Classicism in literature, the time of existence. Prevailing and trendy colors

Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) - the artistic style of European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on traditions high Renaissance... The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but in many respects lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. Conflicts of personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. Artistic forms classicism is characterized by strict organization, poise, clarity and harmony of images.

Classicism is associated with the Enlightenment, based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the reasonable laws of the world. In accordance with the lofty ethical ideas, the educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - "high" (tragedy, epic, ode, history, mythology, religious painting etc.) and "low" (comedy, satire, fable, conversation piece etc.). In literature (the tragedies of P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, the comedies of Moliere, the poem "Poetic Art" and satire by N. Boileau, the fables of J. La Fontaine, the prose of F. Larochefoucauld, J. La Bruyere in France, the work of the Weimar period of I.V. Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, odes by M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin, the tragedy of A.P. Sumarokov and Y.B. Knyazhnin in Russia), significant ethical conflicts and normative typified images play a leading role. For theatrical art(Mondori, Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Lekin, F.J. Talma, Rachelle in France, F.K. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. static structure of performances, measured reading of poetry.

The main features of Russian classicism: appeal to the images and forms of ancient art; heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative; the plot is based, as a rule, on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover; at the end of the classic comedy, vice is always punished, and good triumphs; the principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action. For example, you can cite Fonvizin's comedy "The Minor". In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement main idea classicism - to re-educate the world with a reasonable word. Goodies They talk a lot about morality, life at court, the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters become an illustration of inappropriate behavior. Behind the clash of personal interests are visible public positions heroes.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, coming from the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and consistency of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism gives great value social educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

In literature, classicism originated and became widespread in France in the 17th century. Nicolas Boileau is considered the theorist of classicism, who formed the basic principles of the style in the article "Poetic Art". The name comes from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary, which emphasizes the artistic basis of the style - the images and forms of antiquity, which began to have a special interest at the end of the Renaissance. The emergence of classicism is associated with the formation of the principles of a centralized state and the ideas of "enlightened" absolutism in it.

Classicism praises the concept of reason, believing that only with the help of the mind it is possible to obtain and order the picture of the world. Therefore, the main thing in the work becomes its idea (that is, the main idea and the form of the work should be in harmony), and the main thing in the conflict of reason and feelings is reason and duty.

The basic principles of classicism, characteristic of both foreign and domestic literature:

• Forms and images from antique (ancient Greek and ancient Roman) literature: tragedy, ode, comedy, epic, poetic odic and satirical forms.
• A clear division of genres into "high" and "low". The "high" are ode, tragedy and epic, the "low", as a rule, funny - comedy, satire, fable.
• A distinctive division of heroes into good and bad.
• Compliance with the principle of the trinity of time, place, action.

Classicism in Russian literature

XVIII century

In Russia, classicism appeared much later than in European states, since it was "brought" along with European works and education. The existence of a style on Russian soil is customary to fit into the following framework:

1. The end of the 1720s, the literature of Peter's time, secular literature, which differs from the church literature that had previously dominated in Russia.

The style began to develop first in translated, then in original works. The names of A.D. Kantemir, A.P. Sumarokov and V.K. Trediakovsky (reformers and developers literary language, they worked on poetic forms - on odes and satyrs).

1. 1730-1770 - the heyday of the style and its evolution. Associated with the name of M. V. Lomonosov, who wrote tragedies, odes, poems.
2. The last quarter of the 18th century is the appearance of sentimentalism and the beginning of the crisis of classicism. The time of late classicism is associated with the name of DI Fonvizin, the author of tragedies, dramas and comedies; G.R.Derzhavin (poetic forms), A.N. Radishchev (prose and poetic works).

(A. N. Radishchev, D. I. Fonvizin, P. Ya. Chaadaev)

DI Fonvizin and AN Radishchev became not only developers, but also destroyers of the stylistic unity of classicism: Fonvizin in comedies violates the principle of trinity, introduces ambiguity in the assessment of heroes. Radishchev becomes a harbinger and developer of sentimentalism, providing psychologism to the narrative, rejecting its conventions.

(Representatives of classicism)

19th century

It is believed that classicism existed by inertia until the 1820s, but during late classicism, the works created within its framework were classical only formally, or its principles were used deliberately to create a comic effect.

Russian classicism of the early 19th century departs from its breakthrough features: the assertion of the primacy of reason, civic pathos, opposition to the arbitrariness of religion, against its oppression over reason, criticism of the monarchy.

Classicism in foreign literature

The original classicism was based on the theoretical developments of ancient authors - Aristotle and Horace ("Poetics" and "Epistle to the Pisons").

V European literature with identical principles, the style ends its existence since the 1720s. Representatives of classicism in France: Francois Malherbe (poetry, the reformation of the poetic language,), J. La Fontaine ( satirical works, fable), J.-B. Moliere (comedy), Voltaire (drama), J.-J. Rousseau (late classicist prose writer, forerunner of sentimentalism).

There are two stages in the development of European classicism:

• The development and flourishing of the monarchy, contributing to the positive development of the economy, science and culture. At this stage, representatives of classicism see their task as glorifying the monarch, asserting its inviolability (François Malherbe, Pierre Corneille, leading genres - ode, poem, epic).
• Monarchy crisis, discovering flaws in political order... Writers do not glorify, but rather criticize the monarchy. (J. La Fontaine, J.-B. Moliere, Voltaire, leading genres - comedy, satire, epigram).

Aesthetic example, the "golden age". In France XVII century it was called the time of Minerva and Mars.

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  Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome manifested itself back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motives and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "School of Athens" (1511).

  The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most typical representatives which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lies through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

  V early XVII For centuries, young foreigners flock to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, which gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the surroundings " eternal city»Ordered pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing a kind of architectural curtains.

  In the 19th century, the painting of classicism enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, and not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic stories with an oriental flavor ("Turkish Baths"); his portraits are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled the works of classicism in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its "breeding grounds". V mid XIX For centuries, a younger generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Itinerants, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

  Sculpture

  The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of Baroque and Classicism, sculptors such as Pigalle and Houdon wavered in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxitel). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

  Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military valor and wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which contradicted accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of our time were initially depicted by the sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Pauline Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by switching to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

  Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones tend to be in a state of deep rest. Sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger are generally alien to the sculpture of classicism.

  Architecture

  The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians made the principles of ancient temple architecture so absolute that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed the Palladian precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until mid XVIII century.

  By that time, the satiety of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the Baroque thinned out in the Rococo, predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For the solution of large urban planning problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-1774), urban planning ensembles in the "ancient Roman" taste were erected in Paris, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-1792) a similar "noble laconicism "is already becoming the main architectural direction.

  The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scotsman Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam's interpretation, classicism appeared as a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which earned him popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French counterparts, Adam preached a complete rejection of details lacking a constructive function.

  The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned. The entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia was dominated by a single architectural language dating back to Palladio. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with standard project albums.

  In the period following Napoleonic Wars, Classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motives are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture gives way to reverence for everything ancient Greek ("neo-Greek"), which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up Munich and Berlin, respectively, with grandiose museums and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and the Baroque (see Beauz-ar).

  Literature

  The founder of the poetics of classicism is considered the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out the reform French and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Moliere 1622-1673).

  Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made Alexandrina the main form of English poetry. For English prose the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by latinized syntax.

  Classicism XVIII century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Voltaire's work (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Three unities are characteristic of dramatic works: the unity of time (the action takes place one day), the unity of the place (in one place) and the unity of the action (one plot line).

  In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calmness", which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are devoid of individual traits, since they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic signs that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

  Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been in the focus of attention of Russian classicist writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality: comedy (D.I.Fonvizin), satire (A.D. Kantemir), fable (A.P. Sumarokov, I.I. (Lomonosov, G.R.Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes "Anacreontic songs" as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities, notes G. Knabe.

  Domination in the era of reign Louis XIV The “spirit of discipline”, the taste for order and balance, or, in other words, the fear of “violating established customs”, instilled by the era in the art of classicism, were considered in opposition to the Fronde (and historical and cultural periodization was based on this opposition). It was believed that classicism was dominated by "forces striving for truth, simplicity, reasonableness" and expressed in "naturalism" (harmoniously correct reproduction of nature), while the literature of the Fronde, burlesque and precision writings is characterized by aggravation ("idealization" or, conversely, " coarsening "of nature).

  Determining the degree of convention (how accurately the nature is reproduced or distorted, being translated into a system of artificial conventional images) is a universal aspect of style. "School of 1660" was described by its first historians (I. Teng, F. Brunetière, G. Lanson; C. Saint-Beuve) synchronously, as basically an aesthetically poorly differentiated and ideologically conflict-free community that has gone through stages of formation, maturity and decay in its evolution, and private “intraschool "Oppositions - a type of Brunière's antithesis of Racine's" naturalism "to the craving for the" extraordinary "of Corneille - were derived from the inclinations of individual talent.

  A similar scheme of the evolution of classicism, which arose under the influence of the theory of the "natural" development of cultural phenomena and spread in the first half of the 20th century (cf. in the academic "History of French Literature" the titles of the chapters: "Formation of classicism" - "The beginning of the decomposition of classicism"), was complicated by another an aspect contained in the approach of L.V. Pumpyansky. His concept of historical and literary development, according to which, french literature, in contrast to even those similar in type of development ("la découverte de l'antiquité, la formation de l'idéal classique, its decomposition and transition to new, not yet expressed forms of literature") new German and Russian, represents a model of evolution of classicism, possessing the ability to clearly distinguish between stages (formations): the "normal phases" of its development are manifested with "extraordinary paradigmatism": "the delight of finding (the feeling of awakening after a long night, finally the morning that came), the formation of an eliminating ideal (restrictive activity in lexicology, style and poetics) , its long domination (associated with the prevailing absolutist society), a noisy fall (the main event that happened with modern European literature), the transition to<…>the era of freedom ". According to Pumpyansky, the flowering of classicism is associated with the creation of the antique ideal (“<…>attitude to antiquity is the soul of such literature "), and degeneration - with its" relativization ":" Literature in known attitude to not its absolute value - classic; the relativized literature is not classical ”.

  After the "school of 1660" was recognized as a research "legend", the first theories of the evolution of the method began to emerge based on the study of intraclassic aesthetic and ideological differences (Moliere, Racine, La Fontaine, Boileau, La Bruyere). So, in some works, the problematic "humanistic" art is divorced as actually classic and entertaining, "decorating secular life." The first concepts of evolution in classicism are formed in the context of philological polemics, which were almost always built as a demonstrative elimination of the Western ("bourgeois") and Russian "pre-revolutionary" paradigms.

  Two "currents" of classicism are distinguished, corresponding to trends in philosophy: "idealistic" (influenced by the neostoicism of Guillaume du Vera and his followers) and "materialistic" (formed by epicureanism and skepticism, mainly by Pierre Charron). The fact that in the 17th century the ethical and philosophical systems of late antiquity - skepticism (pyrrhonism), epicureanism, stoicism - are in demand - experts believe, on the one hand, as a reaction to civil wars and are explained by the desire to “preserve the personality in the midst of cataclysms” (L. Kosareva) and, on the other hand, are associated with the formation of secular morality. Yu. B. Vipper noted that at the beginning of the 17th century, these currents were in tense confrontation, and explains its reasons sociologically (the first developed in the court environment, the second - outside of it).

  D. D. Oblomievsky identified two stages of evolution classicism XVII Art., coupled with the "restructuring of theoretical principles" (note G. Oblomievsky highlights the "second birth" of classicism in the XVIII century ("educational version" associated with the primitivization of the poetics of "contrasts and antitheses of positive and negative", with the restructuring of Renaissance anthropology and complicated by the categories of collegiate and optimistic) and the "third birth" of classicism of the Empire period (late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century and early XIX century), complicating it with the "principle of the future" and the "pathos of opposition". Let me note that, characterizing the evolution of classicism in the 17th century, G. Oblomievsky speaks of various aesthetic foundations of classicist forms; to describe the development of classicism in the 18th-19th centuries, he uses the words "complication" and "loss", "loss." and during the English Revolution and the Fronde; classicism of Racine - La Fontaine - Moliere - La Bruyere, based on the category of the tragic, highlighting the idea of ​​"will, activity and domination of man over the real world”, Appearing after the Fronde, in the middle of the XVII century. and associated with the reaction of the 60-70-80s. Disappointment with the optimism of the first half of Art. manifests itself, on the one hand, in escapism (Pascal) or in the denial of heroism (La Rochefoucauld), on the other hand, in a “compromise” position (Racine), which generates the situation of a hero who is powerless to change anything in the tragic disharmony of the world, but did not refuse from Renaissance values ​​(principle inner freedom) and "resisting evil." Classicists associated with the teachings of Port Royal or close to Jansenism (Racine, late Boalo, Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld) and followers of Gassendi (Molière, La Fontaine).

  Diachronic interpretation of D. D. Oblomievsky, attracted by the desire to understand classicism as a changing style, found application in monographic studies and, it seems, has withstood the test of concrete material. Based on this model, A.D. Mikhailov notes that in the 1660s, classicism, which entered the "tragic" phase of development, is approaching precision prose: reality, but also brought them some rationality, a sense of proportion and good taste, to some extent, the desire for the unity of place, time and action, compositional clarity and consistency, the Descartes principle of “dismemberment of difficulties”, the allocation of one leading feature, one passion in the described static character ”], called by the Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical compositions.

  The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has more total value as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

  The music of the era of Classicism glorifies the actions and deeds of a person, emotions and feelings experienced by him, an attentive and holistic human mind [ ] .

  Classicism (from lat.classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and direction in art Europe XVII- XIX centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main objective which educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, a model, which is similar to. The culture the ancient world... The rules, the canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working in the framework of this direction and style.

  History of origin

  As a trend, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

  Classicism, whose main goal is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and adherence to all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all the rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

  In its development, classicism went through 3 stages:

  1. Early classicism(1760s - early 1780s);
  2. Strict classicism(1780s - 1790s);
  3. Late classicism, which received the name (the first 30 years of the XIX century).

  The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - vivid example classicism.

  Style features

  Classicism is characterized by clear geometric shapes, high quality materials, noble finish and restraint. Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinguishing features of classicism. later appeared in the interiors in the style of minimalism.

  General style features:

  • smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
  • elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
  • stucco molding;
  • exquisite parquet;
  • fabric wallpaper on the walls;
  • elegant, graceful furniture.

  Calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time diverse decorative design, verified proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste have become a feature of the Russian classicist style.

  

  Exterior

  External signs of classicist architecture are pronounced, they can be identified at the first glance at the building.

  • Constructions: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
  • Forms: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
  • Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, smooth drawing.
  • Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
  • Roof: complex, intricate shape.
  • Prevailing colors: saturated white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
  • Characteristic elements: discreet decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornament, marble staircase, balconies.
  • Window: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upward, modestly decorated.
  • Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
  • Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

  

  Interior

  In the interior of the premises of the era of classicism, there is nobility, restraint and harmony. Nevertheless, all interior items do not look like museum exhibits, but only emphasize the delicate artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

  The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, refined luxury; not overloaded with details.

  The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly precious woods, marble, stone, silk.

  • Ceilings: light tall, often multi-level, with stucco moldings, ornaments.
  • Walls: decorated with fabrics, light, but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco molding or painting are possible.
  • Flooring: parquet from valuable wood species (merbau, kamša, teak, jatoba) or marble.
  • Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with shades in the form of candles.
  • Mandatory interior attributes: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low armchairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique subjects, books, massive floor vases stylized as antiquity, tripod stands for flowers.

  Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, threads of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

  

  Furniture

  Furniture of the classicism era is distinguished by good quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly from valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are handmade, decorated with carving, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, precise proportions. The dining room tables and chairs are made with graceful carved legs. Dishes - porcelain, thin, almost transparent, patterned, gilded. One of the most important attributes of furniture was considered a secretaire with a cubic body on high legs.

  

  Architecture

  Classicism turned to the foundations of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motives, but also patterns in construction. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, the proportionality of the composition being created, the regularity of the layout and the clarity of the volumetric form.

  Classicism - complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

  Unfortified palaces, garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the form of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accented staircases, classic antique décor, domes in public buildings.

  Late classicism (Empire) acquired military symbols (" Triumphal Arch" in France). In Russia, the canon architectural style classicism can be called St. Petersburg, in Europe - it is Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

  

  Sculpture

  In the era of classicism, public monuments were widespread, personifying the military valor and wisdom of statesmen. Moreover, the main solution for the sculptors was the model of the image of famous figures in the image of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among individuals to order sculptors gravestones to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, impassive expressions, purity of lines.

  

  Fashion

  Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s. years XVIII century. This was especially evident in female suit... A new beauty ideal has emerged in Europe, celebrating natural forms and beautiful female lines. The thinnest smooth fabrics of light colors, especially white, have come into fashion.

  Women's dresses lost their frames, linings and petticoats and got the form of long, pleated tunics that were cut at the sides and intercepted with a belt under the bust. They were worn on a flesh-colored leotard. Sandals with ribbons served as shoes. Hairstyles were copied from antiquity. Powder remains in fashion, which covered the face, hands, neckline.

  Among the accessories used were either muslin turbans decorated with feathers, or Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls.

  From the beginning of the 19th century, ceremonial dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in casual dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. The hairstyle gradually changes, and the powder goes out of use. Short hair is in vogue, twisted into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers.

  Men's fashion was influenced by the British. The English cloth coat, dressing coat (outerwear resembling a frock coat), frill and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

  

  Art

  In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and severity. The main elements of the form are line and chiaroscuro. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures, separates the spatial plan of the picture. The largest master of the 17th century. - Lorrain Claude, known for his "ideal landscapes". Civic pathos and lyricism combined in "decorative landscapes" French painter Jacques Louis David (18th century). Among Russian artists, one can distinguish Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

  Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who defined further development musical art.

  Literature

  The literature of the era of classicism promoted the mind, conquering the senses. The conflict between duty and passion is the basis of the plot of a literary work. Reforms of the language were carried out in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. The leading representatives of the direction are François Malherbe, Cornel, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.

  In Russia, classicism is developing under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. Most bright representative literature of the era of Russian classicism - M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. Comedy and satire became the main genre. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this vein.

  The "Golden Age" is considered the era of classicism for theatrical art, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on the stage did not just play, but lived, worried, while remaining himself. Theatrical style was proclaimed the art of recitation.

  

  Personalities

  

  Among the brightest classicists, one can also distinguish such names as:

  • Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
  • Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
  • Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
  • Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Chemnitser (literature).

  Video review of classicism

  Conclusion

  The ideas of the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It retains nobility and grace, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, draperies, stucco molding, natural wood furniture. There are few adornments, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style still characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

  Later still appears, which heralded the arrival of a new era - this. the combination of several modern styles, which include not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.

  Among art styles of no small importance is classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and manifested itself in almost all types of European and Russian art. He often came into confrontation with the Baroque, especially at the stage of formation in France.

  The century of classicism in each country is different. First of all, it developed in France - back in the 17th century, a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism had already begun in other states. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.

  What is classicism as a direction?

  The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary". The main principle manifested itself in an appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as the norm to which one should strive. The authors of the works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, laconicism, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator strove to find a place for everything, clear and strictly defined.

  

  The main signs of classicism

  All forms of art were characterized by following features helping to understand what classicism is:

  • a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
  • the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
  • strict canons in everything;
  • an established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.

  Concretization of artistic features

  Analysis certain types art helps to understand how the style of "classicism" was embodied in each of them.

  

  How classicism was realized in literature

  In this form of art, classicism was defined as special direction, in which the desire to re-educate with words was clearly expressed. Authors works of art believed in a happy future where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality will reign. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly demanded the observance of three unities: actions (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit into a day), place (there was no movement in space). J. Moliere, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia) received more recognition in this style.

  Development of classicism in Russia

  New artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, in contrast to Western European, relied more on national traditions... It was in this that his originality was manifested.

  Initially, it came to architecture, where it reached highest heights... This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, suburban noble estates... Special attention should be paid to the creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoe Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the arrow of Vasilievsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.

  The peak of the architects' activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the project of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.

  

  No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schluter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of landscape gardening art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything is striking in its proportionality and purity of execution.

  Literary direction in Russia

  The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov became its founders.

  

  However, the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is, was made by the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov. He developed a system of three calmness, which determined the requirements for writing works of fiction, and created an example of a solemn message - an ode that was most popular in literature of the second half of the 18th century.

  The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy "The Minor". In addition to the mandatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the following points belong to the peculiarities of Russian comedy:

  • a clear division of characters into negative and positive and the presence of a reason that expresses the position of the author;
  • the presence of a love triangle;
  • punishment of vice and triumph of good in the finale.

  Works of the era of classicism as a whole have become the most important component in the development of world art.