, in his house on the sea shore. In 1955, Hertz went to GDR. There he worked as a professor at the University in Leipzig, and then as director of the Physical Institute at the University.

The main task of Ardenne and Gustav Hertz was the search for different methods of separation of uranium isotopes. Thanks to the background Ardenne in the USSR, one of the first mass spectrometers appeared. Hertz successfully improved its method of separating isotopes, which made it possible to establish this process on an industrial scale.

They brought to the object in Sukhumi and other prominent German scientists, including physics and radiochemics of Nicolaus Rilee (1901-1991). Nikolai Vasilyevich called him. He was born in St. Petersburg, in the German family - the chief engineer of Siemens and Chalkk. Nikolaus's mother was Russian, so he since childhood owned German and Russian languages. He received an excellent technical education: first in St. Petersburg, and after moving the family to Germany - in Berlin University of Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm (Later, Humboldt University). In 1927, he defended his doctoral dissertation on radiochemistry. Its scientific leaders were future scientific luminaries - Liza Maiter's Physicist and Radiochemistry Otto Gan. Before the beginning of World War II, Riel was headed by the Central Radiological Laboratory of Auergeselyshaft, where he manifested himself with an energetic and very capable experimenter. At the beginning of the war, Rile was called to the Military Ministry, where they proposed to engage in the production of uranium. In May 1945, Riel volunteered to Soviet emissaries, sent to Berlin. A scientist who was considered as the main expert in Reich for the production of enriched uranium for reactors, indicated where the equipment was required for this. His fragments (the plant near Berlin was destroyed by bombardments) dismantled and sent to the USSR. There are also 300 tons of uranium compounds found there. It is believed that to create an atomic bomb it saved the Soviet Union of the year-one and a half - until 1945, Igor Kurchatov had only 7 tons of uranium oxide. Under the leadership of Rile, the Elektrostal Plant in Noginsk near Moscow was converted to the release of cast metal uranium.

From Germany in Sukhumi walked echelons with equipment. Three of the four German cyclothrons were brought to the USSR, as well as powerful magnets, electronic microscopes, oscilloscopes, high voltage transformers, ultra-precision devices, etc. In the USSR, delivered equipment from the Institute of Chemistry and Metallurgy, the Physical Institute of Kaizer Wilhelm, Electrotechnical Laboratories "Siemens", Physical Institute of the Ministry of Email of Germany.

The supervisor of the project was appointed Igor Kurchatov, who was undoubtedly an outstanding scientist, but he always surprised his employees an extraordinary "scientific turnout" - as it turned out, most secrets he knew from intelligence, but did not have the right to talk about it. The following episode, who told Academician Isaac Kikoin, says about the management methods. At one meeting, Beria asked Soviet physicists, how much time would need to solve one of the problem. He was answered: six months. The answer was: "Or you decide it in one month, or you will deal with this problem in places significantly more distant." Of course, the task was performed in one month. But the authorities did not regret funds and awards. Many, including German scientists, received Stalin's premiums, cottages, cars and other remuneration. Nikolaus Rile, however, the only foreign scientist, he even received the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. German scientists have played a big role in raising the qualifications of Georgian physicists who worked with them.

Ari: Thus, the Germans did not just strongly helped the USSR with the creation of an atomic bomb - they did everything. Moreover, this story was like the "Calashnikov machine" for even the German gunsmiths could not make such a perfect weapon for a couple of years - after working in captivity in the USSR, they simply completed what was already almost ready. Similarly, with an atomic bomb, the works on which the Germans began the year in 1933, and perhaps much earlier. Official story believes that Hitler annexed the sudan region because there lived a lot of Germans. It is also possible, but the sudan region is the richest uranium deposit in Europe. There is a suspicion that Hitler knew where to begin primarily for Germans, in Russia, and in Australia, and even in Africa. But Hitler began with sudden. Apparently some people inflicted in alchemy immediately explained to him what to do and how it would go, so it's not surprising that the Germans are all strongly averaged and the American intelligence agencies in Europe for the forties of the last century have already selected unicrees behind the Germans, hunting for medieval alchemical manuscripts.

But the USSR did not even have oversized. There was only the "Academician" Lysenko, according to theories of which Bianan growing on a collective farm field, and not on a private farm, had every reason to penetrate the spirit of socialism and turn into a wheat. In medicine there was a similar "scientific school", trying to speed up the period of pregnancy from 9 months to nine weeks - so that the wives of the proletarians were not distracted from work. Similar theories were in nuclear physics, so for the USSR, the creation of an atomic bomb was so impossible as the creation of his computer for cybernetics in the USSR officially considered the prostitute of the bourgeoisie. By the way, important scientific decisions in the same physics (for example, in which way to go and what theories to consider the workers) in the USSR took at best "academicians" from agriculture. Although it was more often a party functionar with the formation of the "Evening Work Faculty". What could be at this base atomic bomb? Only someone else's. In the USSR, it would not be able to even collect from finished components with ready-made drawings. All made Germans and on this score there are even official recognition of their merit - Stalinist premiums and orders, which were presented with engineers:

German specialists are the laureates of the Stalinist Prize for work in the field of use of atomic energy. Exposures from the Resolutions of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On Awarding and Promotion ...".

[From the decision of the USSR No. 5070-1944ss / OP "On awarding and bonus for outstanding scientific discoveries and technical advances on the use of atomic energy", October 29, 1949]

[From the Resolution of the USSR No. 4964-2148ss / OP "On awarding and bonus for outstanding scientific work in the field of use of atomic energy, for creating new types of RDS products, achievements in the production of plutonium and uranium-235 and the development of the raw materials base for the atomic industry" December 6, 1951]

[From the Resolution of the USSR No. 3044-1304ss "On awarding Stalinist Prizes of Scientific and Engineering Workers of the Ministry of Middle Machinery and other departments for the creation of a hydrogen bomb and new constructions of atomic bombs", December 31, 1953]

Manfred von Ardenne

1947 - Stalinist Prize (Electronic Microscope - "In January Presented Von Ardenne With The State Prize (A Purse Full of Money) for His Microscope Work.") "German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project", p . eighteen)

1953 - Stalin's 2nd degree premium (electromagnetic separation of isotopes, lithium-6).

Heinz Barvikh

Gunter Virts.

Gustav Hertz

1951 - Stalinsky 2th degree premium (the theory of sustainability of gas diffusion in cascades).

Gerard Eger

1953 - Stalinsky 3th degree premium (electromagnetic separation of isotopes, lithium-6).

Ringold Reichman (Reichman)

1951 - Stalinsky 1st degree premium (posthumously) (technology development

production of ceramic tubular filters for diffusion machines).

Nicaus Ril

1949 - Hero of Socialist Labor, Stalin Degree Prize (Development and implementation of industrial technology for the production of pure metal uranium).

Herbert Time

1949 - Stalin Prize 2nd (Development and implementation of industrial technology for the production of pure metal uranium).

1951 - Stalinsky Prize 2nd (Development of Industrial Technology Production of Uranium High Purity and Production of products from it).

Peter Tissren

1956 - Mr. Tissren, _tener

Heinz Froylich

1953 - Stalin's 3rd degree premium (electromagnetic separation of isotopes, lithium-6).

Tsile Ludwig

1951 - Stalinsky premium of the 1st degree (development of technology for the production of ceramic tubular filters for diffusion machines).

Werner Shuteza

1949 - Stalin's 2nd degree premium (mass spectrometer).

Ari: This is such a story - there is no trace from the myth, that they say, "Volga" is a bad car, but we made an atomic bomb. There is only a bad car "Volga". And it would not be it if I had not bought the drawings from Ford. There would be nothing because the Bolshevik state is not able to create anything by definition. For the same reason, nothing can create a Russian state, only sell natural resources.

Mikhail Saltan, Gleb Shcherbatov

For stupid, just in case, we explain that we are not talking about the intellectual potential of the Russian people, it is just quite high, we are talking about the created possibilities of a symptic bureaucratic system, which in principle cannot give reveals scientific talents.

In what conditions and what efforts the country who survived the most terrible war of the twentieth century created its atomic shield
Almost seven decades ago, October 29, 1949, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issued four super secret declare of awarding 845 people with the titles of the heroes of socialist labor, the orders of Lenin, the Labor Red Banner and the "Honor Sign". None of them in relation to none of the awarded was not said, for which he was noted: everywhere appeared the standard wording "For exceptional merits to the state when performing a special task". Even for the accustomed to the secrecy of the Soviet Union, this was a rare phenomenon. Meanwhile, they themselves knew perfectly well, of course, which "exceptional merit" mean. All 845 people were more or less directly related to the creation of the first nuclear bomb of the USSR.

For awarded, it was not strange as the project itself, and his success envelops a dense curtain of secrecy. After all, they all well knew that in a large extent their success were obliged to courage and professionalism of Soviet intelligence officers, for the eight years supplied scientists and engineers with super secretary information from abroad. And such a high assessment that the creators of the Soviet atomic bomb were deserved, was not exaggerated. As one of the creators of the bomb recalled, Academician Julius Khariton, at the presentation ceremony, Stalin suddenly said: "If we were late for one year and a half, then it would probably be tried to try this charge." And this is not an exaggeration ...

Atomic bomb sample ... 1940

To the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a bomb, which uses the energy of a chain nuclear reaction, in the Soviet Union came almost simultaneously with Germany and the United States. The first officially considered draft of this type of weapon was presented in 1940 by a group of scientists from the Kharkov Physico-Technical Institute under the leadership of Friedrich Lange. It was in this project that for the first time in the USSR, it was proposed later classic for all nuclear ammunition scheme of a conventional explosive, due to which the uranium's two pre-critical masses are almost instantly the supercritical.

The project received negative feedback and was not considered later. But the works put on its basis continued, and not only in Kharkov. Atomic topics in the prewar USSR, at least four major institutes were engaged in at least four institutes - in Leningrad, Kharkov and Moscow, and supervised the work of the chairman of the Council of Sovnarkom Vyacheslav Molotov. Soon after the presentation of the project Lange, in January 1941, the Soviet government adopted a natural decision to classify domestic atomic research. It was clear that they could really lead to the creation of a new type of powerful, and one should not be scatched by such information, especially at that time, the first intelligence in the American atomic project was obtained - and did not want to risk their own in Moscow.

The natural course of events interrupted the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. But, despite the fact that the entire Soviet industry and science was very quickly translated into military rails and began to provide an army by the most pressing developments and inventions, for the continuation of the atomic project also had forces and funds. Although not immediately. Renewal research should be counted from the decision of the State Defense Committee of February 11, 1943, which agreed on the beginning of practical work on the creation of an atomic bomb.

Project "ENORMOV"

By this time, Soviet external intelligence worked at all over the extraction of information on the ENORMOV project - so the American atomic project was called in operational documents. The first meaningful data, testifying that the West is seriously engaged in creating uranium weapons, received from the London Residency in September 1941. And at the end of the same year, a message comes from the same source that America and the United Kingdom agreed to coordinate the efforts of their scientists in the field of study of atomic energy. In the conditions of war, it could be interpreted only in one way: the allies lead work on the creation of atomic weapons. And in February 1942, reconnaissance received documentary evidence that in Germany is actively engaged in the same.

As the efforts of Soviet scientists who worked on their own plans were promoted, the work of intelligence on obtaining information about American and English nuclear projects was intensified. In December 1942, it became definitively clear that the United States was clearly ahead of Britain in this area, and the main efforts were focused on data production from the ocean. In fact, every step of the participants of the Manhattan Project, as was called work on creating an atomic bomb in the United States, was tightly controlled by Soviet intelligence. It suffices to say that the detailed information about the device of the first real atomic bomb in Moscow received less than two weeks after it was collected in America.

That is why the boastful message of the new US president Harry Truman, who decided to dear Stalin in the Potsdam Conference with a statement about the presence of a new weapon of a new weapon of the unprecedented destructive force, did not cause the reaction to which the American was expected. The Soviet leader calmly listened to him, nodded - and did not answer. Foreigners were confident that Stalin simply did not understand anything. In fact, the head of the USSR, the head of the USSR appreciated the words of Truman and on the same day he demanded that the Soviet experts would maximize the work on creating their own atomic bomb. But to overtake America was already impossible. After an incomplete month, the first atomic mushroom has grown over Hiroshoe, three days later - above Nagasaki. And over the Soviet Union, the shadow of a new, atomic war, and not with someone, but with former allies.

Time forward!

Now, seventy years later, no one is no longer surprised that the Soviet Union has received the time the reserve for him to create its own superbb, despite the sharply deteriorating relations with the ex-partners in the Anti-Hitler coalition. After all, on March 5, 1946, after six months after the first atomic bombings, the famous Fulton's speech of Winston Churchill sounded, which marked the beginning of the Cold War. But in the hot, according to Washington's plan and its allies, she had to turn late - in late 1949. After all, according to the ocean, the USSR should not have had its own atomic weapons earlier than the mid-1950s, which means there was no place to hurry.

Testing atomic bombs. Photo: U.S. Air Force / AR

From the height of today, it seems an amazing coincidence of the date of the beginning of the World War II - more precisely, one of the dates of one of the main plans, Fleetwood - and the dates of testing of the first Soviet nuclear bomb: 1949. But in reality, everything is natural. The foreign policy situation was ruling quickly, the former allies were all sharper and tacked with each other. And in 1948 it became completely clear that Moscow and Washington could agree with each other, apparently could not. From here and you need to count the time before the start of a new war: a year - the deadline for which the countries recently released from the enormous war can fully prepare for a new one, besides, with the state that endured the basic gravity of victory on their shoulders. Even the nuclear monopoly did not give the United States to reduce the preparation for war.

Foreign "accents" of the Soviet Atomic Bomb

All this perfectly understood and with us. Since 1945, all works associated with the atomic project have increased dramatically. During the first two post-war years, the USSR, the exteructed war, who lost a significant part of its industrial potential, was able to create a colossal nuclear industry from scratch. There were future nuclear centers, such as "Chelyabinsk-40", "Arzamas-16", Obninsk, large scientific institutions and production facilities have developed.

Not so long ago a common point of view on the Soviet atomic project was this: they say if not intelligence, the USSR scientists would not be able to create any atomic bomb. In fact, everything was not so unequivocal, as the revisionists of domestic history were trying to show. In fact, the data mined by Soviet intelligence data allowed our scientists to avoid many mistakes, which inevitably had to commit to the American colleagues who would not remember that, recall, war did not interfere with the war: the enemy did not invade the United States, and the country did not lose during Several months half industry). In addition, these intelligence, undoubtedly helped the Soviet specialists to evaluate the most winning structures and technical solutions that allowed to assemble their, more perfect atomic bomb.

And if we talk about the degree of foreign influence on the Soviet atomic project, then, rather, it is necessary to recall several hundreds of German specialists, who worked on two secret objects under Sukhumi - in the sample of the future of the Sukhumi Physico-Technical Institute. Here they really helped to promote ahead of work on the "product" - the first atomic bomb of the USSR, and so much that many of them are the same secret decrees of October 29, 1949 were awarded by Soviet orders. Most of these specialists were walking back to Germany five years later, settled for mostly in the GDR (although there were those who went to the West).

Objectively speaking, the first Soviet atomic bomb was, if you can put it, not one "emphasis." After all, it was born in the end of the tremendous cooperation of the efforts of many people - and those who dealt with the project in their will, and those who were attracted to work as prisoners of war or interneed specialists. But the country that, by all means, was required to obtain a weapon as soon as possible, equalizing her chances with the ex-allies, rapidly turned into deadly enemies, was not prior to sublimation.

Russia does herself!

In the documents relating to the creation of the first nuclear bomb of the USSR, the term "product" later became popular. It is much more commonly officially called the "reactive engine special", or abbreviated RDS. Although, of course, with anything reactive in works on this design and did not smell: the whole thing was only in the strictest requirements of secrecy.

With a light hand academician Julia Harriton for the abbreviation of the RDS very quickly, the unofficial decoding "Russia does herself". There was also a considerable proportion of irony, because everyone knew how much they gave our nuclear makers mined information, but also a large proportion of truth. After all, if the design of the first Soviet nuclear bomb was very similar to the American (simply because the most optimal was chosen, and the laws of physics and mathematics do not have national characteristics), then, let's say, the ballistic corps and the electronic filling of the first bomb were purely domestic development.

When the work on the Soviet atomic project was advanced rather far, the USSR leadership formulated tactical and technical requirements for the first atomic bombs. It was decided to simultaneously modify two types: a plutonium bomb of the implosive type and uranium - a cannon, similar to the Americans. The first received the RDS-1 index, the second, respectively, RDS-2.

According to the plan, RDS-1 was supposed to be submitted to government tests by an explosion in January 1948. But these deadlines failed to withstand: problems with the manufacture and processing of the required amount of weapons plutonium for its equipment. He was received only a year and a half later, in August 1949 - and immediately went to Arzamas-16, where the almost finished first Soviet atomic bomb was waiting. For several days, the experts of the future VNIIEF completed the assembly of the "Product", and it went to the Semipalatinsky polygon for testing.

The first rivet of the nuclear shield of Russia

The first nuclear bomb of the USSR was blown up at seven o'clock in the morning on August 29, 1949. It took almost a month before the ocean moved away from the shock caused by intelligent on the successful test in our country's own "big club". Only on September 23, Harry Truman, not so long ago reporting to Stalin about the success of America in creating atomic weapons, made a statement that the same type of weapons now have in the USSR.

Presentation of multimedia installation in honor of the 65th anniversary of the creation of the first Soviet atomic bomb. Photo: Geodakian Artem / Tass

Oddly enough, in Moscow did not hurry at all to confirm the statements of the Americans. On the contrary, TASS actually made a refutation of the American statement, arguing that the whole thing in the colossal diffraction of construction in the USSR, which uses and explosive work using the latest technologies. True, at the end of the Tassovsky statement was more than a transparent hint of possession of his own nuclear weapon. The agency reminded everyone interested that on November 6, 1947, the USSR Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov said that there was no secret of the atomic bomb for a long time.

And it was twice the truth. By 1947, no information about atomic weapons was no longer a secret for the USSR, and by the end of the summer of 1949 it was no longer a secret that the Soviet Union restored strategic parity with its main rival - the United States. Parity, which is preserved for six decades. Parity, maintaining who helps the nuclear shield of Russia and the beginning of which was laid on the eve of the Great Patriotic War.