Report: Classicism concept. Classicism - architectural styles - design and architecture grow here - artichoke features of classicism in architecture

"Class!" - We tell me about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment subject or phenomenon.
Translated from the Latin language word classicus. And means "exemplary".

Classicism They called the artistic style and aesthetic direction in the European culture of the XVII-XIX centuries.

And what as a sample? Classicism has developed the canons for which any artistic work should be built. Canon - This is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules obligatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict direction in art, it was only interested in substantial, eternal, typical, random signs or manifestations of classicism were not interesting.
In this sense, classicism performed educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi.
Is it bad or good when there are canons in art? When can I just like this and nothing else? Do not hurry with a negative conclusion! Canons gave the opportunity to streamline the creativity of a certain type of art, give a direction, show samples and noted everything minor and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal constant leadership of creativity - at some point they extend themselves. That's how it happened at the beginning of the XX century. In the visual art and in music: the norms that have rooted over several centuries were sulfted and were torn.
However, we have already rolled forward. Let's return to the classicism and consider more detail the hierarchy of the genres of classicism. Let's just say that as a certain direction, classicism was formed in France in the XVII century. A feature of French classicism was that he argued the personality of a person as the highest value of being. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing the perfect aesthetic sample in it.

Hierarchy of genres of classicism

The classicism has a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain signs, mix that is unacceptable.
Consider the hierarchy of genres on the examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nikola Bouoye, the largest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Mallba, who conducted the reform of French and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Bouelow expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art".

Bust Nikola Boulevard works F. Zhiradon. Paris, Louvre.
In dramaturgy were to be respected three unity: Unity of time (the action should occur within one day), the unity of the place (in one place) and the unity of action (there should be one storyline in the work). The French tragics of Cornel and Rasin were the leading representatives of classicism in drama. The main idea of \u200b\u200btheir creativity was a conflict between social duty and personal passions.
The purpose of creating classicism becomes a change in the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is primarily due to the name M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov on the monument "1000th anniversary of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Gatman
They were conducted by the reform of the Russian verse and developed the theory of "three hundred".

"Theory of Three Channels" M.V. Lomonosov

Teaching about three styles, i.e. The classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics distinguishing high, medium and low (simple) styles have been known for a long time. It was used in the ancient Roman, medieval and new European literature.
But Lomonosov used the teaching of three styles to build a stylistic system russian language and Russian literature. Three "Styles" for Lomonosov:
1. High - solemn, magnificent. Genres: Oda, heroic poems, tragedy.
2. Middle - Elegy, Drama, Satira, Eclogh, friendly writings.
3. Low - comedy, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of enlightenment: equality and justice ideas. Therefore, in Russian classicism, a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find in Comedy D.I. Fonvizina, Satira A.D. Kantemir, Basnyov A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Chemnitzer, Odakh M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Daughter.
At the end of the XVIII century. The trend intensified to see the main power of human education. In this regard, there is a literary direction of sentimentalism, in which the main thing in human nature was announced (and not a mind). The French writer Jean-Jacques Russo urged to be closer to nature and naturalness. This appeal followed Russian writer N.M. Karamzin - Recall his famous "poor Lisa"!
But in the direction of classicism, the works were created in the XIX century. For example, "grief from the mind" A.S. Griboedov. Although elements of romanticism and realism are also present in this comedy.

Painting

Since the definition of "classicism" is translated as "exemplary", then it is natural for it is some kind of sample. And supporters of classicism have seen its antique art. It was the highest sample. There was also a support and on the tradition of high rebirth, which also saw a sample in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious device of society, but reflected the conflicts of personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
Artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the plot composition is clear and balanced, the volume is clear, the role of color is subordinate with the help of lighting, the use of local colors. So wrote, for example, N. Poussin.

Nikola Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin "Self-portrait" (1649)
French artist standing at the origins of the painting of classicism. Almost all of his paintings are created on historical and mythological plots. His compositions are always clear, rhythmic.

N. Poussin "Dance to the music of time" (about 1638)
The picture shows an allegorical dance of life. It is circling in it (from left to right): pleasure, hard work, wealth, poverty. Next to the two-headed stone sculpture of the Roman God, Janus sits a baby, allowing soap bubbles - a symbol of a rapid tool human life. The young boy is looking at the future, and the old facing the past. The winged gray-robbed old man, to the music of which circling the dance, - father time. His feet sitting a baby who keeps the hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the God of the Sun Apollo is rushing across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, the goddess of dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers on his way.

V. Borovikovsky "Portrait of G.R. Derzhavina "(1795)

V. Borovikovsky "Portrait of G.R. Derzhavina, "State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured the portrait of a person who knew well and whose opinion was valued. This is a traditional classic portrait. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a state person, his uniform and rewards tell about it.
But at the same time, this is a famous poet, enthusiastic, educational ideals and social life. This indicates a written table, littered with manuscripts; luxurious ink device; Shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin recognizable. But the inner world is not shown. The ideas of Rousseau, who have already been actively discussed in society, have not yet been manifested in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the XIX century Painting classicism enters into a strip of crisis and becomes a force that restraining the development of art. Artists, keeping the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic stories. Among Russian artists, first of all, it is Karl Brullov. His creativity had to be at that time when the classic work was filled with the spirit of romanticism, this combination was called Academism. In the middle of the XIX century. The beginning of the rebelting to the realism is a young generation, represented in France with a circle, and in Russia - Movies.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered an antiquity with a sample. This was facilitated by the archaeological excavations of the ancient cities, as a result of which many of the sculptures of Hellenism became known.
Classicism has achieved the highest incarnation in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Kanov (1757-1822)

A. Kanova "Self-portrait" (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest meetings of his works are in the Paris Louvre and in St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Kanov "Three Graces". St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group "Three Graces" refers to the late period of the creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of grace - ancient goddesses, personifying the female charm and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces are standing near, the two extreme faces to each other (and not to the viewer) and to a friend standing in the center. All three slim female figures merged into the arms, they are combined by the plexus of the hands and the scarf, falling out of the hands of one of the grace. Companion compact composition and balanced.
In Russia, Fedot Schubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos belong to the aesthetics of classicism.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin (1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes applied to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: Busts Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantseva-Sadunaysky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, Statue of Catherine II - Confrodial and others.

F. Shubin. Bust Paul I.
Shubin is known both as a decorator, he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesmen Palace, 42 sculptures for the marble palace and others. Was also a master of Kholmogorsk carved bone.
In the era of classicism, public monuments were distributed, in which the military valor and wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition, it was customary to depict models of nagi, the modern classicism of the moral norms did not allow this. Therefore, the figures began to depict in the form of nude ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to portray them in ancient lugs.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg before the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor by Bereter Torvaldsen.

B. Torvaldsen. Monument to Nikolai Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as the standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order - type of architectural composition using certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and form of elements, as well as their interpretation. For classicism, symmetrical-axial compositions are characterized, the restraint of decorative decoration, a regular cities planning system.

London Mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

Karl Bartalomeo-Rossi (1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, the author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its surroundings.
Outstanding architectural and town-planning skills of Rossi is embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with the surrounding garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with a grand arcuate building of the General Staff and the Triumphal Arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the Senate and Synod buildings (1829 -1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of theatrical street (now architectural Street).

Main Staff Building on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the work of Gaidna, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called Viennese Classics. They determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Josef Haidna" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeu Mozart" (1819)

Karl Shotler "Portrait of Ludwig Vana Beethoven" (1820)
Aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the intelligence and harmony of the world order, the same principles embodied in music. It was necessary to: Balanced by parts of the work, careful decoration of parts, the development of the main canons of the musical form. During this period, a sofate form was finally formed, the classic composition of parts of the sonatas and symphony was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and is not unequivocal. There was the first stage of classicism - the era of the revival of the XVII century. Some musicologists even consider the baroque period as a private manifestation of classicism. Thus, creativity I.S. can be attributed to classicism. Bach, Greek, K. Glitka with his reform operators. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still connected with the work of representatives of the Vienna Classical School: J. Gaidna, V. A. Mozart and L. Vana Beethoven.

Note

The concepts should be distinguished "Music of classicism"I. "classical music". The concept of "classical music" is much wider. It includes not only the music of the classicism era period, but also in general the music of the past, withstood the test of time and recognized exemplary.

The European direction of classicism was based on the ideas of rationalism and canons of ancient art. It implies strict rules for creating a artistic work that gives him conciseness and logicality. Attention is paid only to a clear elaboration of the main part, without spraying on the details. The priority goal of such a direction is the execution of the social and educational function of art.

The formation of classicism occurs at each joint territory, but in different time periods. The need for this direction is felt in the historical period of transition from feudal fragmentation to territorial statehood with an absolute monarchy. In Europe, the formation of classicism happened primarily in Italy, but it is impossible not to note the significant impact of the emerging French and English bourgeoisie.

Classicism in painting

(Giovanni Battista Thipolo "Pie Cleopatra")

In creative search, sculptors and artists turned to ancient art and transferred his features into their works. It gave rise to a wave of public interest in art. Despite the fact that the views of classicism imply a natural image of everything that is represented in the picture, the Master of the Renaissance, as well as antique creators, idealized human figures. People who are captured in paintings are rather reminiscent of sculptures: they "freeze" in eloquent poses, male body athletic, and female figures are hyperbolized feminine, even at the heroes of old age, skin is tightened and elastic. This trend, borrowed from ancient Greek sculptors, is explained by the fact that in the ancient times, a person was presented as an ideal creation of God without flaws and shortcomings.

(Claude Lorren "noon. Holidays on the way to Egypt")

Antique mythology also had a considerable impact on the formation of style. In the initial stages, it expressed literally, in the form of mythical plots. Over time, the manifestations have become more veiled: mythology has appeared by antique buildings, creatures or objects. The late period was marked by the symbolic interpretation of the myths: through individual elements, artists came their own thoughts, emotions and moods.

(Fedor Mikhailovich Matveyev "View of Rome. Colosseum")

The function of classicism in the Louis of world artistic culture is the moral public education, the formation of ethical standards and rules. The regulation of creative laws conducted a strict hierarchy of genres, each of which contained formal boundaries:

• Low(still life, landscape, portrait);
• High(historical, mythological, religious).

(Nikola Pussen "Arcade shepherds")

The founder of the style is considered to be the painter of Nikola Poussna. His works are built on sublime philosophical plots. From a technical point of view, building is harmonious, and is supplemented with a rhythmic flavor. Bright examples of Master's works: "Finding Moses", "Rinaldo and Armida", "Death of Germany" and "Arcade shepherds".

(Ivan Petrovich Argunov "Portrait of an unknown in a dark blue dress")

In the Russian art of classicism, portrait images are dominated. The admirers of this style are A. Agrunov, A. Antropov, D. Levitsky, O. Kiprensky, F. Rokotov.

Classicism in architecture

The fundamental features of the style are the clarity of lines, clear uncomplicated forms, the absence of abundance of parts. Classicism sought to rationally use every square meter of space. Over time, the influence of various cultures and worldview of masters from all over Europe. In the architecture of classicism, the following directions are distinguished:

• palladianism

The initial form of manifestation of classicism, the founder of which is considered architect Andrea Palladio. In the absolute symmetry of the buildings, the spirit of architecture of ancient Greece and Rome is guessed;

• ampir

Direction of high (late) classicism, whose homeland is considered France during the period of Napoleon I. Royal style combines theatricality and classic elements (columns, stucco, pilasters), located in accordance with the rules and perspective;

• neogre

"Return" of ancient Greek form with the features of the Italian Renaissance in the 1820s. The founders of the direction - Henri Labrust and Leo Background Klenze. The uniqueness lies in the detailed reproduction of the classics on the buildings of the parliament, museums, temples;

• regenty style

In 1810-1830 Developed style combining classic directions with French design. Special attention is paid to the finish of facades: geometrically correct patterns and wall ornaments are supplemented with decorated window peels. The emphasis is placed on decorative elements framing the front door.

(Stupinji - Country Residence of the Monarchs of the Savoy House, Turin Province, Italy)

The main features of classicism in architecture:

• Majestic simplicity;
• Minimum number of parts;
• Laconicity and severity of both external and interior decoration of structures;
• A lack of color palette in which dairy, beige, light gray shades prevail;
• High ceilings decorated with stucco;
• The interior included objects exclusively carrying functional purposes;
• The decor elements were used royal columns, arches, exquisite stained glass windows, openwork railing, lamps, carved fireplace grilles, light curtains from uncomplicated materials.

(Big Theater, Moscow)

Classicism is recognized as one of the most common styles throughout the world. In Europe, the development of this area was influenced by the work of Palladio and Skamoti masters. And in France, the Architect Jacques-Germain Suffro was the author of the basic structural solutions. Germany acquired several classic-style administrative buildings thanks to Masters Leo Background Klenz and Karl Friedrich Shinkel. Andreyan Zakharov, Andrei Voronikhin and Karl Rossi contributed to the development of this direction in Russia, an invaluable contribution.

Conclusion

The era of classicism left behind the many magnificent creatures of artists and architects, which can be observed throughout Europe and to this day. The most ambitious projects of the end of the XVII and the beginning of the XIX century were held under the auspices of classicism: city parks, resorts and even new cities were tucked. By the 20th of the XIX century, strict style was diluted with elements of luxurious baroque and renaissance.

The art of classicism followed antique, that is, classic, samples that were considered an ideal aesthetic standard. Unlike the masters Ba-Rocco, the creators of classicism tried to follow the firmly installed canons of the beautiful. The new era has developed hard rules, determined how to write poems and plays, how to create paintings, how to dance, etc. The basic principles of classicism are strictly followed by established standards and majestity.

The efforts of the French Academy, founded in 1634, in France, instead of numerous local dialects, a single literary language was gradually approved, which became the most important to the means of not only the development of culture, but also to strengthen national unity. The Academy dictated the language of norms and artistic tastes, contributing to the status of common canons of French culture. The development of classicism was also facilitated by the activities of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, Academy Mia of Architecture, the Academy of Music, which defined the norms of artistic creativity in accordance with the arts of art. The artistic canons of that era were formed under the influence of philosopher rationalism, the founder of which was the outstanding French thinker of the pen of half of the XVII century. R. Decarter.

Cartesianism, as the philosophy of Descartes, claimed the faith in the omnipotence of the human mind and his ability to organize all human life on rational foundations.

The leading poet of classicism and his theoretical in the sphere of poetry was N. Bouoyo, author of the poetic treatise "Poetic Art" (1674).

Dramaturgy

In drama, where classicism has reached the greatest completed, the principle of "three unities" was established, which means that the entire plot was unfolded in one place at one time and in one day. The highest genre of theatrical art was recognized by Traga Diya. In classical drama, the characters clearly differed and were opposed to each other: the positive heroes were embodied only virtues, the negative became the personification of the vice. At the same time, good has always had to defeat evil.

The basis of the classic French tragedy became P. Cor-Nelwho not only wrote the plays, to the present time, the world drama, but also became a leading theoretical art of theatrical art.

Ballet

High perfection in the era of classicism reached the ballet, to which the weakness of the "King Sun" was mentioned, which often came to the scene. The ballet, who came from Renaissance Italy, under the auspices of the king of the French France turned into a special type of scenic art. By the end of the XVII century. His canons were developed, which turned ballet in the most classic of all types of classical arts.

Opera

Opera came from Italy to France. The National Opera Tradition, originated at the court of Louis XIV, also formed in line with classicism.

Classic canons in painting formed N. Poussin. French painting XVII century. The foundations of the Great National Tradition laid, the further development of which brought France the undeniable championship in the field of fine arts.

Portrait

Louis XIV gave up at the disposal of the ministers of the MUZ Khalki Palace Louvre, who acquired his majestic eastern facade with it. Paris and his at-cities during the reign of the "King-Sun-Centa" decorated wonderful architectural monuments. "Trucks of His Majesty" turned into an integer industry, and everything built - it is, according to Louis XIV biographer, "the constantly acting worldwide exhibition of the masterpieces of French classical taste."

Since the time of Louis XIV, French Per-Venalty in many areas of culture has become generally recognized. French influence for a long time determined the main on-government development of world art. Paris has become a center for the artistic life of Europe, in the models of modes and tastes, which became samples for imitation in other countries. Material from site.

Palace and Park An-Sambl Versailles

You, the achievement of that era, is the grandiose palace-park an-sambl Versailles. In its construction, they participated in the best architects, sculptors and artists of that time. Versa Parks are a classic about french park art. Unlike the English Park, more of the EU-punished, landscaped in its essence, embodying the desire for harmony with nature, the French Park is described by regular layout and stripping to symmetry. Alleys, flower beds, ponds - everything is arranged in accordance with the strict laws of geometry. Even de Viquia and bushes are trimmed in the form of the right geometric shapes. Landmarks of Versailles have also become a variety of fountains, a rich sculpture, luxurious couch interiors. According to the French historian, no agreement "did not give so much for the glory of our country as the ensemble of Versailles." "The one in his own kind of proportions, connecting the game of all IS-pieces, reflecting the culture of the unique era," Versailles still amazing the imagination of visitors.

Classicism (from the lat. Classicus - exemplary), style and direction in the literature and art that turned to the ancient heritage as to the norm and the perfect pattern.

The emergence of classicism style

In 1755, Johann Ioachim Winkelmann wrote in Dresden: "The only way for us to become great, and if possible and inimitable, is to imitate ancient." This appeal to update modern art, using the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism the necessary opposition to the court baroque. But enlightened feudalists did not reject the imitation of antique forms. The era of classicism coincided with the epoch of bourgeois revolutions - English in 1688, French - after 101 year.

Historical style characteristic classicism

From the forms of Rococo, noted at first Roman influence, after the construction of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a steep turn towards the Greek forms was made. After the liberation wars against Napoleon, this "Hellenism" found his masters in K.F. Shinkel and L. Background Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular frontones have become an architectural alphabet.

The desire to translate into the modern construction of the noble simplicity and the calm greatness of ancient art led to the desire to completely copy the antique building. The fact that F. Zhillya remained as a project of the Friedrich II monument, by order of Ludwig I Bavarian, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and got the name of Valhalla (Walhalla "Damn Dead").

The princely palaces of construction in the style of classicism were the princely palaces of residences, the Marktplatz (trading area) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, and the construction of the construction in Darmstadt were acquired. Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam were mainly in classic style. But the palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses have already been impossible to distinguish from them. Public buildings, theaters, museums, universities and libraries were included in the sphere of state-building. They were added to the buildings of social destination - hospitals, houses for blind and deaf-and-dumb, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by the country estate of aristocracy and bourgeoisie, the town hall and residential buildings in the cities and villages.

The construction of churches no longer played a priority role, however, in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, wonderful structures were created, although there was a discussion, whether pagan architectural forms for the Christian monastery are suitable.

Construction Features of Style Classicism

After the collapse of the great historical styles, surviving the century, in the XIX century. There is a clear acceleration of the design of the architecture. This becomes especially obvious if you compare the past century with all previous millennial development. If the early medieval architecture and gothic covers about five centuries, Renaissance and Baroque together - already half of this period, then the classicism took part-time century in order to master Europe and penetrate the ocean.

Character details classicism

With a change in the point of view on architecture, with the development of construction equipment, the emergence of new types of structures in the XIX century. There was also a significant movement of the center of world development of architecture. In the foreground, there are countries that did not survive the highest stage of the development of Baroque. Classicism reaches its vertices in France, Germany, England and Russia.

Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism, ideology and the art of a new class - bourgeoisie. The concept of classicism was to use in the architecture of antique formation systems, which, however, was filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were placed in opposition to the accident, the nonstodity of the architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview of the extending aristocracy.

Classicism stimulated archaeological studies that led to amazing discoveries and new knowledge about developed ancient civilizations. The results of the work of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid theoretical foundations of the movement, whose participants considered the ancient culture of the vertex of perfection in construction art, a model of absolute and eternal beauty. Numerous albums contained images of architectural monuments contributed to popularization of ancient forms.

Types of Style Style Classicism

The nature of the architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the carrier wall and the arch, which has become more flat. A portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and from the inside are members with small pilasters and cornices. Symmetry predominates in the composition of the whole and parts, volumes and plans. The color solution is characterized by light pastel colors. White color, as a rule, is used to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, reserved, furniture is simple and easy, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

The most significant town planning concepts and their implementation in nature in nature the end of the XVIII and the first half of the XIX century are connected with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, resorts are laid. The new organization of resettlement aimed at overcoming social inequality and to create a new social harmony is offered at the end of the XIX century Socialists - utopians.

Classicism (from Latin Classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in the literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th century Classicism is preferably related to the Renaissance Epoch; occupied, along with Baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development in the Epoch of Enlightenment. The origin and distribution of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descarte, with the development of accurate sciences. At the heart of the rationalistic aesthetics of classicism - the desire for equilibrium, clarity, the logicality of the artistic expression (in many ways perceived from the aesthetics of revival); The conviction in the existence of universal and eternal, not exposed to historical changes of the rules of artistic creativity, which are interpreted as skill, skill, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.

Having perceiving the idea of \u200b\u200bcreativity as a way-rising to Aristotle, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been incarnation in the works of antique masters and writers: the orientation on the "excellent nature", transformed and ordered in accordance with the unshakable laws of art, thus assumed imitation Antique samples and even competition with them. The developing idea of \u200b\u200bart as rational activity based on the eternal categories of "beautiful", "expedient", etc., classicism of more than other artistic directions contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science about beautiful.

The central concept of classicism is likely - did not imply accurate reproduction of the empirical reality: the world is not as much as it is, but it should be. The preference for the universal norm as "due" to everything private, random, concrete corresponds to the ideology expressed by the classicism of the absolutist state, in which all personal and private subordinate to the continued will of state power. The classicist portrait not a specific, single person, but a disheveled person in a situation of universal, non-historical moral conflict; Hence the orientation of classicists on antichny mythology as an embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism suggests, on the one hand, the subordination of personal common, passions - debt, mind, resistance to the transformations of being; On the other hand, restraint in the manifestation of feelings, compliance with the measure, relevance, the ability to like.

Classicism strictly subordinate the work of the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. "High" delimited (for example, the epic, tragedy, Oda - in the literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and "low" (satire, comedy, fables; still life in painting) genres, which corresponded to a certain style, Circle of themes and heroes; It was prescribed to clearly swaying the tragic and comic, elevated and lowland, heroic and ordinary.

From the mid-18th century, classicism gradually resulted in new currents - sentimentalism, predocutantism, romanticism. Traditions of classicism in the late 19th - early 20th century were resurrected in neoclassicism.

The term "classicism", ascending to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), first used the Italian critic of the city of Wisconti in 1818. It was widely used in the controversy of classicists and romantics, and in Romantics (J. De Stal, V. Hugo, etc.) had a negative color: classicism and classics, which imitated antiquities were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary studies and artificial knowledge, the concept of "classicism" began to be actively used after the work of scientists of cultural and historical school and Völdflin.

Stylistic trends, similar to classicism of the 17-18th century, are seen by some scientists and in other epochs; In this case, the concept of "classicism" is interpreted in an expansion sense, denoting a stylistic constant, periodically actuating at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, "antique classicism", "Renaissance classicism").

N. T. Pakhsaryan.

Literature. The origins of literary classicism - in the regulatory poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in the Italian literature of the 16th century, where the genre system was created, correlated with the system of language styles and oriented to ancient samples. The highest flourishing of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of classicism poetics was F. Mallb, who carried out the regulation of a literary language based on a live speech; The reform conducted by him was fixed by the French Academy. In the most complete form, the principles of literary classicism were set forth in the Treatise "Poetic Art" N. Balo (1674), which summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.

Classicist writers relate to literature as an important mission of the incarnation in the Word and transfer to the reader of the requirements of nature and reason, as to the way to "teach, entertaining". The literature of classicism is directed to a clear expression of significant thought, meaning ("... The meaning always lives in creating my" - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication, rhetorical jewelry. Multiple classicists preferred laconicism, metaphorical complications - simplicity and clarity, extravagant - decent. Following the established standards did not mean, however, that classicists encouraged pedanthism and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the rules and presented to the classicists to keep creative freedom within the boundaries of the mind, they understood the importance of intuitive inspection, which is forgiving the talent derogation from the rules, if it is appropriate and artistic effectively.

Characters of characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to the transformation of them into universal universal types. Favorite collisions are a clash of debt and feelings, the struggle of the mind and passion. In the center of the works of classicists - a heroic person and at the same time, a good-bought person who is precipitated to overcome their own passions and affects, curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of tragedies J. Rasina). Cartesian "I think, therefore, the role of not only the philosophical-intellectual, but also ethical principle plays in the worldship of the characteristics of classicism.

At the heart of the literary theory, classicism is a hierarchical system of genres; Analytical breeding for various works, even artistic worlds, "high" and "low" heroes and is combined with the desire to reflect "low" genres; For example, to save satire from a coarse burlesque, comedy - from the farce damns ("High Comedy" of Moliere).

The main place in the literature of classicism was held by a drama based on the rule of three unity (see three units of the theory). Her leading genre was the tragedy, the highest achievements of which - the works of P. Cornel and J. Rasin; The first tragedy acquires heroic, in the second - lyrical character. Other "high" genres play a much smaller role in the literary process (the mining experience of J. Shaplen in the genre of the epic poem subsequently parodirs Voltaire; the solemn ODDs wrote F. Maleb and N. Balo). At the same time, "low" genres are obtained by "low" genres: Iroocomic poem and satire (M. Rainier, Baual), Basnya (J. De Lafonten), comedy. The genres of small didactic prose are cultivated - Aphorisms (Maxims), "Characters" (B. Pascal, F. De Larocheter, J. De Labryuer); Oratoric prose (J. B. Bossyu). Although the theory of classicism did not include a novel into a system of genres, worthy of serious critical understanding, the psychological masterpiece M. M. Lafayets "Princess Klevskaya" (1678) is considered a sample of the classic novel.

At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline of literary classicism, but archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavation of Herculaneum, Pompei, the creation of I. I. Winquelman's ideal image of Greek antiquity as "noble simplicity and calm greatness" contributed to his new rise in the era of enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism, the cult of the mind served justification no longer standards of absolutist statehood, but the rights of the person to freedom from the claims of the Church and the state. Educational classicism, actively engaging in cooperation with other literary directions of the era, is not based on the "Rules", but rather to the "enlightened taste" of the public. Appeal to antiquity becomes a way to express the heroic of the French revolution of the 18th century in poetry A. Shhenie.

In France, in the 17th century, classicism was in a powerful and consistent artistic system, had a noticeable effect on Baroque literature. In Germany, classicism, arising as a conscious cultural effort to create a "right" and "perfect", worthy of other European literatures of the poetic school (M. Opole), on the contrary, was drowned by Baroque, the style of which more corresponded to the tragic era of the thirty-year-old war; Belaced attempt to I. K. Gothsheda in the 1730-40s to send German literature on the path of classic canons caused a fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is Weimar Classicism I. V. Goette and F. Schiller. In the UK, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; Its further development proceeded in the direction of the Enlightenment (A. Pup, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and sometimes intertwined with him (for example, in the work of the poets "Arkady" - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Ya. Martello, S. Maffeei); Educational classicism is represented by V. Alfiery.

In Russia, classicism was approved in the 1730-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of enlightenment; At the same time, the connection with Baroque is clearly traced in it. Distinctive features of Russian classicism - pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socio-critical orientation, national-patriotic pathos, support for folk creativity. One of the first principles of classicism to the Russian soil was transferred by A. D. Kantemir. In his satire, he followed I. Baual, but, creating generalized images of human defects, adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new poetic genres to Russian literature: Arrangements of Psalms, Basni, heroic poem (Petrida, is not over). The first sample of the classic praiseing ODA created V. K. Tredyakovsky ("Ode solemn about the delivery of the city of Gdanska", 1734), who accompanied her theoretical "reasoning about ODE generally" (and the other - after Baual). The impact of Baroque poetics is noted by ODD M. V. Lomonosov. The most fully and consistently Russian classicism is represented by the creativity of A. P. Sumarokov. Presenting the main provisions of the classic doctrine in the imitation of the treatise, the epistole about the poem (1747), Sumarokov sought to follow them in their works: tragedies focused on the work of French classicists of the 17th century and Voltaire's playwriter, but converted mainly to the events of national history; Partly - in the comedies, the sample for which the creativity of the Moliere was becoming; In satire, as well as the fables, who brought him the fame of the Northern Longontaine. I also developed a genre of a song that was not mentioned at Baual, but was incorporated by the Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres, proposed by Lomonosov, prefaced to the collection of works 1757 - "On the benefits of church books in Russian," which has been trying to three styles with concrete genres, tied with a high "shtail" heroic poem, ORD, solemn speech; with the middle - tragedy, satir, elegio, eclog; Low - comedy, song, epigram. The sample of the Iroocomic poem was created by V. I. Mikov ("Elisha, or irritable Vaca", 1771). The first completed heroic epic was Russiaida M. M. Heraskova (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classic drama were manifested in the work of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, V. V. Kapnika. At the turn of the 18-19th centuries, classicism is gradually displaced by new trends in literary development related to predocutantism and sentimentalism, but some time retains its influence. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800-20 years in the works of poets-Radishvtsev (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pinn, V. V. Parrots), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyak), in literary and aesthetic The program and the genre-stylistic practice of the Poets-Decembrists, in the early work of A. S. Pushkin.

A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogned". 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).

N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (Classicism in Russia).

Architecture and visual art. The trends of classicism in European art have been planned already in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice A. Palladio, theoretical treatises of J. Yes Vinologi, S. Serlio; More consistently - in the writings of J. P. Bellyri (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic regulations of academists of the Bologna school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in the acutelymatic interaction with Baroque, was only in the French artistic culture in a holistic style system. Mostly in France, classicism of the 18th - early 19th century was formed, which became a pan-European style (the latter in foreign arts is often referred to as neoclassicism). The basis of the aesthetics of classicism principles of rationalism led to an artistic work as on the fruit of the mind and logic, triumphant over the chaos and the fluidity of a sensually perceived life. The orientation of the reasonable principle, the normative of the requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of art rules, the strict hierarchy of genres in visual arts (to the "high" genre include works on mythological and historical scenes, also "perfect landscape" and a parade portrait; to " Low "- still life, household genre, etc.). Consolidation of theoretical doctrines of classicism contributed to the activities of Paris-based royal academies - painting and sculptures (1648) and architecture (1671).

The architecture of classicism, in contrast to the baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of the volume and spatial medium, relies on the principle of harmony and internal completion, both a separate building and an ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and equilibrium, the definition of plastic forms and spatial intervals, creating a calm and solemn rhythm; The propocation system based on multiple relations of integers (a single module defining the patterns of formation). The constant treatment of the masters of classicism to the heritage of the ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motives and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of his architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the architectural order, proportions and forms closest to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; In the buildings, it is used in such a way that does not darken the general structure of the structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by the clarity of spatial members, the softness of colors. Widely used in monumental-decorative painting promising effects, the masters of classicism fundamentally seduced the illusory space from the real one.

An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects of "ideal cities" are being developed, a new type of regular absolutist residence city is created (Versailles). Classicism is committed to the continuation of the traditions of antiquity and revival, laying the principle of proportionality to the basis of its decisions and, together with the factory, giving the architectural image the heroic-raised sound. And although the rhetorical pomp of the palace decor comes in contradiction with this dominant trend, a steady shaped structure of classicism retains the unity of the style, there may be many modifications in the process of historical development.

The formation of classicism in the French architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercia and F. Mansar. The appearance of buildings and construction techniques first resemble the architecture of castles of the 16th century; The decisive fracture occurred in the works of L. Levo - first of all, in the creation of a palace and park ensemble of V. Le-Viscount, with the solemn anfilage of the Palace itself, impressive paintings by Sh. Lebedin and the most characteristic expression of new principles - a regular partner park of A. Lenotra. The program product of the architecture of classicism was the eastern facade of the Louvre, implemented (since the 1660s) according to the plan of K. Perso (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others were rejected in the baroque style). In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Lenotr and Sh. Lebedre began to create an ensemble of Versaille, where the ideas of classicism are expressed with a special fullness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Ardenen-Mansar; According to his projects, the palace was significantly expanded (the wings are attached), the central terrace is redone to the mirror gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the palace of a large trianon and other facilities. Versal's ensemble is inherent rare stylistic wholeness: even the fountain jets were connected to a static shape, a similar column, and trees and shrubs were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinate to the glorification of the "Sun King" of Louis XIV, but the artistic and figurative basis it was the apoophosis of the mind, the powerful transforming natural elements. At the same time, the lined decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the Versaille of the style of "Baroque Classicism".

In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques are developing, providing for the organic compound of urban development with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas spatially merging with the street or the embankment, ensemble solutions of the nodal elements of the urban structure (Louis Square of the Great, now Vandom, and Victory Square ; Architectural ensemble of the house of persons with disabilities, all - J. Arden-Mansar), triumphant entry arches (Gate of Saint-Denis on the project N. F. Blondeja; all - in Paris).

The traditions of classicism in France of the 18th century were almost not interrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the style of Rococo prevailed. In the mid-18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of aesthetics of enlightenment. In the architecture, the appeal to the "naturalness" put forward the requirement of a constructive justification of the arrangements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible planning of a comfortable residential building. The ideal environment of the house was the landscaped (garden-park) environment. A great influence on the classicism of the 18th century had a rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavation of Herculaneum, Pompey, etc.); Proceedings of I. I. Wincelman, I. V. Götte, F. Militsia contributed to the theory of classicism. In the French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were identified: an exquisite intimate mansion ("Hotel"), a parade public building, an open area connecting the main highways of the city (Square Louis XV, now the area of \u200b\u200bconsent, in Paris, Architect J. A. Gabrielle; They also built a small trianon palace in the Versailles Park, combining the harmonic clarity of forms with lyric refinement of the drawing). J. J. Suflo realized his project of Saint-Geneviev's church in Paris, relying on the experience of classical architecture.

In the era, preceding the French revolution of the 18th century, the architecture showed a desire for harsh simplicity, bold searches for monumental geometrism of a new, lackless architecture (K. N. Leda, E. L. Bull, J. Zh. Leku). These searches (also marked by the influence of architectural etchings by J. B. Piranetsi) served as a starting point for the late phase of classicism - French ampira (1st third of the 19th century), in which magical representativeness increases (S. Perce, P. F. L. Fonten , J. F. Shalgren).

English Palladianism of the 17-18th century is largely known to the system of classicism, and often merged with it. Orientation to the classics (not only on the ideas of A. Palladio, but also on antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plasticly clear motifs are present in the work of I. Jones. After the "Great Fire" of 1666, K. Ren built the largest building of London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, noted by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive urban planning plans were implemented by the middle of the 18th century in regular buildings of the city of Bat (J. Wood Senior and J. Wood Jr.), London and Edinburgh (Adam Brothers). Building W. Cheimbers, W. Kent, J. Paine is connected with the flourishing of country parks. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but its version of classicism acquires a softer and lyrical appearance. Classicism in the UK was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, there are features close to Ampuir (J. Sun, J. Nash) in English architecture.

In the 17th and early 18th century, classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (Ya. Van Kampen, P. Post), who had a particularly discreet version. Crossings with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with early baroque, they affected the short flourishing of classicism in the architecture of Sweden of the late 17 - early 18th century (N. Teszin Jr.). In the 18th - early 19th century, classicism was also established in Italy (J. Piermarini), Spain (H. De Villanueva), Poland (Ya. Camsetser, H. P. Aigner), USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). For the German architecture of classicism 18 - 1st half of the 19th century, the strict forms of Palladian F. V. Erdmansdorf, "Heroic" Hellenism K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Zhilly, historicism L. Klenza. In the work of K. F. Shinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.

By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism comes down; He has historical styles for replacing (see also neo-shared style, eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in neoclassicism of the 20th century.

Fine art classicism regulatory; Its figurative is inherent in the explicit signs of social utopia. Antique legends, heroic acts, historical plots, i.e., interest to the fate of human community, to the "anatomy of power" predominate in the iconography of classicism. Without satisfying a simple "portrait of nature", artists of classicism seek to rise over concrete, individual - to the overall one. Classicists defended their idea of \u200b\u200bartistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or Small Dutch. The world of reasonable acts and bright feelings in the art of classicism erected over imperfect everyday life as the incarnation of the dream of the desired harmony of being. Orientation on the sublime ideal spawned and choosing "excellent nature". Classicism avoids a random, deviating from the norm, grotesque, coarse, repulsive. Tectonic clarity of classic architecture answers a clear distinction of plans in sculpture and painting. Plastic classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view, characterized by the smoothness of the forms. The moment of movement in the scenes of the figures usually does not disturb their plastic closetness and calm statuarity. In the painting of classicism, the basic elements of the form - line and lightness; Local colors clearly detect objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the pictorial product to the composition of the stage platform.

The founder and the largest master of classicism of the 17th century was the French artist N. Poussin, the paintings of which are marked by the hill of philosophical and ethical content, harmony of the rhythmic system and color.

High development in the painting of classicism of the 17th century received the "ideal landscape" (N. Poussin, K. Lorren, G. Dug), which embodied the dream of classicists about the "golden age" of mankind. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th century were P. Puzh (heroic topic), F. Giradon (searching for harmony and laconide forms). In the 2nd half of the 18th century, French sculptors again turned to socially significant topics and monumental solutions (J. B. Pigal, M. Klodion, E. M. Falcon, J. A. Hudon). Civil pathos and lyricity were combined in mythological painting J. M. Vieen, decorative landscapes of Y. Robert. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, the historical and portrait images of which were marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the emergence of individual major masters (J. O. D. Engr), degenerates into official-apologetic or salon art.

The International Center for Classicism of the 18th - early 19th century became Rome, where an academic tradition was dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koh, V. Kamuchchini, Sculptors A. What and B. Torvaldsen). In the visual art of German classicism, contemplating in spirit, portraits of A. and V. Tishbayinov, mythological cardons A. Ya. Krastens, plastic IG Shadova, K. D. Rauha; In decorative and applied art - furniture D. Röntgen. In the UK, classicism of graphics and sculpture of J. Flaksman, in decorative and applied art - Ceramics J. Wajwood and the masters of the plant in Derby.

A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda". 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

The flowering of classicism in Russia belongs to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although the beginning of the 18th century is noted by creative appeal to the urban-planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetric-axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian Classicism embodied a new, unprecedented for Russia in spidabuse and ideological fullness, the historical stage of the heyday of Russian secular culture. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallen-Demotam, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) retains more plastic enrichment and dynamics of forms inherent Baroque and Rococo.

Arching mature pores of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classic types of the Moscow Palace - manor and a comfortable residential building, which became samples in the wide construction of the country nozzles And in the new, parade construction of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is the major contribution of Russian classicism into world artistic culture. In the manor construction there was a Russian version of Palladianism (N. A. Lvov), a new type of chamber palace (Cameron, J. Kaprengy) has developed. The peculiarity of Russian classicism is an unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans of more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of Caluga centers, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc.; The practice of "regulation" of urban plans, as a rule, successfully combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the Old Russian city. The 18-19th century is marked by the largest urban-planning achievements in both capitals. The grand ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Tom de Tonon, Later, K.I. Rossi). "Classic Moscow" was formed on other urban beginnings, built in the period of its recovery after a fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginning of the regularity here was consistently subordinated to the common picturesque freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of the late Moscow classicism - D. I. Livadi, O. I. Bow, A. G. Grigoriev. The construction of the 1st third of the 19th century belongs to the style of the Russian ampier (sometimes referred to as Alexander classicism).

In the visual art, the development of Russian classicism is closely related to the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (based in 1757). The sculpture is represented by the "heroic" monumental-decorative plastic forming a finely thoughtful synthesis with architecture performed by civilian pathos by monuments, imbued with an email enlighteability of tombstones, machine plastic (I.P. Prokofiev, F. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V.I. Deuto-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most pronounced in the works of the historical and mythological genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebowev, early A. A. Ivanov; in scenography - in the work of P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism also inherent in the sculptural portrait of F. I. Schubin, in painting - portrait of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied art of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast-iron casting, porcelain, crystal, furniture, calf tissues, etc.

A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European Fine Arts).

Theatre. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, due to which the theater was established in a number of "high" arts. Samples of theatrical art of the French saw in the Italian "scientific theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the legislator of tastes and cultural values, then the court ceremony and festivities, ballets, solemn techniques were influenced by the stage style. The principles of theatrical classicism were developed at the Paris Snaps: in the head of Mondori theater "Mare" (1634), in the Cardinal Richelieu "Pale-Cardinal" (1641, from 1642 "Pale-Royal"), whose device responded to high demands of Italian scenic equipment ; In the 1640s, the Burgundian hotel became the platform of theatrical classicism. The simultaneous scenery gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by a picturesque and uniform promising decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); A curtain appeared, which rose and sank at the beginning and at the end of the performance. The scene was to frame as a picture. The game unfolded only on the outstandence; The performance was centered by several figures of protagonist characters. An architectural backdrop, a single place of action, a combination of acting and picturesque plans, the total three-dimensional Mizanszen contributed to the creation of the illusion of truth. In the stage classicism of the 17th century, the concept of the "fourth wall" existed. "He comes in this way - he wrote about the actor F. E. A'obignac (" Theater Practice ", 1657), - As if the viewers do not exist at all: his characters act and say as if they really were kings, not Mondori and Belzosis, as if they were in the Palace Horace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and hear only those who are present on the stage (i.e. in the place in the place). "

In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Cornel, J. Rasin) to change the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of Pieces A. Ardi (amounted to the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe V. Lekontta in the 1st third of the 17th century) came static and deepeble attention to mental The world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. New dramaturgy demanded changes in the executive art. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating his game portrait of a contemporary close-up; His costume stylized for antiquity corresponded to modern fashion, plastic was subordinate to the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor was supposed to have a speaker pathos, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Shanmele J. Rasin inscribed notes over rows of roles), the art of an eloquent gesture, dancer skills, even physical power. The drama of classicism contributed to the emergence of the school of the stage declamation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main expressive means of the French actor. A. Vitesz called the declamination of the 17th century "prosodic architecture." The performance was built in the logical interaction of the monologues. Using the word, the technique of excitation of emotion and control of it was carried out; From the strength of voting, his soundness, timbre, possession of paints and intonation, the success of execution was depended.

"Andromaha" J. Rasin in the Burgundy hotel. Engraving F. Shawovo. 1667.

The separation of theatrical genres on the "high" (tragedy in the Burgundy hotel) and "low" (comedy in the "Pale-Royal" of the Moliere time), the appearance of the role was secured by the hierarchical structure of the classicism theater. Staying within the boundaries of the "refined" nature, the drawing of the execution and outlines of the image was determined by the individuality of the largest actors: the manner of J. Floridor's declamation was more natural than that of an overly positive belost; M. Shanmele was characterized by a sonorous and singer "speech", and Montflery did not know the passion in affects. The presentation of the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to the level of shoulders, and palms facing the audience; disgust - head, turned to right, and hands that repulse the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degenerate style.

In the 18th century, despite the decisive waste of the theater towards the educational democratism, the actors "Comedi Francaise" A. Lekurren, M. Baron, A. L. Lenin, Dimeril, Claron, L. Previl developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and requests Epochs. They retreated from the classic norms of the declaignation, reformed costume and attempted to direct the performance, creating an acting ensemble. At the beginning of the 19th century, in the midst of the struggle of romantics with the tradition of the "courtie" theater, F. J. Talma, M. Jhorzh, Mars proved the viability of the classic repertoire and performing manner, and in the work of Rachel classicism in the romantic era again gained the meaning of "high "And in demand style. Traditions of classicism continued to influence the theater culture of France at the turn of the 19-20 centuries and even later. The combination of the styles of classicism and modernity is typical of the game of J. Muna-Sully, S. Bernard, B. K. Cockle. In the 20th century, the French directorial theater became close to the European, the stage style lost its national specificity. However, significant events in the French theater of the 20th century correlate with the traditions of classicism: the performances of J. Sopo, J. L. Barro, L. Zhuva, J. Vilara, Vitez experiments with a classic of the 17th century, R. Tamstone, J. Desault and etc.

Lost in the 18th century the value of the dominant style in France, classicism found successors in other European countries. I.V. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism in the Weimar Theater leadership. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neumber and the actor K. Ekgf in Germany, English actors T. Beterton, J. Quen, J. Kamble, S. Siddonsus promoted classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, turned out to be small and, Ultimately, they were rejected. Stage classicism became the object of the pan-European controversy and thanks to the German, and for them and Russian theoretics of the theater received the definition of "Flapsclass".

In Russia, classic style worried flourishing at the beginning of the 19th century in the work of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semenovoy, later manifested itself in the achievements of the Petersburg theater school in the face of V. V. Samoilova (see Samoyov, V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygin), then Yu. M. Yuryeva.

E. I. Galfunkel.

Music. The term "classicism" in relation to music implies not the orientation of the ancient samples (only monuments of an ancient Greek musical theory were known and studied), and a series of reforms designed to end the baroque styles in the music theater. Classicist and baroque trends were contradictory in the French music tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative Commonwealth of the Librettist F. Cinema and Composer J. B. Lully, Opera and Opera Ballets J. F. Ramo) and in Italian opera series, which took the leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The flourishing of the French musical tragedy came to the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of the heroes and citizenship of the period of struggle for the national state were replaced by the spirit of festivity and the parade official, a luxury and sophisticated hedonism. The sharpness of a typical conflict of the conflict of feelings and debt in the conditions of mythological or knightly legendary plot of the musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with the tragedy in the dramatic theater). The requirements of the classicism are associated with the requirements of genre purity (lack of comedy and household episodes), unity of action (often also place and time and time), "classical" 5-acting composition (often with a prologue). The central position in musical drama occupies a recitative - an element, the closest rationalistic verbal and conceptual logic. In the intonation sphere, the declamation-pathetic formulas (questionative, imperative, etc.) are dominated in the intonational sphere, at the same time rhetorical and symbolic figures, characteristic of baroque opera, are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral and idyllic topics, the overall orientation for entertainment and entertainment (which ended up the dominant) to the greater the traditions of Baroque, rather than the principles of classicism.

The cultivation of singing virtuosity, the development of the decorative element, was traditional for Italy. In line with the requirements of classicism nominated by some representatives of the Roman Academy "Arkady", the North-Italian Librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, J. Friedimelika-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariat, A. Salvi, A. Piogen) expelled from serious opera comic and household episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; The circle of the plots was limited to historical and historical and legendary, anticipating and ethical issues were put forward to the fore. In the center of the artistic concept of the early opera-series - the sublime heroic image of the monarch, the less often of the statesman, the court, epic hero, demonstrating the positive qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, dedication to debt, heroic enthusiasm. A 3-acting structure for the Italian opera was preserved (5-acting dramas remained experiments), but the number of acting persons declined, intonational expressive tools, forms of overtures and arias, the structure of vocal parties were typed in music. The type of dramaturgy, fully subordinate to the musical tasks, developed (since the 1720s) P. Metastasio, with the name of which the vertex stage in the history of the opera series is connected. In his plots, classic pathos is noticeably weakened. The conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protested "misconceptions" of the main actors, and not as a result of the real contradiction of their interests or principles. However, a special addiction to the idealized sense expression, to the noble gusts of the human soul, albeit distant from a strict rational justification, ensured the exclusive popularity of the metastasio libretto for more than half a century.

The culmination in the development of the musical classicism of the Epoch of Enlightenment (in the 1760-70s) was the creative Commonwealth of K. V. Glitka and Librettist R. Calckebiji. In the operations and ballets of the glitch, classic tendencies expressed in emphasized attention to ethical issues, the development of ideas about heroic and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period - in direct contact with the topic of debt and feelings). The norms of classicism also corresponded to genre purity, the desire to maximize the concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, strict selection of expressive means in accordance with the tasks of a particular dramatic situation, the limit restriction of the decorative element, the virtuoso start in singing. The enlightening nature of the interpretation of images affected the plexus of noble qualities inherent in classic heroes, with the naturalness and freedom of feelings, reflecting the effect of sentimentalism.

In the 1780-90s, the tendency of revolutionary classicism, reflecting the ideals of the French revolution of the 18th century, are found in the French Music Theater. Genetically associated with the preceding stage and presented mainly by the generation of composers-followers of the glukovskoy opera reform (E. Megyul, L. Kerubini), the revolutionary classicism accentuated, primarily a civil, thiranobor paphos, previously peculiar to the tragedies of P. Cornell, Voltaire. Unlike the works of the 1760-70s, in which the permission of the tragic conflict was difficult to find it and required the intervening of external forces (the tradition of "Deus Ex Machina" - the Latin "God from the car"), for the writings of the 1780-1790s Through the heroic act (refusal of obedience, protest, often an act of retaliation, the murder of Tirana, etc.), which created a bright and spectacular discharge of tension. A similar type of dramaturgy is based on the "Opera Salvation" genre, which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of the classic opera and realistic Meshchansky drama.

In Russia, in the music theater, the original manifestations of classicism are identical (Opera "Cefal and Princis" F. Araii, Orpheus Melodrama E. I. Fomina, Music O. A. Kozlovsky to tragedies V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Georgintsev).

In relation to the comic opera, as well as the instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not related to theatrical action, the term "classicism" is largely applied conditional. It is sometimes used in the expansion sense to designate the initial stage of the classic and romantic era, gallant and classic styles (see the article by the Vienna classic school, classic in music), in particular in order to avoid evaluation (for example, when translating the German term "Klassik" or in The expression "Russian Classicism", distributed to the entire Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th century).

In the 19th century, classicism in the music theater is inferior to romanticism, although certain features of the classic aesthetics are sporadically reborn (in Spontini, Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, etc.). In the 20th century, classic artistic principles were revived in neoclassicism.

P. V. Lutsk.

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