Principles of literary trends. Collection of Ideal Social Studies Essays

In modern literary criticism, the terms "direction" and "current" can be interpreted in different ways. Sometimes they are used as synonyms (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism and modernism are called both currents and directions), and sometimes the current is identified with a literary school or group, and the direction - with an artistic method or style (in this case, the direction absorbs two or more currents).

Usually, literary direction call a group of writers who are similar in the type of artistic thinking. The existence of a literary trend can be talked about if the writers are aware of theoretical basis their artistic activities, propagandize them in manifestos, program speeches, articles. Thus, the first programmatic article of Russian futurists was the manifesto "A Slap in the Face to Public Taste", in which the main aesthetic principles of the new direction were declared.

In certain circumstances, within the framework of one literary direction, groups of writers can form, especially close to each other in their aesthetic views. Such groups, formed within a direction, are usually called literary movement. For example, within the framework of such a literary trend as Symbolism, two currents can be distinguished: the “older” symbolists and the “younger” symbolists (according to another classification, there are three: decadents, “older” symbolists, and “younger” symbolists).

CLASSICISM(from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic direction in European art at the turn of the XVII-XVIII - early XIX century, formed in France in late XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the prevalence of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyazhnin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception of antique art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the trend). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of antique ones. In addition, the formation of classicism was greatly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be rebuilt on a reasonable basis).

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creation as a strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided the works into "correct" and "incorrect". For example, even Shakespeare's best plays were classified as “wrong”. This was due to the fact that positive and negative traits were combined in Shakespeare's heroes. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. So, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody any one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a prude, or a hypocrite, or good or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the hero's struggle between reason and feeling. In this case, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feeling.

The same can be said about the genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be introduced into comedy, and funny ones into tragedy. V high genres depicted "exemplary" heroes - monarchs, "commanders who could serve as an example to follow. In the lower characters were displayed, seized by some kind of" passion ", that is, a strong feeling.

Special rules existed for dramatic works... They had to observe three "unities" - place, time and action. Unity of the place: classic drama did not allow changing the scene, that is, during the entire play, the heroes had to be in the same place. Unity of time: the artistic time of the work should not exceed several hours, in extreme cases - one day. The unity of action implies the presence of only one storyline. All these requirements are connected with the fact that the classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage. Sumarokov: “Try to measure my clock for hours in the game, so that I, forgetting myself, can believe you *.

So, specific traits literary classicism:

Purity of the genre (in high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low genres, tragic and sublime ones);

The purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Heroes are strictly divided into positive and negative, while goodies choosing between feeling and reason, they give preference to the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unity";

The work must affirm positive values ​​and the state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state (and not a person) was declared the highest value) combined with belief in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, demanding from everyone to serve for the good of society. Russian classicists, inspired by Peter's reforms, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which seemed to them to be a rationally arranged organism. Sumarokov: " Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate sciences. " The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that are opposed to reason, but at the same time amenable to education.

SENTIMENTALISM(from english sentimental- sensitive, from French sentiment- feeling) - the literary direction of the second half of XVII 1st century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his ability to deeply experience. Hence - the interest in the inner world of the hero, the image of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider the highest value not to the state, but to the person. They opposed the unjust orders of the feudal world with the eternal and reasonable laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including the person himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of "natural", "natural" man, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity lies at the heart of the creative method of sentimentalism. If the classicists created generalized characters (prude, braggart, curmudgeon, fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with an individual destiny. The characters in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative ones are calculating, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The bearers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, commoners, rural clergy. The brutal are representatives of the authorities, nobles, the highest spiritual ranks (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). In the works of sentimentalists, manifestations of sensitivity often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicide).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the depiction of the rich spiritual world of a commoner (the image of Liza in Karamzin's story "Poor Liza"). An ordinary person became the protagonist of the works. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life often depicted in pastoral colors. The new content required a new form. The leading genres were the family romance, diary, confession, novel in letters, travel notes, elegy, and a message.

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between the serf peasant and the landlord-serf, and the moral superiority of the former is insistently emphasized.

ROMANCE - artistic direction in European and American culture late 18th - first half of the 19th century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany, and then spread throughout Western Europe... The prerequisites for the emergence were the crisis of the rationalism of the Enlightenment, artistic searches for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism), the Great French Revolution, German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary trend, like, indeed, and any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literatures. The decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe was exerted by the Great French Revolution of 1789-1899 and the associated reassessment of the educational ideology. As you know, the XV111 century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a century, the French enlighteners led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural (natural) equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: "Freedom, equality and fraternity."

The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the bourgeois minority won, which seized power (earlier it belonged to the aristocracy, the higher nobility), while the rest remained “with broken trough". Thus, the long-awaited "kingdom of reason" turned out to be an illusion, like the promised freedom, equality and brotherhood. There was a general disillusionment with the results and outcomes of the revolution, deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because romanticism is based on the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge impact on Russian. This trend continued in the 19th century, so the Great French Revolution shook Russia as well. But, in addition, there are actually Russian preconditions for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this is the Patriotic War of 1812, which clearly showed the greatness and strength of the common people. It was to the people that Russia owed the victory over Napoleon, the people were the true hero of the war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, were still serfs, in fact, slaves. What was previously perceived by progressive people of that time as injustice, now began to seem like flagrant injustice, contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not abolish serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. So the ground for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term "romanticism" in relation to the literary movement is accidental and imprecise. In this regard, from the very beginning of its appearance, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word "novel", others - from knightly poetry created in countries speaking Romance languages... For the first time, the word "romanticism" as the name of a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

The concept of romantic double world is very important for understanding the essence of romanticism. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the world around them, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of the romantic double world. The world for romantics was divided into two parts: here and there. “There” and “here” is an antithesis (opposition), these categories are correlated as an ideal and reality. The despised "here" is a modern reality where evil and injustice prevail. “There” is a kind of poetic reality, which the romantics contrasted with reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, ousted from public life, were still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of a person, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their "there". For example, Zhukovsky was looking “there” in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in the free life of uncivilized peoples (Pushkin's poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", Cooper's novels about the life of the Indians).

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. It is fundamentally new hero, similar to him did not know the previous literature. He is in a hostile relationship with the surrounding society, opposed to him. This is an extraordinary person, restless, most often lonely and with a tragic fate. The romantic hero is the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

REALISM(from the Latin realis - material, real) - a method (creative attitude) or a literary direction that embodied the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, aspiring to the artistic knowledge of man and the world. Often the term "realism" is used in two meanings: 1) realism as a method; 2) realism as a trend that emerged in the 19th century. Both classicism, romanticism, and symbolism strive for knowledge of life and in their own way express a reaction to it, but only in realism does the fidelity of reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by a rejection of reality and the desire to "recreate" it, and not reflect it as it is. It is not by chance that, referring to the realist Balzac, the romantic Georges Sand defined the difference between him and herself in the following way: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel in myself a calling to portray him as I would like to see. " Thus, we can say that realists represent reality, and romantics - what they want.

The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is educational realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, there is a democratic realistic hero, a man "from the bottom" (for example, Figaro in the plays "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro" by Beaumarchais). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: “fantastic” (Gogol, Dostoevsky), “grotesque” (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and “critical” realism associated with the activities of the “natural school”.

The main requirements of realism: adherence to the principles of nationality, historicism, high artistry, psychologism, the depiction of life in its development. Realist writers showed a direct relationship between social, moral, religious beliefs heroes from social conditions, they paid great attention to the social aspect. The central problem of realism is the relationship between believability and artistic truth. Plausibility, a believable display of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by believability, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of the most important features of realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and individual, uniquely personal). The persuasiveness of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type of "little man" (Vyrin, Shoes n, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type " extra person"(Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), a type of" new "hero (the nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, Chernyshevsky's" new people ").

MODERNISM(from French modern- the latest, modern) - a philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

This term has various interpretations:

1) denotes a number of unrealistic trends in art and literature at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imagism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;

2) is used as a symbol aesthetic searches artists of unrealistic directions;

3) denotes a complex complex of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only the actual modernist trends, but also the work of artists who do not completely fit into the framework of any direction (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

The most striking and significant areas of Russian modernism are symbolism, acmeism and futurism.

SYMBOLISM - unrealistic direction in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression using a symbol of intuitively comprehended essences and ideas. Symbolism made itself felt in France in the 1860-1870s in poetry A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and drama, but also with other types of art. The ancestor, founder, "father" of Symbolism is considered the French writer Charles Baudelaire.

The perception of the Symbolist artists is based on the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the spiritual experience of man and the creative intuition of the artist to be the only "tool" for understanding the world.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art, free from the task of depicting reality. The Symbolists argued that the purpose of art was not to depict the real world, which they considered secondary, but to convey a "higher reality." They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. The symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, true essence of things. The Symbolists have developed a new poetic language that does not directly name the object, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, colors, free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant modernist movement to emerge in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian Symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky "On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature", published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the "new art": mystical content, symbolization and "expansion of artistic impressionability."

It is customary to divide the Symbolists into two groups, or trends:

1) "Senior" Symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub

and others), which debuted in the 1890s;

2) The "younger" Symbolists who began their creative activity in the 1900s and significantly renewed the appearance of the current (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the “older” and “younger” Symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in attitudes and the direction of creativity.

The Symbolists believed that art is, first of all, “ comprehension of the world by other, not rational ways"(Bryusov). After all, only phenomena that are subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality acts only in the lower forms of life (empirical reality, everyday life). The Symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area of ​​"absolute ideas" in the terms of Plato or "the world soul", according to V. Soloviev), which are not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate these spheres, and the images-symbols with their endless polysemy are able to reflect the entire complexity of the world universe. The Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, higher reality is given only to the elect, who, in moments of inspired insight, are able to comprehend the "higher" truth, absolute truth.

The symbolic image was considered by the symbolists as a more effective than an artistic image, a tool that helps to "break through" through the veil of everyday life (lower life) to a higher reality. The symbol differs from the realistic image in that it conveys not the objective essence of the phenomenon, but the poet's own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, a symbol, as the Russian Symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but first of all a kind of image that requires a reciprocal from the reader. creative work... The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution produced by symbolism in art.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the perspective of the unlimited development of meanings. This feature of it was repeatedly emphasized by the Symbolists themselves: "A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning" (Viach. Ivanov); "Symbol - a window to infinity" (F. Sologub).

ACMEISM(from the Greek. act- the highest degree of something, blooming power, peak) - modernist literary movement in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, JI. Gumilev, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilev. The aesthetic program was formulated in the articles by Gumilyov "The Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism", Gorodetsky "Some Trends in Contemporary Russian Poetry" and Mandelstam "Morning of Acmeism".

Acmeism stood out from Symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations to the "unknowable": "For the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its imaginable likenesses with mystical love or anything else" (Gorodetsky) ... Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from polysemy and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to the material world, an object, exact value the words. Symbolism is based on a rejection of reality, and the Acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​in it and capture them in their works, and this should be done with the help of precise and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

Actually, the Acmeist movement was few in number, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the "Workshop of Poets". The "Workshop of Poets" was created in 1911 and at first united a fairly large number of people (by no means all of them later turned out to be involved in acmeism). This organization was much more cohesive than the scattered Symbolist groups. At the meetings of the "Workshop" poems were analyzed, problems of poetic mastery were solved, methods of analysis of works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself did not enter the "Workshop". In his article "On Beautiful Clarity," Kuzmin anticipated many of the declarations of Acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of Acmeism appeared. From this moment, the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed the task of literature "perfect clarity", or clarism (from lat. clarus- clear). The Acmeists called their course Adamism, connecting with the biblical Adam the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects, declare their love for objectivity. So, Gumilev urged to look not for "shaky words", but for words "with a more stable content." This principle was most consistently implemented in the lyrics of Akhmatova.

FUTURISM - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art at the beginning of the 20th century, which received the greatest development in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, the poet F. Marinetti published the Manifesto of Futurism in Italy. The main provisions of this manifesto: rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. As the main elements of futuristic poetry, Marinetti calls "courage, audacity, rebellion." In 1912, Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto "A Slap in the Face to Public Taste". They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experiments, and sought to find new means of speech expression (proclaiming a new free rhythm, loosening syntax, eliminating punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content (“it’s not what is important, but how”) and the absolute freedom of poetic speech.

Futurism was a heterogeneous trend. Within its framework, four main groups or trends can be distinguished:

1) "Gilea", which united cubo-futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh and others);

2) "Association of ego-futurists" (I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);

3) "Mezzanine of Poetry" (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);

4) "Centrifuge" (S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was "Gilea": in fact, it was she who defined the face of Russian futurism. Its members published many collections: "The Garden of Judges" (1910), "Slap in the Face to Public Taste" (1912), "Dead Moon" (1913), "Took" (1915).

The Futurists wrote on behalf of the crowd man. This movement was based on the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of old things" (Mayakovsky), the realization of the birth of "new humanity." Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should have become not an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which, through the creative will of man, creates “a new world, today, iron ...” (Malevich). This is due to the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the gravitation to colloquial speech. Relying on a lively spoken language, the futurists were engaged in "word creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - the contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in the 1915-1916s.

Socialist realism(socialist realism) - ideological method artistic creation used in art Soviet Union, and then in other socialist countries, which was introduced into artistic creation by means of state policy, including censorship, and responded to the solution of the tasks of building socialism.

It was approved in 1932 by the party organs in literature and art.

In parallel, unofficial art existed.

· Artistic depiction of reality "exactly, in accordance with a specific historical revolutionary development."

· The coordination of artistic creativity with the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, the active involvement of workers in the construction of socialism, the establishment of the leading role of the Communist Party.

Lunacharsky was the first writer to lay his ideological foundation. Back in 1906, he introduced into everyday life such a concept as "proletarian realism." By the twenties, in relation to this concept, he began to use the term "new social realism”, And in the early thirties he devoted“ dynamic and through and through active socialist realism ”,“ the term good, meaningful, which can be interestingly revealed with correct analysis ”, a cycle of program-theoretical articles that were published in Izvestia.

The term "socialist realism" was first proposed by the chairman of the organizing committee of the USSR Writers' Union I. Gronsky in the Literaturnaya Gazeta on May 23, 1932. It arose in connection with the need to direct the RAPP and the avant-garde to the artistic development of Soviet culture. The decisive factor in this was the recognition of the role of classical traditions and the understanding of the new qualities of realism. In 1932-1933 Gronsky and head. sector of fiction of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) V. Kirpotin intensively promoted this term [ source not specified 530 days] .

At the 1st All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934, Maxim Gorky argued:

“Socialist realism affirms being as an act, as creativity, the purpose of which is the continuous development of the most valuable individual abilities of man for the sake of his victory over the forces of nature, for the sake of his health and longevity, for the sake of great happiness to live on the land, which he, in accordance with the continuous growth of his needs, wants treat everything as a wonderful dwelling of humanity united into one family. "

It was required to approve this method as the main state for better control over creative personalities and better propaganda of its policies. In the preceding period, the twenties existed Soviet writers, who at times took an aggressive stance towards many prominent writers. For example, the RAPP, an organization of proletarian writers, was actively involved in criticizing non-proletarian writers. The RAPP consisted primarily of aspiring writers. During the creation of modern industry (years of industrialization) Soviet power an art was needed to raise the people to "labor exploits". A rather motley picture was and art 1920s. Several groups emerged in it. The most significant was the group "Association of Artists of the Revolution". They depicted the present day: the life of the Red Army, workers, peasants, revolutionaries and labor leaders. They considered themselves the heirs of the "Itinerants". They went to factories, factories, to the Red Army barracks to directly observe the life of their characters, to "sketch" it. It was they who became the backbone of the "socialist realism" artists. It was much harder for less traditional masters, in particular, members of the OST (Society of Easel Painters), which united young people who graduated from the first Soviet art university [ source not specified 530 days] .

Gorky returned from emigration in a solemn atmosphere and headed the specially created Union of Writers of the USSR, which included mainly writers and poets of the Soviet orientation.

For the first time, an official definition of socialist realism was given in the Charter of the USSR Writers' Union, adopted at the First Congress of the Soviet Union:

Socialist realism, being the main method of Soviet fiction and literary criticism, requires from the artist a truthful, historically concrete depiction of reality in its revolutionary development. Moreover, the truthfulness and historical concreteness of the artistic depiction of reality should be combined with the task of ideological alteration and education in the spirit of socialism.

This definition became the starting point for all further interpretations up to the 80s.

« Socialist realism is a deeply vital, scientific and most advanced artistic method, developed as a result of the success of socialist construction and education Soviet people in the spirit of communism. The principles of socialist realism ... were a further development of Lenin's teaching on the partisanship of literature. " (Big Soviet encyclopedia, 1947 )

Lenin expressed the idea that art should be on the side of the proletariat in the following way:

“Art belongs to the people. The deepest springs of art can be found among a wide class of workers ... Art must be based on their feelings, thoughts and demands and must grow with them. "

2) Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion of the human personality. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia at about the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterweight to the rigid classical theory prevailing at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of human mental qualities, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. Feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of ​​universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism are:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the surrounding nature, painting in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. S. Richardson was a prominent representative of English sentimentalism. In the first place, he put forward psychological analysis and drew the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. The writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of the Abbe Prévost, P.C. de Chamblin de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A.B. de Saint-Pierre.
V German literature- the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, I. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev, "Letters of a Russian Traveler" and "Poor Liza" by N.I. Karamzin.

3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, advocated deviation from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the rule of the bourgeoisie, and with it, bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the personality of a person, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict romanticism was the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the background of scientific and technological progress, the increasingly complex social and political structure, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. The romantics sought to draw the attention of readers to this circumstance, to cause a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Romantics became disillusioned with the world around them, and this disillusionment is clearly visible in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must obey them and not try to change his fate. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P.B.Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mitskevich, early A.S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called "world evil", and opposed it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of emotions and passions; throughout the entire work, the author forced him to fight the outside world, duty and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the secrets of being, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the works of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only in the early 1820s. The main representatives were F.R. Chateaubriand, J. Steel, E.P. Senancourt, P. Merimet, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the Great French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. A.S. Pushkin of the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over ordinary life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exile, the romantic hero turns into a person who is outcast and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between personality and society becomes insoluble. The outstanding representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of ​​a double world is a struggle between objective reality and subjective perception of the world. This concept is absent in realism. The idea of ​​a double world has two modifications:
going into the world of fantasy;
travel concept, road.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional person;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in the lyrical tonality;
aesthetic determination to an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism is the identity of the hero's inner state with the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic piece:
extreme expression;
the principle of contrast at the level of composition;
an abundance of symbols.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; the romantics denied a system of values ​​that was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict system of values ​​(home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic perception of the world; the reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on the artist's creative imagination.

4) Realism
Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality with the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers place their characters in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality.
While romantic writers were worried about the inconsistency of the world around them with their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world around them affects a person. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived at a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC NS. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation" that was close to him in meaning. Then realism was revived during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on real circumstances that affect a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, U. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the other hand, showed a strong personality that can fight against circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world, the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.

In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed, in some works the deviations border on fantasy, and the more grotesque, the more the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N. V. Gogol, in the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.

5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic trends that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. as a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all types of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around it. The author does not seek to realistically or allegorically depict reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
the declared discrepancy with the theory and practice of realism;
orientation towards an individual, not social person;
increased attention to the spiritual, not the social sphere of human life;
focus on form at the expense of content.
The largest currents of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and modernity. Impressionism sought to capture the moment in the form in which the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined, what is important is the impression that any object or phenomenon had on the author, and not the object itself.
The symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowed the usual images and words mystical meaning... The Art Nouveau style advocated the rejection of the correct geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially vividly in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude to universal human values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decay of the personality).
In the literature, modernism is represented by the following trends:
acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imagism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are French poets S. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.

6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a trend in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. XIX century. and especially widespread in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential trend. The theoretical substantiation of the new trend was given by Emile Zola in the book "The Experimental Novel".
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, growing into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, high level technology and increased exploitation, on the other - the growth of self-awareness and the class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie oscillates between these main classes, and these vacillations are reflected in the positions of petty-bourgeois writers who have joined naturalism.
The main requirements of naturalists for literature: scientific, objectivity, political apathy in the name of "universal human truth." Literature must be at the level of modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on the science that does not deny the existing social order... Naturalists base their theory on the mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, H. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting to the interests of the ruling class the doctrine of heredity (heredity is declared to be the cause of social stratification, giving advantages to some over others), the philosophy of positivism by Auguste Comte, and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically showing the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby bring about a series of reforms in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola ranked G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet, and a number of other lesser-known writers among the natural school. Zola attributed the French realists O. Balzac and Stendhal to the immediate predecessors of naturalism. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which the theoretician Zola understood this direction. For a time, writers who were very heterogeneous both in their artistic method and in belonging to various class groupings were introduced to naturalism as the style of the leading class. It is characteristic that the unifying point was not the artistic method, but the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
The followers of naturalism are characterized by only partial recognition of the complex of requirements put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others, sharply differing from each other, presenting as different social trends and various artistic methods. A number of followers of naturalism embraced its reformist essence, rejecting without hesitation even such a requirement typical of naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This is what the German "early naturalists" (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belsche and others) did.
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism, the further development of naturalism went. Arising in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the disintegration of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the exacerbation of capitalization processes create more and more cadres of the intelligentsia, which by no means always find use for themselves. More and more disillusionment with the power of science is permeating their midst. Hopes for the resolution of social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are gradually collapsing.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, represent an entirely transitional stage from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht in his "History of the Germanic People" proposed to call this style "physiological impressionism". This term is further used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, from the naturalistic style known in France, only admiration for physiology remains. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. At the center of it is usually some problem, social or physiological, around which the facts illustrating it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Schlyaf. Their basic principles are set out in Goltz's brochure "Art", where Goltz asserts that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes it in accordance with the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The eventful French novel (Zola) is replaced by a story or short story, an extremely poor plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transmission of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also being replaced by a drama and a poem, which the French naturalists regarded extremely negatively as a "kind of entertainment art." Special attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptmann, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Zuderman), which also denies intensively developed action, only catastrophe and fixation of the heroes' experiences are given ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Eltse" and others). In the future, the naturalistic drama is reborn into an impressionistic, symbolic drama.
Naturalism has not received any development in Russia. The early works of F. I. Panferov and M. A. Sholokhov were called naturalistic.

7) Natural school
Under the natural school literary criticism understands the direction that originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an era of increasingly sharpening contradictions between the serf system and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school in their works tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time. The term "natural school" itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school in the extended application of the term as it was used in the 40s does not denote a single direction, but is a largely conventional concept. The natural school included such heterogeneous writers as I.S. Turgenev and F.M.Dostoevsky, D.V. Grigorovich and I.A.Goncharov, N.A. Nekrasov and I.I. Panaev.
The most common features on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school were the following: socially significant topics that captured more wide circle than even the circle of social observations (often in the "lower" strata of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic expression, which fought against embellishment of reality, aesthetics, and romantic rhetoric.
VG Belinsky singled out the realism of the natural school, affirming the most important feature of the "truth" and not the "falsehood" of the image. The natural school does not address ideal, invented heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to ordinary people, and most often to people of "low rank". Common in the 40s. all sorts of "physiological" sketches satisfied this need for a reflection of a different, non-noble life, even if only in an outward, everyday, superficial reflection.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as an essential and basic feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude to reality - "the literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: to N. V. Gogol - the author of "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", "The Overcoat" - as the founder of the natural school was erected by VG Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers who belong to the natural school have experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of N.V. Gogol's work. In addition to Gogol, the natural school writers were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as C. Dickens, O. Balzac, Georges Sand.
One of the currents of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjoining it, was distinguished by a superficial and cautious nature of criticism of reality: this is either a harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of noble reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the manor house. Representatives of this trend of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another trend of the natural school relied mainly on the urban philistinism of the 40s, which was oppressed, on the one hand, by tenacious serfdom, and on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to FM Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and novellas (Poor People, The Double, and others).
The third trend in the natural school, represented by the so-called "commoners", the ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the clearest expression of the tendencies that were associated by contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of the natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in the work of N.A.Nekrasov. This group should include A. I. Herzen ("Who is to blame?"), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ("The Confused Case").

8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an art movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
In this thesis, which was later adopted by functionalists and constructivist functionalists (L. Wright in America, J.J.P. Aud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art is brought to the fore and, in essence, the ideological side of it is being emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the postwar period were expressed in various directions, more or less "orthodox" interpreting the main thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in "purism", in "aesthetics of machines", in "neoplasticism" (art), in the aestheticizing formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally a narrowly formal movement highlighting understanding literary work as designs. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrowly aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A.N. Chicherin departs from constructivism, a number of authors (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov) are grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky, and in 1924 a literary center is organized constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement about the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the "organizational onslaught of the working class," in the construction of socialist culture. Hence, the constructivism's attitude to saturation of art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes arises.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be designated as follows: "The intelligentsia in revolution and construction." Paying special attention to the image of the intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), constructivists first of all put forward in a painfully exaggerated form his specific weight and significance work in progress. This is especially clear in "Pushtorg", where the incompetent communist Krol is opposed to the exceptional specialist Poluyarov, who interferes with his work and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article of the main constructivist theorist Cornelius Zelinsky "Constructivism and Socialism", where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era transitioning to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period undergoing. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period by Zelinsky are replaced by the struggle between man and nature, the pathos of bare technology, interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous positions of Zelinsky, which provoked a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and revealed with great clarity the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source that feeds constructivism is undoubtedly that stratum of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as the technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the largest poet of constructivism) of the first period, the image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly revealed.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, in its place was formed the "Literary Brigade M. 1" previous mistakes of constructivism, although preserving its creative method.
However, the contradictoriness and zigzag nature of the advance of constructivism towards the working class makes itself felt here as well. This is evidenced by Selvinsky's poem "The Declaration of the Poet's Rights". This is also confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also dissolved in December 1930, admitting that it had not solved the tasks set for itself.

9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism literally means "what follows modernism" in German. This literary trend appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects all the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the richness of information today.
Postmodernists did not like the fact that literature was divided into elite and mass. Postmodernism opposed any modernity in literature and denied popular culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective, thriller, fantasy, behind which a serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that higher art ended. To move on, you need to learn how to properly use the inferior genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, fantasy, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. The works become oriented both to an elite reader and to an undemanding audience.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of previous texts as a potential for one's own works (a large number of citations, it is impossible to understand a work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
multilevel text organization;
special organization of the text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism mass culture... Postmodernism is trying to erase the border between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is a text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented and they could only play with words, take ready-made (already once invented, written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and collect works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage composed of disparate images and combined into a whole by the uniformity of technology. This technique is called pastish. This Italian word is translated as opera potpourri, and in literature it means the comparison of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term was introduced by Y. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avanttext (all texts that precede this one) for any newly appearing text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves into quotes. For modernism, quotation thinking is characteristic.
Intertextuality- the presence of two or more texts in the text.
Paratext- the relation of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality- it can be comments or a link to the pretext.
Hypertextuality- ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Architectuality- genre connection of texts.
A person in postmodernism is portrayed in a state of complete destruction (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in a blurred form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid unnecessary heroic pathos;
lead the hero into the shadows: the hero is not highlighted, he is not needed at all in the work.
The outstanding representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barth, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, H. Cortazar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others.

LITERARY DIRECTION (METHOD)- a set of the main features of creativity, formed and repeated in a certain historical period in the development of art.

At the same time, the features of this trend can be traced among the authors who worked in the era preceding the formation of the direction itself (features of romanticism in Shakespeare, features of realism in Fonvizin's "The Minor"), as well as in subsequent eras (features of romanticism in Gorky).

There are four main literary directions:CLASSICISM, ROMANCE, REALISM, MODERNISM.

LITERARY CURRENT- finer division in comparison with the direction; currents either represent branches of one direction ( german romanticism, French romanticism, Byronism in England, Karamzinism in Russia), or arise in the transition from one direction to another (sentimentalism).

MAIN LITERARY DIRECTIONS (METHODS) AND CURRENTS

1. CLASSICISM

The main literary direction in Russia XVIII century.

Main features

1. Imitation of the samples of ancient culture.
2. Strict construction rules works of art.Chapter II. Literary directions(methods) and currents 9
3. A strict hierarchy of genres: high (ode, epic poem, tragedy); medium (satire, love letter); low (fable, comedy).
4. Hard boundaries between genres and genres.
5. Creation ideal scheme social life and ideal images members of society (enlightened monarch, statesman, military man, woman).

Major genres in poetry

Ode, satire, historical poem.

The main rules for the construction of dramatic works

1. The rule of "three unities": place, time, action.
2. Division into positive and negative characters.
3. The presence of a resonant hero (a character expressing the author's position).
4. Traditional roles: resoner (hero-reasoner), first lover (hero-lover), second lover, ingenue, soubrette, deceived father, etc.
5. Traditional denouement: triumph of virtue and punishment of vice.
6. Five actions.
7. Speaking surnames.
8. Long moralizing monologues.

Main representatives

Europe - writer and thinker Voltaire; playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere; the fabulist La Fontaine; poet Guys (France).

Russia - poets Lomonosov, Derzhavin, playwright Fonvizin (comedy "Brigadier", 1769 and "Minor", 1782).

Classicism traditions in 19th century literature

Krylov ... Genre traditions of classicism in fables.

Griboyedov ... Features of classicism in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

The main literary trend in Russia in the 1st third of the 19th century.

Main features

1. Creation ideal world dreams, fundamentally incompatible with real life, opposed to it.
2. In the center of the image is a human personality, its inner world, its relation to the surrounding reality.
3. An image of an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances.
4. Denial of all the rules of classicism.
5. The use of fiction, symbolism, the lack of everyday and historical motivations.

Main genres

Lyric poem, poem, tragedy, novel.

The main genres in Russian poetry

Elegy, message, song, ballad, poem.

Main representatives

Europe - Goethe, Heine, Schiller (Germany), Byron (England).

Russia - Zhukovsky.

Traditions of romanticism in the literature of the 19th-20th centuries

Griboyedov . Romantic traits in the characters of Sophia and Chatsky; a parody of Zhukovsky's ballads (Sophia's dream) in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

Pushkin ... Romantic period of creativity (1813-1824); the image of the romantic poet Lensky and discourses on romanticism in the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"; unfinished novel "Dubrovsky".

Lermontov ... Romantic period of creativity (1828-І836); elements of romanticism in poems of the mature period (1837-1841); romantic motives in the poems "Song of ... the merchant Kalashnikov", "Mtsyri", "Demon", in the novel "A Hero of Our Time"; the image of the romantic poet Lensky in the poem "Death of a Poet".

The main literary direction of the 2nd half of the 19th-20th centuries.

Main features

1. Creation of typical (regular) characters.
2. These characters act in a typical everyday and historical setting.
3. Lifelike verisimilitude, fidelity to details (combined with conventional forms of artistic fantasy: symbol, grotesque, fantasy, myth).

In Russia, the formation of realism begins in the 1820s:

Krylov. Fables.

Griboyedov ... Comedy "Woe from Wit" (1822 -1824).

Pushkin ... Mikhailovsky (1824-1826) and late (1826-1836) periods of creativity: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823-1831), the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), "Belkin's Tales" (1830), the poem " Bronze Horseman"(1833), the story" The Captain's Daughter "(1833-1836); later lyrics.

Lermontov ... The period of mature creativity (1837-1841): the novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1839-1841), late lyrics.

Gogol ... "Petersburg Stories" (1835-1842; "The Overcoat", 1842), the comedy "The Inspector General" (1835), the poem " Dead Souls"(1st volume: 1835-1842).

Tyutchev, Fet ... Traits of realism in the lyrics.

In 1839-1847, Russian realism was formed into a special literary movement, which received the name "natural school" or "Gogol trend". The natural school became the first stage in the development of a new trend in realism - Russian critical realism.

Programming works of writers of critical realism

Prose

Goncharov ... The novel "Oblomov" (1848-1858).

Turgenev ... The story "Asya" (1858), the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1861).

Dostoevsky ... The novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866).

Lev Tolstoy ... Epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869).

Saltykov-Shchedrin ... "The History of a City" (1869-1870), "Fairy Tales" (1869-1886).

Leskov ... The story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (1879), the story "Lefty" (1881).

Dramaturgy

Ostrovsky ... Drama "Thunderstorm" (1859), comedy "Forest" (1870).

Poetry

Nekrasov ... Lyrics, poems "Peasant Children" (1861), "Who Lives Well in Russia" (1863-1877).

The development of critical realism ends at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century:

Chekhov ... The stories "Death of an Official" (1883), "Chameleon" (1884), "Student" (1894), "House with a Mezzanine" (1896), "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberry", "About Love" , "Darling" (all 1898), "Lady with the Dog" (1899), comedy " The Cherry Orchard" (1904).

bitter ... Feature article " Former people"(1897), the story" The Icebreaker "(1912), the play" At the Bottom "(1902).

Bunin ... The stories "Antonov's apples" (1900), "The gentleman from San Francisco" (1915).

Kuprin ... The stories "Olesya" (1898), "Garnet Bracelet" (1910).

After the October Revolution, the term "socialist realism" appears. However, the work of the best writers of the post-revolutionary period does not fit into the narrow framework of this trend and retains the traditional features of Russian realism:

Sholokhov ... Novel " Quiet Don"(1925-1940), the story" The Fate of a Man "(1956).

Bulgakov ... Tale " dog's heart"(1925), novels" White Guard"(1922-1924)," The Master and Margarita "(1929-1940), the play" Days of the Turbins "(1925-1926).

Zamyatin ... Dystopian novel "We" (1929).

Platonov ... The story "Pit" (1930).

Tvardovsky ... Poems, the poem "Vasily Terkin" (1941-1945).

Parsnip ... Late lyrics, the novel "Doctor Zhivago" (1945-1955).

Solzhenitsyn ... The story "One Day in Ivan Denisovich", the story "Matrenin's yard" (1959).

Shalamov ... Cycle "Kolyma Stories" (1954-1973).

Astafiev ... The story "Shepherd and Shepherdess" (1967-1989).

Trifonov ... The story "The Old Man" (1978).

Shukshin. Stories.

Rasputin ... The story "Farewell to Matera" (1976).

5. MODERNISM

Modernism - a literary movement that unites various trends in the art of the late 19th-20th centuries, engaged in experiments with the form of works of art (symbolism, acmeism, futurism, cubism, constructivism, avant-garde, abstractionism, etc.).

IMAGINISM (imago - image) is a literary movement in Russian poetry of the І919-1925, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. The main expressive means of the Imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains, juxtaposing various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creator of the current is Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. The fame of the Imagist group was brought by Sergei Yesenin, who was part of it.

POST-MODERNISM - various trends in the art of the 2nd half of the 20th century early XXI centuries (conceptualism, pop art, social art, body art, graffiti, etc.), which put at the forefront the denial of the integrity of life and art at all levels. In Russian literature, the era of postmodernism opens with the almanac "Metropol", 1979; the most famous authors of the almanac:V.P. Aksenov, B.A. Akhmadulina, A.G. Bitov, A.A. Voznesensky, V.S. Vysotsky, F.A. Iskander.

Literary directions (theoretical material)

Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.

The main features of literary trends :

· unite writers of a certain historical era;

· represent a special type of hero;

· express a certain worldview;

· choose characteristic themes and plots;

· use characteristic artistic techniques;

· work in specific genres;

· stand out in style artistic speech;

· put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals.

Classicism

The trend in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, based on the samples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national - patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Peter the Great era.

Distinctive features:

· significance of themes and plots;

· violation life truth: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;

· far-fetched images, schematic characters;

· edification of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative;

· the use of a language that is not well understood by the common people;

· appeal to lofty heroic moral ideals;

· nationwide, civic orientation;

· establishment of a hierarchy of genres: “high” (odes and tragedies), “middle” (elegies, historical compositions, friendly letters) and “low” (comedies, satire, fables, epigrams);

· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of "three unities": time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).

Representatives of classicism

Western European literature:

· P. Corneille - tragedies "Sid", "Horace", "Cinna";

· J. Racine - tragedies "Phaedra", "Midridat";

· Voltaire - tragedies "Brutus", "Tancred";

· Moliere - comedies "Tartuffe", "Bourgeois in the Nobility";

· N. Boileau - a treatise in verse "Poetic Art";

· J. La Fontaine - "Fables".

Russian literature

· M. Lomonosov - the poem "Conversation with Anacreon", "Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747";

· G. Derzhavin - ode "Felitsa";

· A. Sumarokov - tragedies "Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor";

· Y. Knyazhnin - tragedies "Dido", "Rosslav";

· D. Fonvizin - comedy "Brigadier", "Minor".

Sentimentalism

Direction in literature and art of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. He declared that the dominant "human nature" was not reason, but feeling, and he sought the path to the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality in the release and improvement of "natural" feelings.

Distinctive features:

· disclosure of human psychology;

· feeling is proclaimed the highest value;

· interest in common man, to the world of his feelings, to nature, to everyday life;

· idealization of reality, a subjective image of the world;

· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;

· the work is often written in the first person (the narrator is the author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.

Sentimentalists

· S. Richardson - novel " Clarissa Garlow»;

· - the novel "Julia, or New Eloise";

· - the novel "The Suffering of Young Werther".

Russian literature

· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;

· N. Karamzin - the story "Poor Liza" - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism, "Bornholm Island";

· I. Bogdanovich - the poem "Darling";

· A. Radishchev (not all researchers attribute his work to sentimentalism, it is close to this trend only by its psychologism; travel notes "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow").

Romanticism

The trend in art and literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist's desire to oppose reality and dreams.

Distinctive features:

· unusual, exotic in the image of events, landscapes, people;

· rejection of the prosaic nature of real life; expression of a worldview, which is characterized by daydreaming, idealization of reality, the cult of freedom;

· striving for the ideal, perfection;

· a strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero;

· the image of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);

· contrast in a mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.

Representatives of romanticism

Western European literature

· J. Byron - poems "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", "Corsair";

· - the drama "Egmont";

· I. Schiller - dramas "Robbers", "Treachery and Love";

· E. Hoffman - fantastic story"The Golden Pot"; fairy tales "Little Tsakhes", "Lord of the Fleas";

· P. Merimee - short story "Carmen";

· V. Hugo - historical novel “Cathedral Notre dame de paris»;

· W. Scott - historical novel "Ivanhoe".

Russian literature

Plan.

2. Artistic method.

Literary trends and trends. Literary schools.

4. The principles of artistic representation in literature.

The concept of the literary process. Periodization concepts literary process.

The literary process is the process of changing literature over time.

In Soviet literary criticism, the leading concept literary development there was an idea of ​​changing creative methods. The method was described as a way of the artist's reflection of extra-literary reality. Literary history has been described as the successive development of the realistic method. The main emphasis was placed on overcoming romanticism, on the formation of the highest form of realism - socialist realism.

A more consistent concept of the development of world literature was built by Academician N.F. Konrad, who also defended the forward movement of literature. This movement was based not on a change in literary methods, but on the idea of ​​discovering man as the highest value ( humanistic idea). In his work "West and East" Konrad came to the conclusion that the concepts of "Middle Ages" and "Renaissance" are universal for all literatures. The period of antiquity is replaced by the Middle Ages, then by the Renaissance, followed by the New Time. In each subsequent period, literature more and more focuses on the image of a person as such, more and more realizes the intrinsic value of the human person.

The concept of Academician D.S. Likhachev is similar, in whose opinion the literature of the Russian Middle Ages developed in the direction of strengthening the personal principle. Big era styles ( Roman style, Gothic style) were to be gradually replaced by the author's individual styles (Pushkin's style).

The most objective concept of Academician S.S. Averintsev, it provides a wide coverage of literary life, including the present. This concept is based on the idea of ​​the reflexivity and tradition of culture. The scientist identifies three large periods in the history of literature:

1. Culture can be non-reflective and traditional (the culture of antiquity, in Greece - up to the 5th century BC). Non-reflexivity means that literary phenomena are not comprehended, there is no literary theory, authors do not reflect (do not analyze their work).

2. culture can be reflective, but traditional (from the 5th century BC - BC). During this period, rhetoric, grammar, poetics (reflection on language, style, creativity) appeared. Literature was traditional, there was a stable system of genres.

3. The last period, which still lasts. Reflection is preserved, tradition is broken. Writers reflect, but create new forms. The beginning was laid by the genre of the novel.

Changes in the history of literature can be progressive, evolutionary, regressive, involutionary.

Artistic method

The artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of a figurative reflection of life. The method can be spoken of as the structure of the writer's artistic thinking, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The method is embodied in the content of a literary work. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic embodiment of characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction. The method manifests itself in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations of their behavior, actions, in the ratio of characters and events, in accordance with life path, the fate of the characters, the socio-historical circumstances of the era.

The concept of "method" (from the gr. "Path of research") denotes "the general principle of the artist's creative attitude to cognizable reality, that is, its re-creation." These are a kind of ways of knowing life, which have changed in different historical and literary eras. According to some scholars, the method underlies trends and trends, represents the way of aesthetic mastering of reality, which is inherent in the works of a certain direction. Method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category.

The problem of the way of depicting reality was first realized in antiquity and was fully embodied in the work of Aristotle "Poetics" under the name of "theory of imitation". Imitation, according to Aristotle, is the basis of poetry and its goal is to recreate the world similar to the real one, or, more precisely, as it could be. The authority of this theory remained until the end of the 18th century, when the romantics proposed a different approach (also having its roots in antiquity, more precisely in Hellenism) - the re-creation of reality in accordance with the will of the author, and not with the laws of the "universe." These two concepts, in the opinion of Soviet literary criticism of the mid-20th century, underlie two "types of creativity" - "realistic" and "romantic", within the framework of which the "methods" of classicism, romanticism, different types realism, modernism.

Concerning the problem of correlation between method and direction, it is necessary to take into account that method as a general principle of figurative reflection of life differs from direction as a historically concrete phenomenon. Consequently, if a particular direction is historically unique, then one and the same method, as a broad category of the literary process, can be repeated in the work of writers of different times and peoples, and therefore, different directions and trends.

Literary trends and trends. Literary schools

Ks.A. Polevoy was the first in Russian criticism to apply the word "direction" to certain stages in the development of literature. In the article "On trends and parties in literature," he called the direction "that often invisible to contemporaries internal desire of literature, which gives character to all or at least very many of its works at a given given time ... general sense, there is an idea modern era". For "real criticism" - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov - the direction correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities. But the main feature that unites them is that the unity of the most general principles of embodiment is fixed in the direction artistic content, the commonality of the deep foundations of the artistic worldview. There is no given list of literary directions, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of the historical, cultural, social life of society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, traditionally, such directions as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism are distinguished, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal content features.

Gradually, along with "direction", the term "flow", often used synonymously with "direction", comes into circulation. So, D.S. Merezhkovsky in his extensive article "On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature" (1893) writes that "between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, as between opposite poles, special mental currents, a special air, saturated with creative trends. " Often, “direction” is recognized as a generic concept in relation to “flow”.

The term "literary movement" usually denotes a group of writers bound by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. So, modernism - common name different groupings in the art and literature of the XX century, which distinguishes the departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to depicting being, - includes such trends as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc. ...

The fact that artists belong to one direction or trend does not exclude profound differences in their creative personalities. In turn, in the individual work of writers, the features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves.

A stream is a smaller unit of the literary process, often within a direction, characterized by its existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, by localization in a certain literature. Quite often the commonality of artistic principles in the course forms an "artistic system". So, within the framework of French classicism, two trends are distinguished. One is based on the tradition of the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes ("Cartesian rationalism"), which includes the works of P. Corneille, J. Racin, N. Bouileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in the ideological principles of such writers as J. La Fontaine, J. B. Moliere. In addition, both flows differ in the system of used artistic means... In romanticism, two main trends are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

Directions and trends should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings). The literary school is a small association of writers on the basis of uniform artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, formalized as "statutes" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, a “head of the school” (the “Shchedrinskaya school”, the poets of the “Nekrasovskaya school”).

Writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with high degree commonality - up to a common theme, style, language.

Unlike the trend, which is not always formalized in manifestos, declarations and other documents, which reflect its basic principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important in it not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also the theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school.

Many associations of writers, called schools, are named after their place of existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it was formed (north-west of England, Lake District), consisted of romantic poets who did not agree with each other in everything.

The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of the time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, literary circles are often literary groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy his artistic principles. A group of English religious poets of the early 17th century formed the Spencer school.

It should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To view it in this way is to schematize literary life era, impoverish the history of literature. Directions, trends, schools - these are, in the words of V.M. Zhirmunsky, "not shelves or boxes", "along which we" lay out "poets." "If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there can be no realistic tendencies in his work."

The literary process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, therefore, one should be extremely careful when operating with such categories as "current" and "direction". In addition to them, scholars use other terms in the study of the literary process, such as style.

The style is traditionally included in the Theory of Literature section. The term "style" itself, as applied to literature, has a whole range of meanings: the style of the work; the style of the writer's creativity, or an individual style (say, the style of poetry by N.A.Nekrasov); the style of the literary movement, movement, method (for example, the style of symbolism); style as a set of stable elements of an artistic form, defined by common features worldview, content, national traditions inherent in literature and art in a certain historical era(the style of Russian realism of the second half of the 19th century).

In a narrow sense, style is understood as the manner of writing, the peculiarities of the poetic structure of the language (vocabulary, phraseology, pictorial and expressive means, syntactic constructions, etc.). In a broad sense, style is a concept used in many sciences: literary criticism, art history, linguistics, cultural studies, aesthetics. They talk about work style, behavior style, thinking style, leadership style, etc.

Style-forming factors in literature are the ideological content, the components of the form, expressing the content concretely; this also includes the vision of the world, which is associated with the worldview of the writer, with his understanding of the essence of phenomena and man. The stylistic unity also includes the structure of the work (composition), the analysis of conflicts, their development in the plot, the system of images and ways of revealing the characters, the pathos of the work. Style, as a unifying and artistic-organizing principle of the entire work, even incorporates the method of landscape sketches. All this is style in the broadest sense of the word. In the originality of the method and style, the peculiarities of the literary direction and trend are expressed.

By the peculiarities of stylistic expression, the literary hero is judged (the attributes of his external appearance and the form of behavior), about the building's belonging to a particular era in the development of architecture (Empire style, Gothic style, Art Nouveau style, etc.), about the specifics of depicting reality in the literature of a particular historical formation (in Old Russian literature - the style of monumental medieval historicism , the epic style of the XI-XIII centuries, the expressive-emotional style of the XIV-XV centuries, the Baroque style of the second half of the XVII century, etc.). Nobody today will be surprised by the expressions “style of play”, “lifestyle”, “style of leadership”, “style of work”, “style of building”, “style of furniture”, etc., and every time, along with a generalizing cultural meaning, a specific evaluative meaning is put into these stable formulas (for example, "I prefer this style of clothing" - as opposed to others, etc.).

Style in literature is a functionally applied set of means of expression arising from the knowledge of the general laws of reality, implemented by the ratio of all elements of the poetics of a work in order to create a unique artistic impression.