Post on the history of classicism. Classicism as a literary movement

Classicism is a trend, a trend in European culture and art, which arose simultaneously with the Baroque trend in the 17th century, however, it existed much longer. The era of classicism will end in the 19th century.

Classicism as a style and direction arose on the basis of the cult of reason and rationality. It is necessary in life to be guided not by a storm of feelings, but by rationality, a certain set of rules - this is the credo of classicism. Faithful, correct, intelligent behavior will lead to success and happiness - says the philosophy of the culture of classicism. It is not for nothing that the representatives of the classicism style in culture and art are called idealists - they are. The noble ideal of the infallible human personality and the ideal of a just world of the classicists are often more interesting than the real world. In addition, the classicists believe that this ideal can be achieved.

Architecture of classicism

We recall that classicism as a style and trend in culture arose on the ruins of the ideals of the Renaissance. Man as a being and a world phenomenon did not turn out to be an omnipotent "king of nature." The classicists agree that both the world and the person must become better. Therefore, they strive to recreate it in such a way, "without fear and reproach," in literature. As a role model the classicists turn to the culture of antiquity. They borrow ancient plots and creations, rework them. Both in literature and in architecture and in painting.

So, the example of the best architectural forms for classicism is the forms of architecture of antiquity, and it is they that the architects of classicism are striving to recreate. These forms are symmetrical, majestic, simple and austere, with a minimum of decoration, in contrast to the ornate baroque style.

Another distinctive feature of the classicism style is the monumentality of its architecture. It is not for nothing that the best temples of Ancient Greece (for example, the legendary Parthenon) and Ancient Rome (for example, the column of Emperor Trajan) were taken as a model for the creations of classicism architecture.

An example of classicism architecture in Europe is the famous old church of Sainte-Genevieve des Bois in Paris. In Russia, this is the magnificent Pashkov House in Moscow, the entire architectural ensemble in Tsarskoye Selo, the famous architectural ensemble of the Main Admiralty in St. Petersburg on the Neva, the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg.

Literature of classicism - everything on the shelves

In the literature of classicism, the mixing of genres is strictly prohibited. All genres of literature are conventionally divided into high and low. The first include odes and tragedies. To the second - comedies, farces, madrigals, fables, any satirical works. So, God forbid, to mix in one work elements of speech and style of a high genre, for example, tragic, and low, for example, comedic. This is unacceptable for a classicist writer. Classicism, for example, does not recognize tragicomedies.

Outstanding representatives of the literature of classicism in European literature, these are the French playwright Pierre Corneille (known primarily for the authorship of tragedies), the novelist Voltaire, the fabulist Jacques La Fontaine, the playwright Jean-Baptiste Moliere, the English satirist Jonathan Swift, and another French tragedian playwright Racine. More often, the name of Racine, due to the similarity of the principles and results of creativity, the history of literature puts with the name of Pierre Corneille, his brother in tragic creativity.

In Russia, famous classicists are Mikhail Lomonosov as a poet of the “high genre”, Gavrilo Derzhavin as his brother in “high style”, also Denis Fonvizin as a comedic playwright, Antioch Cantemir as a social satirist.

Classicism music - clarity and restraint

A rare expression - "cold music" would be the best fit to the style of classicism in music. The fathers of the classics in general - Austrian great composers and virtuoso pianists Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven are classicists in style. Their music is measured, ordered, laconic. Their principles of creativity significantly influenced subsequent generations of composers, regardless of the styles and directions of creativity of these composers, the significance of these two names of creators in music is so great. The music of the composition of Mozart and Beethoven began to be considered the standard of harmony and masterpiece of musical creativity in general.

Let's return to the description of the music of classicism. Decorations such as ornamentation are present in it, but they are dosed. Long and drawn-out, pretentious and chaotic improvisations are elements of the Baroque style, but not classicism. You will not find such musical "toys" among the classicists. Smoothness and the maximum possible calmness, the absence of sudden jumps and transitions in the mood of the music - this is an additional credo of the classicists in the composition.

Another outstanding representative of the classicism direction in music is the Hungarian composer and virtuoso of musical performance Joseph Haydn.

Classicist music flourished in the 18th century. In late music, classicism, at the very beginning of the 19th century, more and more motives of spiritual, religious quest are heard. The dispassionate rationality of the classicism style is boring - and the culture of Europe is increasingly turning to soulfulness, to the soul, to feelings. The era of classicism is being replaced by the era of romanticism with its cult of sensuality and stormy passions.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which found a vivid expression in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and consistency of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art (Aristotle, Horace), taking it as an ideal aesthetic model, the "golden age".

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calm", which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are devoid of individual traits, since they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic signs that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been in the focus of attention of Russian classicist writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that presuppose a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D.I.Fonvizin), satire (A.D. Kantemir), fable (A.P. Sumarokov, I.I. (Lomonosov, G.R.Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes "Anacreontic songs" as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities.

The originality of Russian classicism

Classicism on Russian soil from the moment of its inception was marked by features of originality: this was especially clearly manifested in the work of Lomonosov with his craving for baroque hyperbolism, saturation with the power and intensity of thought and feeling that went beyond the rationalism of the 17th-18th centuries. In the later period, Sumarokov's classicism acquires a greater affinity with other European national versions of it.

The political ideology of Peter's time, based, on the one hand, on the fundamental principles of the preceding Russian literature - its journalism, civic spirit, patriotic pathos, thus turns out to be connected with national cultural traditions; on the other hand, it is affirmed on the philosophical foundations of European educational thought of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. and finds expression in the artistic system of classicism. Therefore, already in the period of early formation, Russian classicism had a number of significant differences with European, in particular French, classicism. The most prominent French poet-satirist N. Boileau, the author of "Poetic Art" - the theoretical code of classicism, was sharply hostile to all forms of the national poetic tradition, considering it a manifestation of the "plebeian" principle that he hated. In creating new literature, the French classicists relied on ancient art. Unlike European classicism, which deliberately cultivated the rationalistic art of the educated classes of society and deliberately repulsed from contact with the basically “unreasonable” creativity of the masses, Russian classicism proceeded from other positions on the issue of the previous national culture.

Interest in their own "antiquity" - ancient Russian literature and culture was a characteristic feature of the emerging new Russian literature. And this feature of early classicism determined the uniqueness of the further development of Russian literature. For all the complexity of the movement of the historical and literary process of the 18th century. the appeal of writers to national themes, to the artistic traditions of Ancient Rus played a role in the formation of the ideological and stylistic features of the works of Russian literature of various literary trends. At the same time, already in the 18th century. the name of Peter I began to be associated with the "suppression" of national traditions in culture and literature, because his reforms were a sharp "leap" towards European education and a complete distance from national culture

The dynamism and purposefulness in the implementation of cultural and educational transformations bequeathed by the Peter's era determined the accelerated pace of development of Russian literature. The process of establishing the aesthetic doctrine of classicism on Russian soil, which took place during the 1730s and 1750s, was also marked by the intensity of searches. Russian authors, laying the foundations for a new secular literature, had to solve several problems simultaneously. Suffice it to point out that by the time A.D. Kantemir, following Boileau, wrote his first satires, and V.K. Trediakovsky, also imitating Boileau, wrote "A solemn ode on the surrender of the city of Gdansk" (1734), a system of Russian versification continued to preserve alien to the laws of its language, transferred back in the 17th century. from neighboring Poland the rules of the syllabic verse.

The system of syllabic versification, based on the requirement for the quantitative coincidence of syllables in each verse, corresponds to the nature of languages ​​with a fixed stress, such as Polish or French. The constancy of stress ensures the rhythm of the verses due to the repetition in each of them of an equal number of syllables. The principled heterogeneity of syllables in the words of the Russian language made the syllabic principle alien to Russian poetry. The rhythm in Russian verse, as it was already recorded in folk songs, was provided not quantitatively, but due to repetitions of intonationally selected segments of words, that is, due to taking into account the repetition of stressed syllables. The creation of a new literature was impossible without a qualitative transformation of the outdated system of syllabic versification, which contradicted the properties of the Russian national language. All the major Russian authors of that time understood this.

And we see how Trediakovsky, Kantemir and Lomonosov consistently turn to the problem of ordering Russian verse. All of them write theoretical treatises in which they offer specific solutions to the problem. It is significant how the ideas of each of them demonstrate a different degree of dependence on the traditions from which they start, and a different understanding of the tasks that have been set by time for Russian literature. If Kantemir did not go further than improving the syllabic verse, then Trediakovsky was the first in his treatise to proclaim the principle of tonic versification as the most widespread in Russian folk songs and therefore natural for national poetry (A New and Short Way to Composing Russian Poems, 1735). But he also stopped halfway, essentially limiting himself to toning up the syllabic and introducing the concept of a foot as a metric indicator for Russian verse. A student of the Sorbonne, translator of P. Talman's gallant novel "Riding to the Island of Love", Trediakovsky in his poetic innovations proceeded from the functional comprehension of lyric poetry in its singing existence. Hence their preference for choreic size and rejection of iambic. The half-heartedness of Trediakovsky's reform was also reflected in the rejection of the principle of alternation of male and female rhymes in favor of the retained connection with the syllabic female rhyme.

The provisions of Trediakovsky's treatise were developed and supplemented in his own way by Lomonosov in his "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry" (1739). Lomonosov wrote his letter while studying in Germany. This circumstance played a certain positive role in his theoretical searches. The freedom inherent in the German language in the distribution of stress between syllables brought the versification possibilities of German verse closer to Russian. Acquaintance with the theoretical works of IK Gotshed, combined with a keen sense of the needs of national literature dictated by the time, helped Lomonosov overcome the one-sidedness of the reform proposed by his predecessor.

Lomonosov emerged victorious in a dispute with Trediakovsky, for with his odes he practically proved the advantages of his position. The structure of the iambic verse, which Lomonosov approved in the ode genre, gravitated towards the narrative, oratorical element, provided the best opportunities for turning this genre, panegyric by its nature, into a tribune of public opinion. And this was the historical merit of Lomonosov.

In parallel with the reform of Russian versification, Lomonosov and his contemporaries had to solve another important task - to develop the foundations of a new Russian literary language. The old times have left Church Slavonic as a book language for the new era. It was the language of "school drama", syllabic verses and sermons of F. Prokopovich. The influence of the norms of this language system is felt both in the satire of Cantemir and in the works of Trediakovsky. But already Trediakovsky himself, in his very first translation of P. Talman's love story in 1730, recognizes the need to bring the literary language closer to common colloquial speech. In his treatise on versification and a number of other works, Trediakovsky examines the formation of literary norms of the Russian language and its place among the languages ​​of other peoples (for example, his "Speech on the Purity of the Russian Language", 1735, or "A Conversation Between a Stranger and a Russian and new and about everything that belongs to this matter ”, 1748).

The most capital contribution in this area belonged to Lomonosov. The works he created on Russian eloquence (two versions of "Rhetoric") and "Russian grammar" did not lose their significance throughout the entire 18th century. And his small in volume, but fundamentally important in content, "Preface on the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language" (1757) contained a coherent theory that streamlined the relationship of the style complexes of the Russian language of that time in various literary genres.

The fact that the issues of versification and the development of the norms of the literary language occupied a dominant position during the formation of classicism in Russia finds its confirmation in the specific forms of literary criticism of those years. Critical articles by Trediakovsky or Sumarokov, almost always polemical, are full of reproaches and accusations, denouncing their opponents of ignorance of the laws of logic and grammar, in violation of the norms of natural usage, inattentive attitude to the sound of poetry. Questions of theory and questions of poetic practice were so closely merged that sometimes the creative act itself turned into an excuse to prove the correctness of a particular concept. We find clear confirmation of this in the well-known competition of 1743, when three major poets - Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and Sumarokov - performed poetic transcriptions of one Psalm 143, each demonstrating the possibilities of the system of versification he defended.

In a similar atmosphere, the formation of the artistic system of classicism on Russian soil took place. By the time Sumarokov spoke with his "epistols", many of the difficulties were already over. And, however, even for Sumarokov, the question of creating a poetic Russian language continues to remain relevant:

We need such a language as the Greeks had,

What the Romans had and, following them in that,

As Italy and Rome now say,

How beautiful French has become in the past century,

Or, finally, say what a Russian is capable of! -

exclaims Sumarokov in epistle 1, dedicated to the Russian language.

It is noteworthy that the content of this epistle does not match with what is discussed in Boileau's poetic treatise. And this is no coincidence. Questions of the formation of the literary language were at the time of the heyday of French classicism in the 17th century. the passed stage. For Russian literature, in the context of the formation of classicism, the relevance of this issue was especially obvious. In the first of Sumarokov's two epistles, a problem is put forward that was posed in French literature back in the 16th century. by the poet of the Pleiades du Bellay in the first part of his famous treatise "Defense and glorification of the French language" ("La defense et illustration de la langue française", 1549). Polemically directed against the blind enthusiasm for the then fashionable Italian elegant poetry cultivated at court and against the orthodox guardians of the Sorbonne's Latin education, Du Bellay's treatise was permeated with the patriotic idea of ​​defending the merits of the French common language. "... I do not consider our national language in its current state as low and despicable as the arrogant admirers of the Greek and Latin languages ​​portray it, ... believing that good can only be said in a foreign language, incomprehensible to the people," he declares in Chapter IV 1st book of his treatise. Du Bellay sees the way of enriching his native language in studying with ancient ancient authors. The ultimate goal of imitation of the ancients should be, according to Du Bellay, a noble desire to surpass them. And he is full of faith in the attainability of the goal.

The patriotic pathos that determined the mentality of the creators of the new Russian culture is easily explained by the atmosphere of social upsurge in the 1730s and 1750s.

The fundamental difference between the process of the formation of Russian classicism from French was that its creators had to deal with the solution of such problems that in France by the beginning of the 17th century, that is, by the time of the establishment of classicism there, were basically solved. For Boileau, in his "Poetic Art" the countdown begins with the poetry of F. Malerba. A representative of the culture of the brilliant century of Louis XIV, who deliberately instilled the refined taste of the literary educated elite, Boileau is far from the democracy that was visible in the theoretical reasoning of his predecessors. For him, the patriotic pathos that permeates Du Bellay's arguments about the French literary language does not seem relevant either.

The theorist of Russian classicism Sumarokov, following Boileau in the regulation of certain genres, proceeds from fundamentally different premises in understanding the functions of literature. For Sumarokov and his contemporaries, the creation of new literature was always perceived as inextricably linked with the solution of specific practical problems, in line with the approval of those new forms of social life that were established in Russia as a result of the reforms of Peter I.

More about the originality of Russian classicism:

Russian classicism arose in similar historical conditions - its prerequisite was the strengthening of autocratic statehood and the national self-determination of Russia since the era of Peter I. Europeanism of the ideology of Peter's reforms aimed Russian culture at mastering the achievements of European cultures. But at the same time, Russian classicism arose almost a century later than French: by the middle of the 18th century, when Russian classicism was just beginning to gain strength, in France it reached the second stage of its existence. The so-called "enlightenment classicism" - a combination of classicistic creative principles with the pre-revolutionary ideology of the Enlightenment - flourished in the works of Voltaire in French literature and acquired an anticlerical, socially critical pathos: a few decades before the Great French Revolution, the times of apology for absolutism were already a distant history. Russian classicism, due to its strong connection with secular cultural reform, firstly, initially set itself educational tasks, trying to educate its readers and instruct monarchs on the path of public good, and secondly, it acquired the status of a leading trend in Russian literature towards at the time when Peter I was no longer alive, and the fate of his cultural reforms was jeopardized in the second half of the 1720s - 1730s. Therefore, Russian classicism begins "not with the fruit of the spring - an ode, but with the fruit of the autumn - satire," and socially critical pathos is characteristic of it from the very beginning.

Russian classicism also reflected a completely different type of conflict than Western European classicism. If in French classicism the socio-political beginning is only the soil on which the psychological conflict of reasonable and unreasonable passion develops and the process of free and conscious choice between their decrees is carried out, then in Russia, with its traditionally anti-democratic collegiality and the absolute power of society over the individual, the matter was completely otherwise. For the Russian mentality, which had just begun to comprehend the ideology of personalism, the need for the humility of the individual in front of society, the personality in front of the authorities was not at all such a tragedy as it was for the Western worldview. The choice, which is relevant for the European consciousness as an opportunity to prefer one thing, in Russian conditions turned out to be imaginary, its outcome was predetermined in favor of society. Therefore, the very situation of choice in Russian classicism has lost its conflict-forming function, and another has come to replace it.

The central problem of Russian life in the 18th century. there was a problem of power and its continuity: not a single Russian emperor after the death of Peter I and before the accession of Paul I in 1796 came to power in a legal way. XVIII century - this is an age of intrigues and palace coups, which too often led to the absolute and uncontrolled power of people who did not correspond not only to the ideal of an enlightened monarch, but also to the idea of ​​the role of the monarch in the state. Therefore, Russian classical literature immediately took a political and didactic direction and reflected this problem as the main tragic dilemma of the era - the discrepancy between the ruler and the autocrat's duties, the conflict between experiencing power as an egoistic personal passion with the idea of ​​power exercised for the benefit of his subjects.

Thus, the Russian classicist conflict, while retaining the situation of a choice between rational and unreasonable passion as an external plot drawing, was fully realized as a socio-political in nature. The positive hero of Russian classicism does not humble his individual passion in the name of the common good, but insists on his natural rights, defending his personalism from tyrannical encroachments. And the most important thing is that this national specificity of the method was well understood by the writers themselves: if the plots of French classicistic tragedies were drawn mainly from ancient mythology and history, then Sumarokov wrote his tragedies on the subjects of Russian chronicles and even on the subjects of not so distant Russian history.

Finally, another specific feature of Russian classicism was that it did not rely on such a rich and continuous tradition of national literature as any other national European variety of method. What any European literature had at the time of the emergence of the theory of classicism - namely, a literary language with an ordered style system, the principles of versification, a defined system of literary genres - all this had to be created in Russian. Therefore, in Russian classicism, literary theory has outstripped literary practice. The normative acts of Russian classicism - the reform of versification, the reform of style and the regulation of the genre system - were implemented between the mid-1730s and the end of the 1740s. - that is, basically before a full-fledged literary process unfolded in Russia in the mainstream of classicist aesthetics.

Classicism is a literary style that was developed in France in the 17th century. It spread to Europe in the 17th and 19th centuries. The movement, which turned to antiquity as an ideal model, is closely related to. Based on the ideas of rationalism and rationality, it strove to express social content, to establish a hierarchy of literary genres. Speaking about the world representatives of classicism, one cannot fail to mention Racine, Moliere, Corneille, La Rochefoucauld, Boileau, La Bruyre, Goethe. Mondori, Lekin, Rachelle, Talma, Dmitrievsky were imbued with the ideas of classicism.

The desire to display the ideal in the real, the eternal in the temporal - this is a characteristic feature of classicism. In literature, not a specific character is created, but a collective image of a hero or a villain, or a base one. In classicism, a mixture of genres, images and characters is unacceptable. There are boundaries here that no one is allowed to break.

Classicism in Russian literature is a certain stage in art, which attached special importance to such genres as ode and tragedy. Lomonosov is rightfully considered the founder of the tragedy - Sumarokov. The ode combined journalism and lyrics. Comedies were directly related to ancient times, while tragedies were about the figures of Russian history. Speaking about the great Russian figures of the period of classicism, it is worth mentioning Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Sumarokov, Volkov, Fonvizin, etc.

Classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century, as well as in French, was based on the position of the tsarist power. As they said, art should guard the interests of society, give people a certain idea of ​​civic behavior and morality. The ideas of serving the state and society are consonant with the interests of the monarchy, therefore classicism has become widespread throughout Europe and in Russia. But one should not associate it only with the ideas of glorifying the power of monarchs, Russian writers reflected in their works the interests of the "middle" stratum.

Classicism in Russian literature. The main signs

The basic ones include:

• appeal to antiquity, its various forms and images;
• the principle of the unity of time, action and place (one storyline prevails, the action lasts up to 1 day);
• in the comedies of classicism, good triumphs over evil, vices are punished, the love line is based on a triangle;
• the characters have “speaking” names and surnames, they themselves have a clear division into positive and negative.

Going deeper into history, it is worth remembering that the era of classicism in Russia originates from the writer who was the first to write works in this genre (epigrams, satire, etc.). Each of the writers and poets of this era was a pioneer in their field. Lomonosov played the main role in the reform of the literary Russian language. At the same time, a reform of versification took place.

According to V.I. Fedorov, the first preconditions for the emergence of classicism in Russia appeared at the time of Peter the Great (in 1689-1725). As a genre of literature, the classicism style took shape by the mid-1730s. Its rapid development took place in the second half of the 60s. There is a dawn of journalistic genres in periodicals. It had already evolved by 1770, but the crisis began in the last quarter of a century. By that time, sentimentalism had finally taken shape, and the tendencies of realism had intensified. The final fall of classicism took place after the publication of "Conversations of lovers of the Russian word."

Classicism in Russian literature of the 30-50s also influenced the development of the sciences of the Enlightenment. At this time, there was a transition from a church ideology to a secular one. Russia needed knowledge and new minds. All this gave her classicism.

Classicism as a trend in art originated in France at the end of the 17th century. In his treatise "Poetic Art" Boileau outlined the basic principles of this literary movement. He believed that a literary work is created not by feelings, but by reason; classicism is generally characterized by the cult of reason, caused by the conviction that only an enlightened monarchy, absolute power, can change life for the better. Just as in the state there should be a strict and clear hierarchy of all branches of government, so in literature (and in art) everything should be subject to uniform rules and strict order.

Translated from Latin, classicus means exemplary or first-class. Ancient culture and literature were a model for classicist writers. The French classics, having studied the poetics of Aristotle, determined the rules of their works, which they subsequently adhered to, and this became the basis for the formation of the main genres of classicism.

Classification of genres in classicism

Classicism is characterized by a strict division of genres of literature into high and low.

• Oda is a work that glorifies and praises in poetic form;
• Tragedy is a dramatic work with a harsh ending;
• The heroic epic is a narrative story about the events of the past, which shows the whole picture of time as a whole.

The heroes of such works could only be great people: kings, princes, generals, noble nobles who devote their lives to serving the fatherland. In the first place they have not personal feelings, but a civic duty.

Low genres:

• Comedy is a dramatic work that ridicules the vices of society or a person;
• Satire is a kind of comedy characterized by its sharpness of narration;
• A fable is an instructive satirical work.

The heroes of these works were not only representatives of the nobility, but also commoners, servants.

Each genre had its own rules of writing, its own style (the theory of three styles), it was not allowed to mix high and low, tragic and comic.

The students of the French classics, diligently adopting their norms, spread classicism throughout Europe. The most prominent foreign representatives are: Moliere, Voltaire, Milton, Corneille and others.

The main features of classicism

• The classicist authors drew inspiration from the literature and art of ancient times, from the works of Horace, Aristotle, thus imitation of nature was at the core.
• The works were built on the principles of rationalism. Clarity, clarity and consistency are also characteristic features.
• The construction of images is conditioned by common features for time or epoch. Thus, each character is a thoughtful personification of a period of time or a segment of society.
• A clear division of heroes into positive and negative. Each hero embodies some one basic trait: nobility, wisdom or stinginess, meanness. Often heroes have “speaking” surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin.
• Strict adherence to the hierarchy of genres. Matching the style to the genre, avoiding mixing different styles.
• Compliance with the rule of "three unity": place, time and action. All events take place in one place. The unity of time means that all events fit into a period of no more than a day. And the action - the plot was limited to one line, one problem in question.

Features of Russian classicism

Like European, Russian classicism adhered to the basic rules of direction. However, he did not just become a follower of Western classicism - having supplemented with his national spirit of originality, Russian classicism became an independent trend in fiction with its inherent features and characteristics:

The satirical direction - such genres as comedy, fable and satire, telling about specific phenomena of Russian life (satire of Kantemir, for example, "On blasphemous doctrine. To their minds", Krylov's fables);

• The classicist authors, instead of antiquity, took as a basis the national-historical images of Russia (the tragedies of Sumarokov "Dmitry the Pretender", "Mstislav", Knyazhnina "Rosslav", "Vadim Novgorodsky");
• The presence of patriotic pathos in all works of this time;
• High level of development of odes as a separate genre (odes by Lomonosov, Derzhavin).

The founder of Russian classicism is considered to be A.D. Kantemir with his famous satyrs, who had political overtones and more than once became the cause of fierce disputes.

V.K.Trediakovsky was not particularly distinguished in the artistry of works, but he had many works in the literary direction in general. He is the author of such concepts as "prose" and "poetry". It was he who conditionally divided the works into two parts and was able to give them definitions, substantiated the system of syllabo-tonic versification.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered the founder of the drama of Russian classicism. He is considered the "father of Russian theater" and the creator of the national theatrical repertoire of that time.

One of the brightest representatives of Russian classicism is M.V. Lomonosov. In addition to his enormous scientific contribution, Mikhail Vasilyevich carried out a reform of the Russian language and created the doctrine of the "three calm".

DI Fonvizin is considered the creator of Russian everyday comedy. His works "Brigadier" and "Minor" still have not lost their value and are studied in the school curriculum.

GR Derzhavin is one of the last major representatives of Russian classicism. In his works, he was able to inscribe vernacular in strict rules, thereby expanding the framework of classicism. He is also considered the first Russian poet.

The main periods of Russian classicism

There are several divisions into the periods of Russian classicism, but, summarizing, they can be reduced to the main three:

1. 90 years of the XVII century - 20 years of the XVIII century. Also called the Peter's era. During this period, as such, there are no Russian works, but translated literature is actively developing. This is where Russian classicism originates as a result of read translated works from Europe. (F. Prokopovich)
2. 30-50 years of the XVII century - a bright splash of classicism. There is a clear genre formation, as well as reforms in the Russian language and versification. (V. K. Trediakovsky, A. P. Sumarokov, M. V. Lomonosov)
3. 60-90 years of the XVIII century is also called the Catherine era or the Age of Enlightenment. The main one is classicism, however, at the same time, the emergence of sentimentalism is already observed. (D.I.Fonvizin, G.R.Derzhavin, N.M. Karamzin).

Russian classicism in literature, music, architecture

Russian classicism in literature

Classicism became the leading trend in Russian literature in the 18th century and is associated with the names of M. Lomonosov, A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin. The following genre forms are characteristic of classicism: ode, tragedy, poem, comedy, poetic satire, fable, elegy. Classicism, as a literary movement, originated in Italy in the middle of the 16th century. In the 17th century, he received full artistic expression in France in the works of Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine.

In general, European classicism is inextricably linked with the era of absolutism. The peculiarity of Russian classicism lies in the fact that it developed in the era of the formation of national statehood. This had a serious impact on literature, which became the most important vehicle for affirming ideas of citizenship.

Antiochus Cantemir (1708-1744) is considered the first representative of Russian classicism in literature. He became the founder of satire in Russia and the predecessor of D.I.Fonvizin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol. Defending Peter's reforms, Cantemir opposed the reactionary nobility and clergy.

Another representative of classicism in Russian literature is V.K.Trediakovsky (1703-1768). He was the first Russian professor, completed his education at the Sorbonne. Trediakovsky wrote poems, odes, tragedies, fables, elegies. One of his main achievements was the reform of versification. MV Lomonosov (1711-1765) Belinsky called "Peter the Great of our literature." This outstanding person showed himself in various fields of scientific knowledge. At the same time, Lomonosov was a poet and philologist. He completed the reform of versification, laid the foundation for the formation of the Russian literary language and created the genre of the Russian ode.

A.P. Sumarokov (1718-1777) set as his task the education of the nobility, the establishment of civic ideals in it. He wrote, for the most part, tragedies. The listed writers belong to the first period in the development of Russian classicism (30-50s of the 18th century). Their work is united by the desire to solve national problems: the development of education and science, the creation of literature and the national language.

The second period of development of classicism in Russian literature falls on the end of the 18th century and is associated with the names of D.I.Fonvizin, G.R.Derzhavin, Ya.B. Knyazhnin and others.DI Fonvizin (1745-1792) became famous for two comedies: "Brigadier" and "Minor". In his work, he turned to the negative aspects of Russian life and subjected them to sharp criticism. The largest representative of high poetry was G.R.Derzhavin (1743-1816). He worked in a wide variety of genres, but his most famous were his odes, combining lyrics with satire.

Ya. B. Knyazhnin (1742-1791) became famous for his comedies and the tragedy "Vadim Novgorodsky", which proclaims the heroic image of a citizen. On the whole, the second stage is characterized by civic motives that acquire a social connotation and a critical perception of Russian reality. The third stage in the development of Russian classicism in literature takes the first third of the 19th century. It is associated with the names of A.S. Shishkov, A.S. Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, A.N. Gruzintsev. During this period, classicism began to be supplanted by romanticism. Heavy odes and tragedies look outdated and out of date.

Russian classicism in architecture

In the history of Russian architecture, the period of classicism dates back to 1760-1820. In this area of ​​art, such signs of classicism as the cult of reason and ideal order and admiration for ancient models were very clearly manifested. Classicism in architecture became a natural stage in the end of the era of Peter's transformations and the rejection of the plastic redundancy of the Baroque.

The transition to classicism in architecture was based on the state structure of the Russian Empire, in which "enlightened absolutism" was proclaimed. Two state acts of Catherine II were of great importance. The reform of the administrative structure laid the foundation for city self-government. This led to the emergence of new types of public buildings: courts, treasuries, noble and merchant assemblies, etc.

The decree of 1763 provided for the preparation of "special plans" for urban development. Chaotic urban development gave way to clear planning. The flourishing of Russian culture led to the massive construction of theaters, museums and libraries. A characteristic feature of Russian architecture was that the state was always the customer of large-scale construction. All the drawings of the epoch invariably contain the inscription of the emperor (empress): "Be according to this." The construction of palaces, estates, museums is often carried out on the personal orders of the imperial family. The construction of outstanding architectural monuments was also often initiated by wealthy nobles: the Yusupovs, Golitsyns, Sheremetevs. Medium and small landowners could not use the services of famous architects. Nevertheless, equipping their estates, they imitated the general style of the era.

The merchants and industrialists in construction also lean towards classicism, thanks to the common sense and direct calculation proclaimed by them. The architecture of Russian classicism establishes a new system of values. "Enlightened monarchy" is identified with dignity and order. The "noble simplicity" rises to the same level with pomp and splendor. The successes of the Russian army in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. lead to the fact that in architecture there are invariably military plots designed to emphasize the importance of military valor.

Thanks to the development of education in Russia, a huge interest in ancient history is awakening. The art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome becomes a role model, which inevitably finds expression in Russian architecture. Antiquity arouses admiration both among the hardened serf-owners and among the representatives of the educated nobility. Three periods can be distinguished in the development of the architecture of classicism in Russia: "early", "strict" and "high" classicism. The early period is characterized by the preservation of the influence of the Baroque style, which is steadily declining. This period falls on the reign of Catherine II and is associated with the names of Rinaldi, V. Bazhenov, D. Quarenghi, M. Kazakov and others.

The first third of the 19th century is the period of "strict" classicism, which is often referred to as "empire". Russian architecture is guided by French designs. It is designed to highlight the power of the Russian Empire in every possible way. Among the architects of this period are K. Rossi, A. Zakharov, A. Voronikhin and others. The second third of the 19th century is "late" or "Nikolaev" classicism, which is characterized by official or "state" buildings. This period is represented by the names of V. Beretti, A. Melnikov and others.

Russian classicism in painting

In the 18th century, the nature of Russian painting changed significantly. In the Middle Ages, she was completely under the influence of the church. Artists were required to depict only God and the saints. In general, icon painting prevailed. The Age of Enlightenment freed the painters from this and turned their attention to man. Portrait painting is beginning to be very popular.

In the spirit of classicism, the so-called. ceremonial and allegorical portraits. The former are characterized by the image of a man in a proud pose reflecting his greatness (portrait of A. B. Kurakin, artist V. L. Borovikovsky). In an allegorical portrait, a person appeared in the image of an ancient deity or hero. The most striking example is DG Levitsky's painting "Catherine II - the Legislator", in which the Empress is depicted in the image of Themis, the goddess of justice.

The borrowing of European achievements, begun by Peter, allowed Russian artists to turn to new genres (landscape, still life) and master new techniques: chiaroscuro, linear and aerial perspective, oil painting. Classicism left the most noticeable trace in Russian historical painting. Artists took subjects for paintings from ancient history and mythology, which is considered a role model.

One of the most striking examples is the painting by A. Losenko "Hector's Farewell to Andromache". The scene was not chosen by chance: Hector appears as a real citizen and patriot, for whom the public good is in the first place. One of the outstanding artists of the era of classicism was I.N. Nikitin (1690-1742), who was the first to turn to portrait painting. The most famous work of the master is the portrait of Chancellor GI Golovkin. He also owns the famous painting "Peter I on his deathbed".

A.P. Antropov (1716-1795) is known for two ceremonial portraits of Peter III. A.P. Losenko (1737-1773) is considered the founder of Russian historical painting. His most famous canvases are "Vladimir and Rogneda" (for this picture the artist received the title of professor at the Academy of Arts) and "Hector's Farewell to Andromache".

Russian classicism in music

Russian music has remained dependent on the church longer than other areas of art. Church music until the end of the 18th century remained the only form of creativity for Russian composers. At the same time, foreign musicians coming to Russia did not pay any attention to the established national musical traditions. This led to the fact that Russian music was "late" in the transition to classicism.

During the formation of the national school of composition (the last third of the 18th century), classicism was already beginning to lose its position in art. Therefore, in Russian music, classicism did not become the dominant direction, there was a mixture and mutual influence of various styles. The most famous Russian composers of this era include D. S. Bortyansky, V. A. Pashkevich, E. I. Fomin, in whose work elements of classical imagery are noticeable.

Fomin's Orpheus has become a unique work in which classicism is combined with pre-romantic and sentimental elements. Bortyansky's music contains harmony, completeness and balance of form inherent in classicism. But at the same time, classical severity is organically combined with romantic passion and sensitive tones, akin to sentimentalism.

Russian music of the late 18th century was generally at the level of "early" European classicism. At this time, symphonism was already dominating in Europe, as the leading method of artistic generalization in music. Russian composers were just beginning to master this method. The main feature of the work of Russian composers of the second half of the 18th century is the preservation of national characteristics with an active perception of European norms of musical thinking.

The most important achievement of this period was the formation of the Russian school of composition, which manifested itself in opera, in monumental choral music and in chamber genres.

• The invasion of classicism into architecture is vividly illustrated by the failure of the famous architect Rastrelli. In 1757 he designed the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg in the Baroque style. But the construction was completed at the request of the merchants in the spirit of "simpler" (that is, cheaper) classicism according to the project of J.-B. Wallen-Delamotte.
• The window to Europe "cut through" by Peter I could not limit the traditional unlimited character of the tsarist power.
• In 1732, IN Nikitin, who is considered the main artist of Russia, was accused of "malicious intent" against F. Prokopovich. Together with his brother, he spent five years in the Peter and Paul Fortress, and then was exiled to Tobolsk.
• One of the outstanding Russian architects of classicism, V.I.Bazhenov, was awarded a business trip abroad for his successes. In France, his talent was appreciated: Louis XV invited Bazhenov to become the architect of the French court. The architect refused, explaining this in one phrase: "I cannot live without my homeland."