Where was the golden horde. The formation of the golden horde, its socio-political system and disintegration

Introduction

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, whose possessions were in Europe and Asia. Its military power constantly kept all neighbors in suspense and for a very long time was not disputed by anyone. The monarchs of even distant countries strove to establish friendly relations with her and to support them with all their might. The most adventurous merchants traveled great distances to reach its capital, which was rightfully reputed to be the largest trading base between East and West. Travelers and trade caravans, true stories and incredible legends about the peoples inhabiting the Golden Horde, their peculiar customs and nomadic life, about the wealth and power of the khans who ruled here, countless herds of cattle and endless steppes, where one could not meet for weeks one man. True and fictional stories about the huge state of nomads continued to exist even after its disappearance. And today interest in it has not waned, and its history has long been studied in many countries. But until now, in the assessment of many political and everyday aspects of the life and history of the Golden Horde, the most opposite opinions are encountered. And besides, to this day there is in scientific works and educational literature, and just in the most widespread perception of history, a number of delusions or established stereotypes associated with the Golden Horde. This applies to its territory and borders, the name of the state, the presence of cities, the development of culture, the relationship between the concepts of "Mongols" and "Tatars", some moments of political history, etc. Most of the widespread clichés about the Golden Horde originated in the last century, and their existence is connected exclusively with disregard for the study of this largely unique state. The obvious and sharply negative role of the Golden Horde in the history of Russia is first of all striking when one gets acquainted with any source that reveals their relationship. As a result, a situation was created in science when, for the most part, not so much the Golden Horde itself was studied, but its influence on Russia and their relationship. Moreover, even this side was often limited to a set of the most general judgments and declarative statements, always supported by well-known quotations from the works of Karl Marx. But the emotionally deep and politically accurate thoughts of Marx would sound even more vivid if they were supplemented by a variety of specific historical facts, events and figures. As for the study of the Golden Horde itself, it was dominated by the opinion of it as an oppressor state that did not deserve the attention of Soviet historians. Editors were especially careful and vigilant when publishing stories on the Golden Horde themes. Any positive fact in relation to the Mongol state seemed inconceivable and was questioned. It cannot be said that the Golden Horde became a taboo topic in science, but it was clearly undesirable. The political conjuncture also left an imprint on this, when in the 60s Mao Zedong attributed all the Mongol conquests of the 13th century. the Chinese state, extending its western limits to the Danube, although China itself was conquered by Genghis Khan and his sons, and for many years was under the rule of the Mongols. But in spite of everything, the Golden Horde theme was and remains one of the traditional in Russian pre-revolutionary and then Soviet historical science. Without knowledge of the history and ways of development of a huge, powerful, in many ways unusual and in the full sense of the word bloodthirsty state (only a few years of its existence were peaceful!), It is impossible to understand many aspects of the formation and growth of medieval Russia, it is impossible to fully assess the course of events in European politics in the 13th - XV centuries.

Russia during the period of the Golden Horde.

Mongolian conquest of Russia.

When the morning sun peeped out from behind the peaks of the distant mountains, the shamans harmoniously hit the tambourines. Long rows of people gathered in anticipation began to move. The worshipers took off their hats, unbuttoned and threw belts around their necks and began to bow in the direction of sunrise. So, according to the established ritual in Karakorum - the capital of the Mongol Empire - the next kurultai (congress of the nobility) began. It was 1235. At the call of the chief khan Ogedei, the son and successor of Genghis Khan1 on the Mongol throne, governors and military leaders gathered from all over the great power. The ruling elite had to discuss plans for further action.

By that time, the Mongols had already captured South Siberia, Central Asia and Kazakhstan, part of China, and Iran. All the conquered lands joined different uluses - specific khanates, which Genghis Khan once gave to his sons. He gave the northwestern territories to his firstborn Jochi. Jochi himself by 1235. was no longer alive, but his children grew up. They wanted to rule over the paternal ulus and expand its boundaries by subjugating neighboring peoples. Now the eldest sons of Jochi - Ordu and Batu (Batu) - also came to the kurultai.

Supreme Khan Ogedei reminded the participants of the kurultai that Genghis Khan once ordered Jochi to organize a campaign against the "Orosuts and Cherkisuts", i.e. to Russia and the North Caucasus. Death prevented the fulfillment of the father's will. "Now it is the duty of the Mongol nobility," said Ogedei, "to carry out this testament of Genghis Khan." But the peoples of Eastern Europe are very strong and numerous. Therefore, Ulus Jochi alone is not enough, and the entire empire is obliged to help the Horde and Bat in this war.

It should be noted that the main reasons for the campaigns of conquest were:

Conquest of new pastures;

Kurultai sentenced: Batu will be at the head of the army, because the conquered lands will join him. The lot of his older brother, Ordu, was by that time formed on the territory of Kazakhstan. Secondly, all other uluses of the Mongol Empire had to allocate a warrior from every ten. Thirdly, since Batu did not yet have the experience of long battles, Genghis Khan's old comrade-in-arms, the commander Subedei, was appointed the main military commander.

The actual number of Batu's army was about 200 thousand nomads, of which up to 130 thousand were directly opposed to Russia. The Mongols defeated the Polovtsian nomads who lived in the steppes between the Urals and the Don; occupied the Volga Bulgaria (a state located on the territory of present-day Tartary and Chuvashia). In the late autumn of 1237. Batu and Subedei led their army to the Russian borders.

Russia at that time consisted of several isolated principalities and lands. The first battle on the Kalka River (May 31, 1223), in which the troops of several Russian princes were completely defeated, did not lead to rallying before the impending danger. That defeat was perceived as a sad episode, an accidental raid by an unknown people who disappeared as quickly as they appeared. And now these "unknown yazyts" in great numbers were moving to Russia.

The first to worry was the Ryazan prince Yuri Igorevich, whose possessions bordered on the nomadic steppes. He sent for help to Vladimir and Chernigov, but did not meet understanding there. On December 21, 1237, after a five-day siege and assault with the use of rams and throwing guns, Ryazan fell. The city was burned, some of the inhabitants were exterminated, some were taken away to the full. During January, the Mongols devastated the Ryazan principality. Russian troops suffered another defeat - near Kolomna.

Despite the rather slow progress (due to the difficulties of the winter road and the resistance of the Russians), the army of Batu was approaching Vladimir. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich retired to the forests of the upper Volga region, where he began to gather the troops of the vassal princes. The capital, which remained almost without protection, underwent a three-day siege, and on February 7, 1238. the Mongols fell into the city. Soon, ruins were in its place. From here Batu and his commander Subedei sent troops in 3 directions. One part moved against the grand ducal host. The nomads managed to imperceptibly approach the positions of Yuri Vsevolodovich and unexpectedly fell upon his military camp on the Sit River. In March 1238. the army was destroyed, and the prince himself was killed.

The second part smashed cities and villages in the forest Trans-Volga region; one of the detachments even made it to Vologda. The third army moved in the North-West direction, to the Novgorod borders. Batu almost reached Novgorod, but it was spring. The flooding of the rivers threatened to cut off the Mongol army from the steppe, already weakened by the struggle with the population of North-Eastern Russia. The Mongols deployed on a broad front and rushed south. The entire territory of Russia, which was covered by this spring offensive, was devastated and depopulated.

By the summer of 1238. the Mongol army withdrew to the Wild Field. But the conquest of Russia was not completed. After all, the southern principalities remained unconquered - Kiev, Galicia-Volyn. In the autumn of 1240. Batu and Subadey set out on a new campaign. The story was also repeated as in the north: each principality met the enemy alone. The Mongols first took Chernigov, and the last stronghold of the defense of Kiev was destroyed on December 6, 1240.

This was followed by the turn of the Volyn lands. The southwestern principalities were subjected to a brutal pogrom and plunder. Only the most impregnable fortresses were able to survive. With the arrival of spring, the battles moved to the territory of Hungary and Poland. Mongol troops reached the borders of the Holy Roman Empire and Italy. However, at first, frightened by Europe, it was preparing to confront Batu with united forces. And the number of his troops was too small to hold such vast territories. In addition, according to the will of Genghis Khan, Batu should have been limited to the conquest of Russia in the west, which now remained in the rear of the Mongols. Taking advantage of the death of Ogedei in the distant Karakorum, under the pretext of the necessity of his presence at the elections of a new sovereign, Batu announced his return to the Volga steppes. On the territory of the conquered Volga region, the Northern Black Sea region, the North Caucasus and Moldova, the dominance of Jochi spread. These lands were considered the part where Batu and his descendants were to rule.

Thus, Ulus Jochi began to be divided into 2 parts: in one of them - to the west of the Ural River to the Danube - Batu was the khan; in the other - in the east - in Kazakhstan and Western Siberia - there was the Horde Khanate, his older brother. The Russians called the Mongol state the Horde. Since the 16th century in the Russian language the name "Golden Horde" has been assigned to it (after the name of the ceremonial khan's tent, since one of the literal meanings of the word "horde" is the khan's headquarters, camp).

The invasion of Batu was not a simple predatory raid of nomads. The Mongol nobility sought not only to profit from the riches of Russia, but also to subordinate the Russian principalities to their power, to include them in their empire. The fragmentation of the Russian lands played a key role, preventing them from repelling the invasion of the conquerors. A long era began in the history of Russia, which is characterized by the old name "yoke" 2 (yoke).

State structure of the Golden Horde.

Territory of the Golden Horde.

First, two important points should be noted. First, the territory of the state did not remain stable, changing throughout the entire period of its existence; it either decreased or increased again. Secondly, the specificity of the Golden Horde borders was that all the surrounding peoples tried to settle as far as possible from the areas inhabited by the Mongols because of a completely backward concern for their own safety. As a result, “empty spaces”, or, to use the modern term, neutral zones, arose along the perimeter of the Golden Horde nomads. In landscape terms, they usually represented transitional forest-steppe regions. As a rule, they were used alternately by one or the other side for economic and commercial purposes. For example, if in the summer the Horde grazed their cattle here, in the winter the Russians were engaged in hunting. True, it should be noted that such neutral zones are especially characteristic only for the 13th century. - the period of the greatest military aggressiveness of the Mongols. In the XIV century. they gradually begin to be mastered by the sedentary peoples surrounding the Golden Horde.

Building power in the Golden Horde.

From the first year of its existence, the Golden Horde was not a sovereign state, and the khan who headed it was also not considered an independent ruler. This was due to the fact that the possessions of the Jochids, like other Mongol princes, legally constituted a single empire with a central government in Rakorum. According to one of the articles of the yasa (law) of Genghis Khan, who was here, the kaan had the right to a certain part of the income from all the territories conquered by the Mongols. Moreover, he had in these areas owned by him personally. The creation of such a system of close interlacing and interpenetration was associated with an attempt to prevent the inevitable disintegration of a huge empire into separate independent parts. Only the central Karakorum government was competent to solve the most important economic and political issues. The strength of the central government, due to the remoteness of its stay, perhaps only based on the authority of Genghis Khan, was still so great that the khans of Batu and Berke continued to adhere to the "path of sincerity, obedience, friendship and like-mindedness" towards Karakorum.

But in the 60s of the XIII century. around the Karakorum throne, an internecine struggle flared up between Khubilai and Arik Buga. The victorious Khubilai moved the capital from Karakorum to the territory of conquered China in Khan-Balyk (present-day Beijing). Mengu-Timur, who ruled in the Golden Horde at that time, supported Arik-Bugu in the struggle for supreme power, hastened to take advantage of the excuse presented and did not recognize Kubilai's rights as the supreme ruler of the entire empire, since he left the capital of its founder and abandoned the indigenous yurts to the mercy of fate all Genghisids - Mongolia. From that moment on, the Golden Horde gained complete independence in resolving all issues of a foreign policy and internal nature, and such a carefully guarded unity of the empire laid by Genghis Khan suddenly exploded, and it fell to pieces.

Administrative structure of the Golden Horde

However, by the time of the acquisition of full political sovereignty in the Golden Horde, of course, there already existed its own internal state structure, moreover, it was sufficiently developed and developed. There is nothing surprising in the fact that it basically copied the system introduced in Mongolia by Genghis Khan. The basis of this system was the army decimal calculation of the entire population of the country. In accordance with the army division, the entire state was divided into right and left wings.

In the Juchi ulus, the right wing made up the possessions of Khan Batu, stretching from the Danube to the Irtysh. The left wing was ruled by his older brother, the Horde Khan. It occupied lands in the south of modern Kazakhstan along the Syr Darya and to the east of it. According to the ancient Mongolian tradition, the right wing was called Ak-Orda (White Horde), and the left-Kok-Orda (Blue). It follows from the above that the concepts of "Golden Horde" and "ulus Jochi" in territorial and state-legal relations are not synonymous. Ulus Jochi after 1242. divided into two wings, which made up the independent possessions of two khans - Batu and Horde. However, the khans of the Kok-Orda throughout its history retained a certain (largely purely formal) political dependence in relation to the khans of the Golden Horde (Ak-Orda). In turn, the territory under the rule of Batu was also divided into right and left wings. In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, the wings corresponded to the largest administrative units of the state. But by the end of the XIII century. they turned from administrative to purely army concepts and survived only in relation to military units.

In the administrative structure of the state, the wings were replaced by a more convenient subdivision into four main territorial units, headed by ulusbeks. These four ulus were the largest administrative divisions. They were called Sarai, Desht-i-Kypchak, Crimea, Khorezm. In the most general form, he described the administrative system of the Golden Horde as early as the 13th century. traveled the whole state from west to east G. Rubruk. According to him, the Mongols “divided Scythia among themselves, which stretches from the Danube to sunrise; and every ruler knows, depending on whether he has under his authority more or less people, the boundaries of his pastures, and also where he should graze his flocks in winter, summer, spring and autumn. It is in the winter that they descend to the south to warmer countries, in the summer they rise to the north, to colder ones. " This sketch of the traveler contains the basis of the administrative-territorial division of the Golden Horde, which was defined by the concept of "ulus system". Its essence was the right of nomadic feudal lords to receive from the khan himself or another large steppe aristocrat a certain lot - ulus. For this, the owner of the ulus was obliged to exhibit, if necessary, a certain number of fully armed soldiers (depending on the size of the ulus), as well as to fulfill various tax and economic duties. This system was an exact copy of the structure of the Mongolian army: the entire state - the Great Ulus - was divided according to the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion's, foreman) - into certain portions, and from each of them, in case of war, ten, one hundred , a thousand or ten thousand armed soldiers. At the same time, the uluses were not hereditary possessions that could be passed from father to son. Moreover, the khan could take away the ulus completely or replace it with another.

In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, there were apparently no more than 15 large uluses, and rivers most often served as the borders between them. This shows a certain primitiveness of the administrative division of the state, rooted in the old nomadic traditions. Further development of statehood, the emergence of cities, the introduction of Islam, a closer acquaintance with the Arab and Persian traditions of government led to various complications in the possessions of the Jochids, with the simultaneous withering away of Central Asian customs dating back to the time of Genghis Khan. Instead of dividing the territory into two wings, as already mentioned, four ulus appeared, led by ulusbeks. Each of these four uluses was divided into a certain number of "regions", which were uluses of the next rank feudal lords. In total, the Golden Horde has a number of such "regions" in the XIV century. was about 70 in terms of the number of temniks.

Simultaneously with the establishment of the administrative-territorial division, the state administration apparatus was formed. The period of the reign of the khans Batu and Berke can rightfully be called organizational in the history of the Golden Horde. Batu laid the basic foundations of the state, preserved under all subsequent khans. The feudal possessions of the aristocracy were formalized, an apparatus of officials appeared, the capital was founded, the Yam communication was organized between all uluses, taxes and duties were approved and distributed. The rule of Batu and Berke is characterized by the absolute power of the khans, whose authority was associated in the minds of the subjects with the size of the wealth they plundered. Naturally, it was quite difficult for the khan, who was in constant motion, to manage the affairs of the state himself. This is also emphasized by sources that directly report that the supreme ruler "pays attention only to the essence of affairs, without entering the details of the circumstances, and is content with what is reported to him, but does not seek out details regarding collection and spending."

Russia and the Golden Horde: the organization of power

The Russian people who fell under the power of the conquerors had to learn to live in new conditions, under a new state system.

But before the whole system of the Golden Horde was organized, between Russia and the Golden Horde, immediately after the conquered, relations of domination and subordination were established, although they did not have time to result in complete forms. Under 1243, in the same chronicle, we read the entry: “The Grand Duke Yaroslav (brother of Yuri Vsevolodovich, killed on the City River, and his successor on the Vladimir table) noexa to the Tatars to Batuvi, and his son Konstantin, the ambassador to Kanovi. Baty is almost Yaroslav with a great honor and his men, and let him go rivers: “Yaroslav! wake you old with all the prince in the Russian language ”. Did Yaroslav return to his land with great honor? " The great khan was not satisfied with the visit of Constantine; Yaroslav himself had to go to the banks of the Orkhon River to the khan's headquarters. In 1246, the famous Franciscan Plano Carpini, sent by the Pope at the head of a mission to the Mongol khan in order to collect information about the Tatars, which the Europeans, frightened by the invasion of Vata and Europe, became very interested, met the Russian prince Yaroslav in the horde. Plano Carpini in his report says, among other things, that he and Prince Yaroslav were favored by the Tatars. In addition to the Vladimir-Suzdal land, Kiev was also approved for Yaroslav. But Yaroslav himself went to Kiev, and put boyar Dmitry Eikovich there as his governor. The Russian lands conquered by the Tatar army did not become directly part of the Golden Horde.

Collecting tribute and establishing power.

The Golden Horde khans viewed the Russian lands as politically autonomous, having their own power, but being dependent on the khans and obliged to pay tribute to them - a “way out”. In addition to the "exit", there were emergency payments - requests. If the khan needed funds for the war, then he sent an unexpected "request" to Russia, which was also collected rigorously. Huge riches were spent on gifts to the khan, his relatives, ambassadors, bribes to courtiers and bribery of Horde officials.

It was announced to the princes and the population that henceforth the supreme ruler of Russia was the head of the Mongol Empire, and Khan Batu exercised direct control. For the Horde Khan the name "tsar" was fixed 3. Russian feudal principalities became vassals to the khan. All the princes who survived the invasion had to come to Bat and receive a label from him - a letter of gratitude, which confirmed his authority to govern the principality. Dependence on the khans was expressed in the fact that the Russian Grand Duke sat down on his table with "the tsarev's grant," that is, the khan's. This was done on behalf of the khan either by the Russian metropolitan, or by the authorized khan. The prince, seated on the table on behalf of the khan, was placed at the same time under the control of the khan's authority. This applies not only to the Grand Duke, but also to other princes. This control was carried out by the Baskaks. Kursk Baskak Akhmat held the Basque princes of the Kursk prince, others - according to other princes.

But already from the end of the XIII century, more precisely - from the first half of the XIV century, the Tatar Baskaks disappeared. The collection of the Tatar tribute is entrusted to the Russian princes under the responsibility of the grand duke. The power of the khan in relation to these vassal princes was also formally expressed in the fact that these princes were confirmed on their princely tables by the khans by giving them labels. The eldest among the princes, or the grand duke, also received a special label for the great reign. Everyone had to pay for the Tatar “exit”. For this purpose, the Tatars carried out population censuses. For the first census and collection of tribute, Batu sent the Baskaks. A new census was made, as we have seen, in 1257 during the reign of Khan Berk, who had already sent special census officers for this. These clerks, according to the testimony of the Laurentian Chronicle, appointed foremen, centurions, tysyatsky and temniks. In the 70s of the XIII century. there was a new census under Khan Mengu-Timur. The sources speak unclear about the year of this census. Our chronicles do not mention other Tatar censuses, but in other sources we have indications of the continuation of this practice.

We do not know exactly how the censuses were made in order to collect tribute before the Tatars, but we have absolutely exact facts about the collection of tribute and the units of taxation ("ralo", "plow", "plow"). These ready-made units of taxation were used by the Tatars.

Tatishchev reports that in 1275 the Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavich "brought the khan half a quarter from a plow, or from two workers, and that the khan, dissatisfied with the tribute, ordered to rewrite the people in Russia again." Here we, apparently, have Tatishchev's unsuccessful attempt to explain the essence of the plow: the plow was hardly represented by two workers, but, of course, Tatishchev did not invent the plow here, but took it from a chronicle that has not come down to us. In the label of Khan Mengu-Timur to the Russian metropolitans, written between 1270 and 1276, we have a list of duties that fell on the population of the conquered Russian lands, but which the clergy got rid of.

We have the same, only slightly expanded list in the label of Khan Uzbek in 1313. Metropolitan Peter. Here it is said twice about "popluzhny". In the label 1270-1276. the collectors of popluzhny are also called, and it turns out that these collectors are not khan's, but Russian princes. Only the clergy were relieved of the "numbers" and the resulting obligation to pay tribute. This was the policy of the Tatar khans in relation to the church, which the khans quite rightly considered a political force and used in their own interests. And the khans were not mistaken in this regard: the public prayer of the clergy for the khans introduced to the masses the idea of ​​the need to subordinate the Tatar authorities.

In addition to tribute, the Tatars demanded certain duties from the Russian population, without which the Tatars could not exercise their power.

They divided the entire territory of the occupied country into tumens or darkness - districts capable of putting 10 thousand combat-ready men in the militia in case of war. The people in tumens were distributed in thousands, hundreds and tens. In North-Eastern Russia, the conquerors formed 15 tumens; in southern Russia - 14 tumens.

As we have already seen, the Tatar khans demanded, first of all, money and people from the conquered lands. By freeing the clergy from these duties and payments, the khans also exempted them from the supply of soldiers, carts, and pit duties. Gathering warriors from conquered peoples is a common technique of the Tatar government. As for other duties, where human power was used directly, here it is necessary, first of all, to point out the Yamsk duty, which, apparently, did not immediately become natural. In the first label we know, "yam" means a kind of tribute. But the Tatar khans also introduced "yam" as a duty to supply horses to Tatar ambassadors and officials. Its essence was that Russia was included in the general system of routes and communications of the Mongol Empire. At certain distances, stables and inns were established on the roadways. The surrounding population served there, which supplied the horses. Such a point was called yam, and its servants were called yamchi4. The task of the yamcha was to ensure the non-stop movement of messengers with khan's orders, to keep ready and present fresh horses to the passing ambassadors and officials.

But, as mentioned above, the collection of tribute was carried out by Tatar officials for a relatively short time. Already from the end of the XIII century. this responsibility was entrusted to the Russian princes. They themselves and in their own way had to collect it and deliver it to the Horde. All princes must send their tributaries, but the collected amounts are handed over to the treasury of the grand duke, who is responsible to the khan for the "exit". The dimensions of the "exit" were not stable. The amount of tribute varied depending on various circumstances: either the princes themselves, competing with each other because of the great reign, threw in amounts, then the khans increased these amounts, guided by different considerations. We know some numbers. Grand Duke Vladimir Dmitrievich paid an "exit" of seven thousand rubles, the Nizhny Novgorod principality - one and a half thousand rubles, etc.

Another means of keeping Rus in obedience was the repeated Mongol raids. According to historians, in the second half of the 13th century, the enemy invaded Russian borders fourteen times.

Relations of the Russian people with the Tatar-Mongolian.

Russian princes for the most part were aware of the power of the Golden Horde and tried for the time being to get along peacefully with the conquerors. In those conditions, this was the only way to save your people, the population of your principality from death or from being driven into slavery. The beginning of such a conciliatory policy was laid by Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. His son Alexander Nevsky continued it. Prince Alexander repeatedly traveled to the Horde, visited Mongolia and managed to win over the Mongol nobility. Since the khan was considered the sovereign of Russia, the issues of priority in obtaining labels were decided at the Horde court. There were frequent intrigues between princes, taunting high-ranking Mongol officials, slander and slander of rivals. The government of the Golden Horde was interested in stirring up these strife. Gradually, the khans became so confident in the obedience of Russia and its princes that in the 14th century they recalled their representatives to collect tribute and bring it to the Horde. It was this right that later became the strongest weapon in the hands of such an intelligent and resourceful politician as the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita. The Moscow authorities have an opportunity to accumulate funds to attract supporters and intimidate opponents.

With the weakening of the Horde in the second half of the 14th century, the yoke became less severe. The steppe power, which had begun to split up, could no longer organize large invasions of Russia, and the Russians learned to repel the frequent raids of scattered nomadic detachments. An attempt at a punitive campaign against the Moscow principality in 1380. ended with the disastrous defeat of the Horde troops on the Kulikovo field. True, after two Khan Tokhtamysh nevertheless took Moscow by deception and burned it, but these were already the last decades of the relative unity and power of the Horde.

The two and a half centuries of the Horde yoke were not a continuous streak of hardships and hardships for the Russian people. Perceiving conquest as a necessary temporary evil, our ancestors learned to benefit from a close relationship with the Horde. The Russians adopted some combat skills and tactics of operations from the Tatars. Something passed to Russia from the Horde economy: the well-known word “customs” comes from the name of the Horde tax “tamga” (trade duty), and the word “money” itself came to us in those years from the East. A caftan, a shoe, a cap - these and other garments, along with their names, were taken over from their eastern neighbors. The Yamskaya service on the roads of Russia survived the Golden Horde for several centuries.

Mixed marriages also contributed to the mutual penetration of cultures. Often our young men married Tatars. Sometimes a political calculation also acted - after all, it was considered extremely prestigious to become related with the Horde nobility or even with the khan himself. Later, the Tatar nobles began to move to Russia after the fall of the Golden Horde and laid the foundation for such famous families as the Godunovs, Glinsky, Turgenevs, Sheremetyevs, Urusovs, Shakhmatovs.

Conclusion.

Summing up all of the above, it should be noted that before the conquest campaigns, the Mongol nomadic tribes were at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system. By the early 13th century, the scattered Mongol tribes were united under the rule of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan managed to create a huge steppe empire during his campaigns of conquest, which had no equal in history.

In 1211 they conquered the lands of the Buryats, Yakuts, Kirghiz and Uighurs. In 1217. - China. From 1219-1221. the whole of Central Asia was conquered. In 1220-1222. - Transcaucasia, North Caucasus. In 1236-1242. campaigns were organized to the Volga Bulgaria, to Russia, to Western Europe (Poland, Hungary, the Balkans, the Czech Republic).

The main reasons for the campaigns of conquest were:

The desire of the tribal nobility for enrichment;

Conquest of new pastures;

Striving to secure their own borders;

Gaining control over trade routes;

Collecting tribute from the conquered states.

The political dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde manifested itself in:

Russian princes were vassals;

The khans watched over the power of the Russian princes;

The princes were given labels - khan's letters confirming their appointment;

Power was maintained through terror;

The economic dependence manifested itself in the fact that not only tribute was taken from the inhabitants, but also populace, yam, "fodder", soldiers and artisans were collected.

The history of Russia can be studied as a single subject, or it can be divided into periods, indicating the characteristics of each of them. In this case, the most important frontier in Russian history will be the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which divided it into "pre-Mongol" and "post-Mongol" times. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Horde yoke that followed it changed to the extreme the face of Ancient Russia in political and cultural relations.

Of course, the cities did not budge, the rivers did not flow backwards; however, the laws, the organization of power, the political map and even clothes, coins, the simplest household items - all this has ceased to be the same as it was in the pre-Mongol era. Russia was strongly influenced by the Horde culture, adopted the Horde political traditions and military customs.

Thus, the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia can be characterized as follows:

State order was strengthened;

Weakening of princely strife;

Yamskaya chase establishment;

Mutual borrowing in the economy, everyday life and language;

The invasion and yoke threw the Russian lands back in their development;

The population has decreased.

In conclusion, I would like to say that the Golden Horde broke up in the 15th century into separate independent principalities, after the ruler of Central Asia Timur invaded the Ulus Jochi three times. Although Timur did not annex the Horde to his empire, he finally plundered and weakened it. The largest formed principalities were the Crimean, Kazan, Siberian, Uzbek Khanates and the Nogai Horde.

The Big Horde in the lower reaches of the Volga is formally considered the successor of the Golden Horde. The khans of the Great Horde continued to demand tribute from the Russian princes and tried to persuade them to come for labels. In 1502. the ally of Ivan III, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, burned the Saray, and the last sovereign khan Akhmat, who fled to the steppe, was caught and stabbed to death by his legs. Thus ended the existence of Ulus Jochi - one of the most extensive and powerful states of the Middle Ages.

Bibliography

“Encyclopedia for Children. History of Russia: from the ancient Slavs to Peter the Great. " Volume 5, part 1. - Moscow, "Avanta +" 1995.

"History of Little Russia" - D.N. Batysh-Kamensky, Kiev, 1993, Hour Publishing House

"The Golden Horde: Myths and Reality" - V.L. Egorov, Moscow, 1990, Znaniye Publishing House

"The Golden Horde and its Fall" - B.D. Grekov, A. Yu. Yakubovsky,

Moscow, 1950, USSR Academy of Sciences Publishing House

1 The Mongol title of the supreme ruler, which Temujin received in 1206. for the unification of the Mongol nomadic tribes.

2 Yoke - political and economic dependence

3 Earlier, Russians only titled the Byzantine emperor in this way.

4 This is where the Russian word “coachman” came from.

The phenomenon of the Golden Horde still causes serious controversy among historians: some consider it a powerful medieval state, according to others, it was part of the Russian lands, and for others it did not exist at all.

Why the Golden Horde?

In Russian sources, the term "Golden Horde" appears only in 1556 in the "Kazan history", although among the Turkic peoples this phrase occurs much earlier.

However, the historian GV Vernadsky claims that in the Russian chronicles the term "Golden Horde" was originally called the tent of Khan Guyuk. The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta wrote about this, noting that the tents of the Horde khans were covered with plates of gilded silver.
But there is another version according to which the term "golden" is synonymous with the words "central" or "middle". This is exactly the position occupied by the Golden Horde after the collapse of the Mongol state.

As for the word "horde", in Persian sources it meant a mobile camp or headquarters, later it was used in relation to the whole state. In ancient Russia, an army was usually called a horde.

Boundaries

The Golden Horde is a fragment of the once mighty empire of Genghis Khan. By 1224, the Great Khan divided his vast possessions between his sons: one of the largest uluses with the center in the Lower Volga region went to the eldest son, Jochi.

The borders of the Jochi ulus, later the Golden Horde, were finally formed after the Western campaign (1236-1242), in which his son Batu participated (in Russian sources Batu). In the east, the Golden Horde included the Aral Lake, in the west - the Crimean peninsula, in the south it was adjacent to Iran, and in the north it rested against the Ural Mountains.

Device

The judgment of the Mongols as purely nomads and pastoralists should probably become a thing of the past. The vast territories of the Golden Horde required reasonable management. After the final separation from Karakorum, the center of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde is divided into two wings - western and eastern, and each has its own capital - in the first Sarai, in the second - the Horde-Bazar. In total, according to archaeologists, the number of cities in the Golden Horde reached 150!

After 1254, the political and economic center of the state completely passes into Sarai (located near modern Astrakhan), whose population at the time of its heyday reached 75 thousand people - a fairly large city by medieval standards. Here, minting of coins is being established, pottery, jewelry, glass-blowing crafts, as well as smelting and metal processing are developing. Sewerage and water supply were installed in the city.

Sarai was a multinational city - here the Mongols, Russians, Tatars, Alans, Bulgars, Byzantines and other peoples lived peacefully. The Horde, being an Islamic state, tolerated other faiths. In 1261, a diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church appeared in Sarai, and later a Catholic bishopric.

The cities of the Golden Horde are gradually turning into large centers of caravan trade. Everything from silk and spices to weapons and precious stones can be found here. The state is actively developing its trade zone: caravan routes from the Horde cities lead both to Europe and Russia, as well as to India and China.

Horde and Russia

In Russian historiography, for a long time, the main concept that characterizes the relationship between Russia and the Golden Horde was “yoke”. They drew us terrible pictures of the Mongol colonization of Russian lands, when wild hordes of nomads destroyed everyone and everything on their way, and those who survived were turned into slavery.

However, there was no term “yoke” in the Russian chronicles. It first appears in the works of the Polish historian Jan Dlugosz in the second half of the 15th century. Moreover, the Russian princes and Mongol khans, according to the researchers, preferred to negotiate rather than expose the lands to ruin.

LN Gumilev, by the way, considered the relationship between Russia and the Horde a beneficial military-political alliance, and N.M. Karamzin noted the most important role of the Horde in the rise of the Moscow principality.

It is known that Alexander Nevsky, having enlisted the support of the Mongols and insured his rear, was able to expel the Swedes and Germans from northwestern Russia. And in 1269, when the crusaders besieged the walls of Novgorod, the Mongol detachment helped the Russians repel their attack. The Horde sided with Nevsky in his conflict with the Russian nobility, and he, in turn, helped her resolve inter-dynastic disputes.
Of course, a significant part of the Russian lands was conquered by the Mongols and levied tribute, but the scale of the devastation is probably greatly exaggerated.

The princes who wished to cooperate received so-called "labels" from the khans, becoming, in fact, the Horde governors. The burden of duty for the lands controlled by the princes was significantly reduced. No matter how humiliating vassal dependence was, it still preserved the autonomy of the Russian principalities and prevented bloody wars.

The Church was completely freed by the Horde from paying tribute. The first label was issued to the clergy - Metropolitan Kirill Khan Mengu-Temir. History has preserved for us the words of the khan: "We gave favor, priests and monks and all poor people, but with a right heart they pray to God for us, and for our tribe without sorrow, bless us, but not curse us." The label ensured freedom of religion and the inviolability of church property.

G. V. Nosovsky and A. T. Fomenko in "New Chronology" put forward a very bold hypothesis: Russia and the Horde are one and the same state. They easily turn Batu into Yaroslav the Wise, Tokhtamysh into Dmitry Donskoy, and the capital of the Horde Sarai is transferred to Veliky Novgorod. However, the official history of this version is more than categorical.

Wars

Without a doubt, the Mongols were best at fighting. True, they took for the most part not by skill, but by number. The conquered peoples - Polovtsy, Tatars, Nogays, Bulgars, Chinese and even Russians - helped the armies of Genghis Khan and his descendants to conquer the space from the Sea of ​​Japan to the Danube. The Golden Horde was unable to keep the empire within its former limits, however, it cannot be denied militancy. The agile cavalry numbering hundreds of thousands of horsemen forced many to surrender.

For the time being, it was possible to maintain a fragile balance in relations between Russia and the Horde. But when the appetites of the temnik Mamai were played out in earnest, the contradictions between the parties resulted in the legendary battle on the Kulikovo field (1380). Its result was the defeat of the Mongol army and the weakening of the Horde. This event ends the period of the "Great Hush", when the Golden Horde was in a fever from civil strife and dynastic troubles.
The confusion ceased and power was strengthened with the accession to the throne of Tokhtamysh. In 1382 he again went to Moscow and resumed the payment of tribute. However, exhausting wars with the more combat-ready army of Tamerlane, in the end, undermined the former might of the Horde and for a long time discouraged the desire to make aggressive campaigns.

In the next century, the Golden Horde gradually began to "crumble" into pieces. So, one after another, the Siberian, Uzbek, Astrakhan, Crimean, Kazan Khanates and the Nogai Horde appeared within its borders. The weakening attempts of the Golden Horde to carry out punitive actions were suppressed by Ivan III. The famous "Standing on the Ugra" (1480) did not develop into a large-scale battle, but finally broke the last Horde Khan Akhmat. Since that time, the Golden Horde has formally ceased to exist.

K: Disappeared in 1483

Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turk. Ulu Ulus- "Great state") - a medieval state in Eurasia.

Title and boundaries

Name "Golden Horde" it was first used in Russia in 1566 in the historical and journalistic work "Kazan History", when the state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources the word “ Horde"Was used without the adjective" Gold". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to denote the Jochi ulus as a whole, or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.

In the actual Golden Horde and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It was usually denoted by the term " ulus", With the addition of any epithet ( "Ulug ulus") or the name of the ruler ( "Ulus Berke"), and not necessarily acting, but also reigning earlier (" Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, the sovereign of the land of Uzbek"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak... Word " horde"In the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of" country "begin to be found only from the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde"(Pers. آلتان اوردون, Urdu-i Zarrin) in the meaning" golden parade tent"Occurs in the description of the Arab traveler in relation to the residence of the Khan Uzbek. In Russian chronicles, the word "horde" usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country has become constant since the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, until that time the term "Tatars" was used as a name. In Western European sources, the names “ Comanov country», « The company" or " Tatar state», « land of the Tatars», « Tartary". The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(Tar-tar).

The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the XIV century, defined the boundaries of the Horde as follows:

History

Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

The division of the empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, made by 1224, can be considered the emergence of Ulus Jochi. After the Western campaign (1236-1242), led by the son of Jochi Batu (in the Russian chronicles Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai took place in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed the great khan. Batu, "the eldest of the family" ( aka), supported Mongke, probably hoping to get full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.

Separation from the Mongol Empire

With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was planted on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was restored again.

Rise of the Golden Horde

During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1313-1341) and his son Janibek (1342-1357), the Golden Horde reached its heyday. In the early 1320s, Uzbek Khan proclaimed Islam the state religion, threatening the "infidels" with physical violence. The rebellions of the emirs who did not want to accept Islam were brutally suppressed. The time of his khanation was notable for severe punishment. Russian princes, going to the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual wills and fatherly instructions to children, in case they died there. Several of them, in fact, were killed. Uzbek built the city of Saray al-Jedid ("New Palace"), paid much attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes have become not only safe, but also comfortable. The Horde carried on a lively trade with the countries of Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, China. After Uzbek, his son Janibek, whom the Russian chronicles call "kind", came to the throne of the khanate.

"Great Zamyatnya"

From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans were replaced on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources received the name "Great Zamyatnya".

Even during the life of Khan Janibek (no later than 1357), his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed in the Ulus of Shiban. And the assassination of Khan Berdibek (son of Janibek) in 1359 put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the emergence of various pretenders to the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time after the Ulus of Shibana found their own khans.

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyarbek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was Isatay's grandson, an influential emir of the times of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Chingizid, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the post of beklyarbek under the puppet khans of the Batuid clan.

Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the benevolence of the merchant elite of the Volga cities, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.

Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also Isatai's grandson, tried to create an independent ulus in the Syrdarya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Bugi in 1360 and who killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming the khan from their midst.

Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Janibek, captured Khadzhi-Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized the lands in the Dnieper basin.

The troubles in the Golden Horde ended after Chingizid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannahr in 1377-1380, first seized the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai entered into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozha (1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops on the Kalka River collected by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo.

Tokhtamysh Board

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the troubles ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the khan made a campaign against Moscow and succeeded in restoring the payment of tribute. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns in 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated Tokhtamysh's troops on the Terek, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Saray-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was struck from which it could no longer recover.

The collapse of the Golden Horde

Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Hush, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. A gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus Orda-Ejena gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the devastation of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Kichi-Muhammad Khan, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The Big Horde formally continued to be considered the main among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt failed, and Russia finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed in an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Big Horde ceased to exist.

State structure and administrative division

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, Ulus Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The eldest was the right wing, which was the Ulus Batu. The west of the Mongols was indicated by white, therefore Ulus Batu was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Don and Dnieper steppes, and the Crimea. Its center was Saray-Batu.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses, which were owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who traveled to the east in 1246-1247, singles out the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the nomadic places: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the east, Cartan, married to his sister Batu, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousanders on the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was notable for its instability: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their borders. At the beginning of the XIV century, Uzbek Khan carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of Ulus Jochi was divided into 4 large ulus: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Desht-i-Kypchak, headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. Beklarbek was the main ulusbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The other two positions were held by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small estates (tumens), headed by temniks.

Uluses were divided into smaller holdings, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion's manager, foreman).

The capital of the Golden Horde under Batu was the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan); in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Saray-Berk (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near present-day Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Saray-Berk was renamed into Saray Al-Jedid.

Army

The overwhelming part of the Horde army was the cavalry, who used in battle the traditional tactics of waging combat with mobile mounted masses of archers. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples into the army, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear blow that followed the first blow with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Shock-crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, six-pins, embossings, hammers, flails.

Among the Horde warriors, lamellar and laminar metal shells were widespread, from the XIV century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was the khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used armor of the brigantine type. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and leggings became widespread. Swords were almost everywhere replaced by sabers. From the end of the XIV century, guns appear in service. The Horde soldiers also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chapars... In field combat, they also used some military-technical means, in particular, crossbows.

Population

The Golden Horde was inhabited by the Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples. The small Mongol elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century. the nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by the ethnonym "Tatars".

Ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.

Cities and commerce

On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers with an oriental material culture have been archaeologically recorded, the heyday of which fell on the first half of the 14th century. The total number of the Golden Horde cities, apparently, was approaching 150. Large centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Saray-Batu, Saray-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Djuketau, Madjar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench and others.

The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captaincy of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde for trade in cloth, fabrics and linen canvas, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , forest, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.

From the Crimean trading cities, trade routes began, leading both to southern Europe and to Central Asia, India and China. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran passed along the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk passage there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Azov and Black seas.

Foreign and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper pools and soums.

Rulers

In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great Kaan of the Mongol Empire.

Khans

1. Mongke-Timur (1269-1282), the first khan of the Golden Horde, independent from the Mongol Empire
2. There Mengu (1282-1287)
3. Tula Buga (1287-1291)
4. Tokhta (1291-1312)
5. Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
6. Tinibek (1341-1342)
7. Janibek (1342-1357)
8. Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
9. Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360)
10. Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360)
11. Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
12. Timur-Khoja-khan (August-September 1361)
13. Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
14. Kildibek (October 1361 - September 1362)
15. Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
16. Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
17. Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
18. Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
19. Hasan Khan, (1368-1369)
20. Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
21. Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
22. Urus Khan (1372-1374)
23. Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
24. Muhammad Bulak Khan (early 1375-June 1375)
25. Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
26. Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-end 1375)
27. Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
28. Arabshah (Kary-khan) (1377-1380)
29. Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
30. Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
31. Shadibek (1399-1408)
32. Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
33. Timur Khan (1411-1412)
34. Jalal ad-Din-khan (1412-1413)
35. Kerimberds (1413-1414)
36. Chokra (1414-1416)
37. Jabbar-Birdie (1416-1417)
38. Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
39. Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
40. Barak Khan (1423-1426)
41. Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
42. Barak Khan (1427-1428)
43. Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
44. Kichi-Muhammad (1432-1459)

Beklarbeki

see also

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Notes (edit)

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18. Men-da bei-lu (full description of the Mongol-Tatars) Per. with whale, int., comment. and adj. N. Ts.Munkueva. M., 1975, p. 48, 123-124.
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30. Karamzin N.M. .
31. Soloviev S.M. .
33. There is a point of view that the division into the White Horde and the Blue Horde refers only to the eastern wing, denoting, respectively, the Horde-Ejen ulus and the Shiban ulus.
34. Guillaume de Rubruck. .
35. Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M .: Nauka, 1985 .-- S. 163-164.
36. Egorov V.L.// / Resp. editor V.I.Buganov. - M .: Nauka, 1985. - 11,000 copies.
37. "Atlas of the history of Tatarstan and the Tatar people" M .: Publishing house DIK, 1999. - 64 pages: ill., Maps. ed. R. G. Fakhrutdinova
38. V. L. Egorov. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. Moscow "Science" 1985 p - 78, 139
39. Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the Mongol Empire
40. Seleznev Yu.V. Elite of the Golden Horde. - Kazan: Publishing house "Feng" of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, 2009. - P. 9, 88. - 232 p.
41. Seleznev Yu.V. Elite of the Golden Horde. - S. 116-117.

Literature

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• Zakirov S. Diplomatic relations of the Golden Horde with Egypt / Otv. editor V. A. Romodin. - M .: Nauka, 1966 .-- 160 p.
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Links

Excerpt from the Golden Horde

- Yes, I know, just listen to me, for God's sake. At least ask the nanny. They say they do not agree to leave at your order.
- You say something wrong. Yes, I never gave orders to leave ... - said Princess Mary. - Call Dronushka.
Dron who arrived confirmed Dunyasha's words: the peasants came by the order of the princess.
- Yes, I never called them, - said the princess. “You probably didn’t tell them that way. I just told you to give them the bread.
The drone sighed without answering.
“If you order, they will leave,” he said.
- No, no, I'll go to them, - said Princess Mary
Despite Dunyasha's and the nanny's dissuasion, Princess Marya went out onto the porch. Drone, Dunyasha, the nanny and Mikhail Ivanovich followed her. “They probably think that I am offering them bread so that they remain in their places, and I myself will leave, leaving them to the mercy of the French,” thought Princess Mary. - I will promise them a month in an apartment near Moscow; I am sure that Andre would have done even more in my place, ”she thought, walking in the twilight to the crowd standing on the pasture near the barn.
The crowd stirred, crowding, and the hats were quickly removed. Princess Marya, lowering her eyes and tangling her legs in her dress, came close to them. So many different old and young eyes were fixed on her and there were so many different faces that Princess Marya did not see a single face and, feeling the need to speak suddenly with everyone, did not know what to do. But again the knowledge that she was the representative of her father and brother gave her strength, and she boldly began her speech.
“I’m very glad that you came,” Princess Marya began, without looking up and feeling how quickly and strongly her heart was beating. - Dronushka told me that the war ruined you. This is our common grief, and I will spare nothing to help you. I myself am going, because it is already dangerous here and the enemy is close ... because ... I give you everything, my friends, and I ask you to take everything, all our bread, so that you do not need it. And if you were told that I am giving you bread so that you stay here, then that is not true. On the contrary, I ask you to leave with all your property in our Moscow region, and there I take it upon myself and promise you that you will not need it. You will be given both houses and bread. The princess stopped. There were only sighs in the crowd.
“I’m not doing this on my own,” the princess continued, “I’m doing it in the name of my late father, who was a good master for you, and for my brother and his son.
She stopped again. No one broke her silence.
- Our common grief, and we will divide everything in half. All that is mine is yours, ”she said, looking around the faces in front of her.
All eyes looked at her with the same expression, the meaning of which she could not understand. Whether it was curiosity, devotion, gratitude, or fear and disbelief, the expression on all faces was the same.
“Many are satisfied with your grace, only we don’t have to take the master’s bread,” said a voice from behind.
- But why? - said the princess.
No one answered, and Princess Marya, looking around the crowd, noticed that now all the eyes with which she met were immediately lowered.
- Why don't you want? She asked again.
Nobody answered.
Princess Marya felt heavy from this silence; she tried to catch someone's gaze.
- Why don't you speak? - turned the princess to the old man, who, leaning on a stick, stood in front of her. - Tell me if you think you need anything else. I'll do anything, ”she said, catching his gaze. But he, as if angry for this, lowered his head completely and said:
- Why agree, we do not need bread.
- Well, shall we give it up? Do not agree. Disagree ... We do not agree. We feel sorry for you, but our consent is not. Go on your own, alone ... - was heard in the crowd from different directions. And again the same expression appeared on all the faces of this crowd, and now it was probably no longer an expression of curiosity and gratitude, but an expression of embittered determination.
“You don’t understand, you’re right,” Princess Marya said with a sad smile. - Why don't you want to go? I promise to lodge you, feed you. And here the enemy will ruin you ...
But her voice was drowned out by the voices of the crowd.
- There is no our consent, let it ruin! We do not take your bread, there is no our consent!
Princess Marya tried to catch again someone's glance from the crowd, but not a single glance was fixed on her; the eyes were obviously avoiding her. She felt strange and embarrassed.
- See, she taught deftly, follow her to the fortress! Bust your houses and go into bondage. How! I’ll give the bread, they say! - heard voices in the crowd.
Princess Marya, bowing her head, left the circle and went into the house. After repeating to Drona the order that there should be horses tomorrow for departure, she went to her room and was left alone with her thoughts.

For a long time that night Princess Marya sat by the open window in her room, listening to the sounds of the peasants' dialect coming from the village, but she did not think about them. She felt that no matter how much she thought about them, she could not understand them. She thought all about one thing - about her grief, which now, after a break produced by worries about the present, had already become past for her. She could now remember, she could cry and she could pray. As the sun went down, the wind died down. The night was calm and crisp. At twelve o'clock the voices began to subside, a rooster crowed, a full moon began to emerge from behind the lindens, a fresh, white mist of dew rose, and silence reigned over the village and over the house.
One after another, she saw pictures of a close past - illness and the last moments of her father. And with sad joy she now dwelt on these images, driving away from herself with horror only one last representation of his death, which - she felt - she was unable to contemplate even in her imagination at this quiet and mysterious hour of the night. And these pictures appeared to her with such clarity and with such details that they seemed to her now reality, now past, now future.
Then she vividly imagined the moment when he received a blow and was dragged from the garden in the Bald Mountains under the arms and he muttered something with his impotent tongue, twitched his gray eyebrows and looked uneasily and timidly at her.
“Even then he wanted to tell me what he told me on the day of his death,” she thought. "He always thought what he told me." And now she recalled with all the details that night in Bald Hills on the eve of the blow that struck him, when Princess Marya, anticipating trouble, stayed with him against his will. She did not sleep, and at night she tiptoed downstairs and, going up to the door to the flower room in which her father slept that night, she listened to his voice. He said something to Tikhon in an exhausted, tired voice. He evidently wanted to talk. “And why didn't he call me? Why didn't he let me be here in Tikhon's place? - thought then and now Princess Marya. - He will never tell anyone now all that was in his soul. This minute will never return for him and for me, when he would say everything that he wanted to express, and I, and not Tikhon, would listen and understand him. Why didn't I enter the room then? She thought. “Maybe he would then have told me what he said on the day of his death. Even then, in a conversation with Tikhon, he asked twice about me. He wanted to see me, and I was standing there, outside the door. He was sad, hard to talk to Tikhon, who did not understand him. I remember how he started talking to him about Liza as alive - he forgot that she was dead, and Tikhon reminded him that she was no longer there, and he shouted: "Fool." It was hard for him. I heard from behind the door how he, groaning, lay down on the bed and shouted loudly: "My God! Why didn't I come up then?" What would he do to me? What would I have lost? Or maybe then he would have consoled himself, he would have said this word to me. " And Princess Marya spoke out loud that kind word that he had spoken to her on the day of his death. “Du she n ka! - Princess Marya repeated this word and sobbed with tears relieving her soul. She now saw his face before her. And not the face that she knew from the time she remembered herself, and which she always saw from afar; and that face - timid and weak, which on the last day, bending down to his mouth to hear what he was saying, for the first time examined it up close with all its wrinkles and details.
"Darling," she repeated.
“What was he thinking when he said that word? What is he thinking now? - suddenly a question came to her, and in response to this she saw him in front of her with the expression on his face that he had in the coffin on his face tied with a white kerchief. And the horror that gripped her when she touched him and made sure that it was not only not him, but something mysterious and repulsive, seized her now. She wanted to think about something else, wanted to pray and could do nothing. She gazed at the moonlight and shadows with large open eyes, waited every second to see his dead face and felt that the silence that stood over the house and in the house was shackling her.
- Dunyasha! She whispered. - Dunyasha! - She cried out in a wild voice and, breaking free from the silence, ran to the girl's, towards the nanny and girls running towards her.

On August 17, Rostov and Ilyin, accompanied by Lavrushka and the messenger hussar who had just returned from captivity, from their camp at Yankovo, fifteen miles from Bogucharov, went for a ride - to try a new horse bought by Ilyin and find out if there was any hay in the villages.
Bogucharovo was the last three days between the two enemy armies, so the Russian rearguard could just as easily enter there as the French vanguard, and therefore Rostov, as a caring squadron commander, wanted before the French to use the provisions that remained in Bogucharovo.
Rostov and Ilyin were in the most cheerful frame of mind. On their way to Bogucharovo, to the prince's estate with an estate, where they hoped to find a large courtyard and pretty girls, they sometimes asked Lavrushka about Napoleon and laughed at his stories, then they drove off, trying Ilyin's horse.
Rostov neither knew nor thought that this village to which he was traveling was the estate of that very Bolkonsky, who was his sister's fiancé.
Rostov and Ilyin were released for the last time to drive the horses into a drag in front of Bogucharov, and Rostov, who overtook Ilyin, was the first to jump into the street of the village of Bogucharov.
“You took it ahead,” said Ilyin, flushed.
- Yes, everything forward, and ahead in the meadow, and here, - answered Rostov, stroking his soaked bottom with his hand.
“And I’m in French, your Excellency,” Lavrushka said from behind, calling his harness nag French, “I would have surpassed it, but I just didn’t want to shame.
They walked up to the barn, which was surrounded by a large crowd of peasants.
Some of the men took off their hats, some, without taking off their hats, looked at those who had arrived. Two old long peasants, with wrinkled faces and sparse beards, came out of the tavern and with smiles, swaying and singing some awkward song, approached the officers.
- Well done! - said Rostov, laughing. - What, there is hay?
- And what are the same ... - said Ilyin.
- Weigh ... oo ... ooo ... barking dese ... dese ... - the men sang with happy smiles.
One man left the crowd and went up to Rostov.
- What will you be from? - he asked.
- The French, - answered, laughing, Ilyin. “Here is Napoleon himself,” he said, pointing to Lavrushka.
- So you will be Russians? - asked the man.
- How much of your strength is there? - Asked another small man, coming up to them.
“Many, many,” answered Rostov. - Why are you gathered here? He added. - A holiday, eh?
- The old men gathered for worldly affairs, - answered the peasant, moving away from him.
At that time, on the road from the manor house, two women and a man in a white hat appeared, walking towards the officers.
- In my pink, mind you not beating! - said Ilyin, noticing Dunyasha decisively moving towards him.
- Ours will be! - Lavrushka said to Ilyin with a wink.
- What, my beauty, do you need? - said Ilyin, smiling.
- The princess was ordered to find out what regiment you are and your surnames?
- This is Count Rostov, squadron commander, and I am your humble servant.
- Be ... se ... e ... du ... shka! - the drunk man chanted, smiling happily and looking at Ilyin, talking with the girl. Alpatych followed Dunyasha up to Rostov, taking off his hat from a distance.
“I dare to disturb you, your honor,” he said with deference, but with relative disdain for the officer’s youth, and clasped his hand in his bosom. - My mistress, the daughter of the general in chief of Prince Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky, who died this fifteenth, being in difficulty due to the ignorance of these persons, - he pointed to the men, - he asks you to welcome ... would you not like, - Alpatych said with a sad smile, - drive off a little, but it’s not so convenient when ... - Alpatych pointed to two men who were running around behind him like horseflies near a horse.
- Ah! .. Alpatych ... Huh? Yakov Alpatych! .. Important! forgive for Christ's sake. Important! Huh? .. - said the men, smiling happily at him. Rostov looked at the drunken old men and smiled.
- Or, perhaps, this is consoling your Excellency? - said Yakov Alpatych with a sedate air, pointing out the old people with his hand not tucked in his bosom.
"No, there is little consolation here," said Rostov and drove off. - What's the matter? - he asked.
- I dare to report to your Excellency that the rude local people do not want to release the mistress from the estate and threaten to reject the horses, so that in the morning everything is packed and her Excellency cannot leave.
- Can not be! - Rostov cried out.
- I have the honor to report to you the real truth, - repeated Alpatych.
Rostov dismounted from his horse and, handing it over to the messenger, went with Alpatych to the house, asking him about the details of the case. Indeed, yesterday's offer of the princess to the peasants of bread, her explanation with Dron and with the gathering spoiled the matter so much that Dron finally handed over the keys, joined the peasants and did not appear at the request of Alpatych, and that in the morning, when the princess ordered to lay in order to go, the peasants came out in a large crowd to the barn and sent to say that they would not let the princess out of the village, that there was an order not to be taken out, and they would unharness the horses. Alpatych went out to them, advising them, but they answered him (Karp spoke most of all; Dron did not appear from the crowd) that the princess could not be released, that there was an order for that; and that let the princess stay, and they will serve her in the old way and obey her in everything.
At the moment when Rostov and Ilyin galloped along the road, Princess Marya, in spite of Alpatych, the nanny and the girls' admonitions, ordered the mortgage and wanted to go; but, seeing the cavalrymen galloping by, they were mistaken for the French, the coachmen fled, and the crying of women arose in the house.
- Father! dear father! God sent you, - said the tender voices, while Rostov passed through the hall.
Princess Marya, lost and powerless, was sitting in the hall, while Rostov was brought in to her. She did not understand who he was, and why he was, and what would happen to her. Seeing his Russian face and recognizing him as a man of her circle by his entrance and the first words spoken, she looked at him with her deep and radiant gaze and began to speak in a voice that broke off and trembled with emotion. Rostov immediately imagined something romantic in this meeting. “A defenseless, heartbroken girl, alone, left to the mercy of rude, rebellious men! And some strange fate pushed me here! Thought Rostov, listening to her and looking at her. - And what gentleness, nobility in her features and expression! He thought, listening to her timid story.
When she started talking about how it all happened the day after her father's funeral, her voice trembled. She turned away and then, as if afraid that Rostov might take her word for a desire to pity him, she looked at him inquiringly, frightened. Rostov had tears in his eyes. Princess Marya noticed this and looked gratefully at Rostov with that radiant look of hers, which made him forget the ugliness of her face.
“I cannot express, princess, how happy I am that I accidentally dropped in here and will be able to show you my readiness,” said Rostov, getting up. - If you please go, and I answer you with my honor that no man will dare to make you a nuisance, if you only allow me to escort you, - and, bowing respectfully, as one bows to the ladies of royal blood, he went to the door.
By the deference of his tone, Rostov seemed to show that, despite the fact that he would have considered his acquaintance with her a fortune, he did not want to use the occasion of her misfortune to draw closer to her.
Princess Marya understood and appreciated this tone.
“I am very, very grateful to you,” the princess told him in French, “but I hope that it was all just a misunderstanding and that no one is to blame for that. - The princess suddenly burst into tears. “Excuse me,” she said.
Rostov, frowning, bowed deeply once more and left the room.

- Well, dear? No, brother, my pink darling, and their name is Dunyasha ... - But, looking at Rostov's face, Ilyin fell silent. He saw that his hero and commander was in a completely different order of thought.
Rostov glanced angrily at Ilyin and, without answering him, walked with quick steps towards the village.
- I'll show them, I'll ask them, robbers! He said to himself.
Alpatych, with a swimming step, so as not to run, barely caught up with Rostov at a trot.
- What decision did you take? He said, catching up with him.
Rostov stopped and, clenching his fists, suddenly moved menacingly towards Alpatych.
- Solution? What's the solution? Old bastard! He shouted at him. - What are you looking at? A? The guys are rebelling, but you can't cope? You yourself are a traitor. I know you, I will skin everyone ... - And, as if afraid to waste the stock of his fervor, he left Alpatych and quickly walked forward. Alpatych, suppressing the feeling of insult, kept up with Rostov with a swimming step and continued to communicate his thoughts to him. He said that the men were rigid, that at the present moment it was unwise to oppose them without a military command, that it would not have been better to send for the command first.
“I will give them a military command ... I will fight them,” Nikolai said senselessly, gasping for breath from an unreasonable animal anger and the need to pour out this anger. Not realizing what he would do, unconsciously, with a quick, decisive step, he moved towards the crowd. And the closer he moved to her, the more Alpatych felt that his unreasonable act could produce good results. The peasants of the crowd felt the same, looking at his quick and firm gait and resolute, frowning face.
After the hussars entered the village and Rostov went to the princess, confusion and discord occurred in the crowd. Some peasants began to say that these newcomers were Russians and no matter how offended they were that they were not letting the young lady out. The drone was of the same opinion; but as soon as he expressed it, Karp and other men attacked the former headman.
- How many years have you eaten the world? - Karp shouted at him. - You are all one! You will dig a jug, take it away, what, ruin our houses, or not?
- It has been said that there should be order, no one should go from the houses, so as not to take out the blue of gunpowder - that's it! Shouted another.
- There was a queue for your son, and you probably took pity on your irony, - the little old man suddenly spoke quickly, attacking Dron, - and he shaved my Vanka. Eh, we will die!
- Then we will die!
“I’m not a refusal to the world,” said Dron.
- That is not a refusal, he has grown a belly! ..
Two long men said their own thing. As soon as Rostov, accompanied by Ilyin, Lavrushka and Alpatych, approached the crowd, Karp, putting his fingers behind his sash, slightly smiling, stepped forward. The drone, on the other hand, entered the back rows, and the crowd moved closer together.
- Hey! who is your head here? - Rostov shouted, going up to the crowd with a brisk step.
- Headman then? What do you need? .. - asked Karp. But before he had time to finish, the hat flew off him and his head shook to the side from the strong blow.
- Hats down, traitors! - shouted the full-blooded voice of Rostov. - Where is the headman? He shouted in a frantic voice.
- The headman, the headman calls ... Drone Zakharych, you, - hurriedly obedient voices were heard here and there, and the caps began to be removed from their heads.
`` We can't rebel, we keep the order, '' Karp said, and several voices from behind suddenly spoke up at the same instant:
- As the old men grumbled, there are a lot of you bosses ...
- Talk? .. Riot! .. Robbers! Traitors! - meaninglessly, Rostov yelled in a voice not his own, grabbing Karp by the yurt. - Knit it, knit it! - he shouted, although there was no one to knit him except Lavrushka and Alpatych.
Lavrushka, however, ran up to Karp and grabbed his arms from behind.
- Will you order our people from under the mountain to click? He shouted.
Alpatych turned to the men, calling two by name to knit Karp. The men obediently left the crowd and began to unbelieve themselves.
- Where is the headman? - shouted Rostov.
The drone, with a frown and pale face, walked out of the crowd.
- Are you the headman? Knit, Lavrushka! - shouted Rostov, as if this order could not meet obstacles. And indeed, two more men began to knit Drona, who, as if helping them, took off his kushan and served it to them.
- And you all listen to me, - Rostov turned to the peasants: - Now we are marching home, and so that I do not hear your voice.
- Well, we didn't do any offense. We are only, then, out of stupidity. Only nonsense was done ... I told you that there was disorder, - voices were heard reproaching each other.
- I told you so, - said Alpatych, stepping into his own rights. - Not good guys!
- Our stupidity, Yakov Alpatych, - answered the voices, and the crowd immediately began to disperse and scatter across the village.
The tied two men were taken to the master's yard. Two drunken men followed them.
- Eh, I'll look at you! - said one of them, referring to Karp.
- How can you talk to gentlemen like that? You thought what?
- Fool, - confirmed another, - really, fool!
Two hours later, the carts stood in the courtyard of the Bogucharovsky house. The peasants briskly carried out and put the master's things on the carts, and Dron, at the request of Princess Marya, released from the locker, where he was locked, standing in the yard, was in charge of the peasants.
“Don't put it so badly,” said one of the peasants, a tall man with a round smiling face, taking the box from the maid’s hands. - She's also worth money. Why do you just throw it or the floor of the rope - and it will rub. I don't like that. And so that everything is fair, according to the law. Just like that, under the matting, but cover it up with a senz, that's important. Lubo!
“Look for books, books,” said another man who was carrying out Prince Andrey's library cabinets. - Don't cling! And it's overweight, guys, the books are healthy!
- Yes, they did, they didn’t walk! - With a significant wink, said a tall chubby man, pointing to the thick vocabulary lying on top.

Rostov, not wishing to impose his acquaintance on the princess, did not go to her, but remained in the village, awaiting her departure. After waiting for the departure of Princess Mary's carriages from the house, Rostov sat on horseback and up to the path occupied by our troops, twelve miles from Bogucharov, he accompanied her on horseback. In Yankov, at the inn, he said goodbye to her respectfully, for the first time allowing himself to kiss her hand.
“Don’t you be ashamed,” he replied, blushing, to Princess Marya in response to the expression of gratitude for her salvation (as she called his act), “everyone would have done the same. If we only had to fight with the peasants, we would not have allowed the enemy so far, - he said, ashamed of something and trying to change the conversation. - I am only happy that I had the opportunity to meet you. Farewell, princess, I wish you happiness and consolation and wish to meet you under happier conditions. If you don't want to make me blush, please don't thank.
But the princess, if she did not thank more with words, thanked him with all the expression of her face beaming with gratitude and tenderness. She couldn't believe him that she had nothing to thank him for. On the contrary, for her it was undoubtedly the fact that if he were not there, then she probably should have perished both from the rebels and from the French; that, in order to save her, he exposed himself to the most obvious and terrible dangers; and it was even more certain that he was a man with a high and noble soul, who knew how to understand her position and grief. His kind and honest eyes, with tears coming out on them, while she herself, crying, spoke to him about her loss, did not leave her imagination.
When she said goodbye to him and was left alone, Princess Marya suddenly felt tears in her eyes, and this was not the first time she had a strange question: does she love him?
On the way further to Moscow, despite the fact that the princess's position was not happy, Dunyasha, who was riding with her in the carriage, more than once noticed that the princess, leaning out the carriage window, was smiling happily and sadly at something.
“Well, what if I fell in love with him? - thought Princess Marya.
No matter how ashamed she was to admit to herself that she was the first to fall in love with a man who, perhaps, would never love her, she consoled herself with the thought that no one would ever know this and that she would not be guilty, if she had to the end of her life, no one talking about loving the one she loved for the first and last time.
Sometimes she remembered his views, his participation, his words, and it seemed to her that happiness was not impossible. And then Dunyasha noticed that she, smiling, was looking out the carriage window.
“And he had to come to Bogucharovo, and at this very minute! - thought Princess Marya. - And it was necessary to refuse his sister to Prince Andrey! - And in all this Princess Marya saw the will of Providence.
The impression made on Rostov by Princess Marya was very pleasant. When he remembered her, he felt cheerful, and when his comrades, learning about the adventure with him in Bogucharov, joked to him that he, having gone for hay, picked up one of the richest brides in Russia, Rostov got angry. He was angry precisely because the idea of ​​marrying a pleasant for him, meek princess Marya with a huge fortune more than once crossed his mind against his will. For himself personally, Nikolai could not wish for a wife better than Princess Marya: marrying her would make the countess - his mother - happiness, and would improve the affairs of his father; and even - Nikolai felt it - would have made Princess Marya happy. But Sonya? And the given word? And this made Rostov angry when they joked about Princess Bolkonskaya.

Taking command over the armies, Kutuzov remembered Prince Andrei and sent him orders to come to the main apartment.
Prince Andrey arrived at Tsarevo Zaymishche on the very day and at the very time of the day when Kutuzov was making the first review of the troops. Prince Andrey stopped in the village at the house of the priest, who had the carriage of the commander-in-chief, and sat down on a bench at the gate, waiting for His Serene Highness, as everyone now called Kutuzov. On the field outside the village, one could hear the sounds of the regimental music, or the roar of a huge number of voices shouting “Hurray!” To the new commander-in-chief. Right there at the gate, about ten paces from Prince Andrew, taking advantage of the prince's absence and the fine weather, stood two orderlies, a courier and a butler. Blackish, overgrown with mustaches and sideburns, the little hussar lieutenant colonel rode up to the gate and, glancing at Prince Andrey, asked: is the Most Serene One standing here and will he be soon?
Prince Andrew said that he did not belong to the headquarters of His Serene Highness and was also a visitor. The hussar lieutenant colonel turned to the well-dressed orderly, and the orderly of the commander-in-chief told him with that particular contempt with which the orderlies of the commanders-in-chief speak to the officers:
- What, my lordship? It must be there now. You that?
The hussar lieutenant colonel grinned in his mustache at the tone of the orderly, dismounted, gave it to the messenger and went up to Bolkonsky, bowing slightly to him. Bolkonsky stepped aside on the bench. The hussar lieutenant colonel sat down beside him.
- Are you also waiting for the commander-in-chief? - the hussar lieutenant colonel spoke. - Govog "yat, everyone is available, thank God. Otherwise, there is trouble with the sausages!" Tepeg "maybe it will be possible to use the" Russian gossip ". Everyone retreated, everyone retreated. Have you done the hike? - he asked.
“I had pleasure,” answered Prince Andrey, “not only to participate in the retreat, but also to lose in this retreat everything that was dear, not to mention the estates and home of ... a father who died of grief. I am Smolensky.
- Huh? .. Are you Prince Bolkonsky? Very much "hell to get to know each other: Lieutenant Colonel Denisov, better known as Vaska," said Denisov, shaking Prince Andrei's hand and peering into Bolkonsky's face with especially kind attention. : - This is the Scythian war. This is all hog "osho, but not for those who are puffing their sides. And you - Prince Andg "her Bolkonsky?" He shook his head. "Very g" hell, prince, very g "hell, to meet you," he added again with a sad smile, shaking his hand.
Prince Andrey knew Denisov from Natasha's stories about her first fiancé. This memory, both sweet and painful, carried him now to those painful sensations of which he had not thought about for a long time, but which were still in his soul. Recently, there are so many other and such serious impressions as the abandonment of Smolensk, his arrival in Lysye Gory, recently it is known about the death of his father - so many sensations were experienced by him that these memories did not come to him for a long time and, when they came, did not have an effect on him with the same strength. And for Denisov, the series of memories that Bolkonsky's name evoked was a distant, poetic past when, after dinner and Natasha's singing, without knowing how, he proposed to a fifteen-year-old girl. He smiled at the recollections of that time and his love for Natasha, and immediately moved on to what now passionately and exclusively occupied him. This was the campaign plan he came up with while serving in the outposts during the retreat. He presented this plan to Barclay de Tolly and now intended to present it to Kutuzov. The plan was based on the fact that the French line of operations was too stretched and that instead of, or at the same time, acting from the front, blocking the way for the French, it was necessary to act on their messages. He began to explain his plan to Prince Andrew.
“They can't keep this whole line. This is impossible, I answer that ng "og" wu them; give me five hundred people, I'm g "azog" woo them, this is veg "but! One system is pag" tizan.
Denisov got up and, making gestures, expounded his plan to Bolkonsky. In the middle of his presentation, the screams of the army, more awkward, more widespread and merging with music and songs, were heard at the site of the review. There was a sound of stomping and shouts in the village.
- He's going himself, - shouted a Cossack who was standing at the gate, - he's going! Bolkonsky and Denisov moved to the gate, at which a group of soldiers stood (guard of honor), and saw Kutuzov moving along the street, riding on a low chestnut horse. A huge retinue of generals followed him. Barclay rode almost beside him; a crowd of officers ran after them and around them and shouted "Hurray!"
Adjutants galloped ahead of him into the courtyard. Kutuzov, impatiently pushing his horse, amble under his weight, and incessantly nodding his head, put his hand to the trouble of the cavalry guard (with a red band and without a visor) cap that was on him. Having driven up to the guard of honor of the brave grenadiers, most of them cavaliers who saluted him, he silently looked at them for a minute with a stubborn commanding glance and turned to the crowd of generals and officers who stood around him. His face suddenly assumed a delicate expression; he shrugged his shoulders with a gesture of bewilderment.
- And with such fine fellows everything to retreat and retreat! - he said. “Well, good-bye, General,” he added, and moved the horse into the gate, past Prince Andrey and Denisov.
- Hooray! Hurrah! Hurrah! - shouted from behind him.
Since Prince Andrey did not see him, Kutuzov has grown fat, flabby and swollen with fat. But the familiar white eye, and the wound, and the look of weariness in his face and figure were the same. He was dressed in a uniform frock coat (a whip hung over his shoulder on a thin belt) and in a white cavalry cap. He, heavily spreading and swaying, sat on his bouncy horse.
- Fyu ... fyu ... fyu ... - he whistled almost audibly, entering the courtyard. His face expressed the joy of the calming down of a man intending to rest after the mission. He took his left leg out of the stirrup, falling down with his whole body and grimacing with effort, with difficulty brought it onto the saddle, leaned on his knee, grunted and went down into his arms to the Cossacks and adjutants who supported him.
He recovered, looked around with his narrowed eyes and, glancing at Prince Andrey, apparently not recognizing him, walked with his diving gait to the porch.
- Fyu ... fyu ... fyu, - he whistled and again looked back at Prince Andrey. The impression of Prince Andrey's face only after a few seconds (as is often the case with old people) was associated with the recollection of his personality.
“And, hello, prince, hello, darling, let's go…” he said wearily, looking around, and heavily entered the porch creaking under his weight. He unbuttoned and sat down on a bench on the porch.
- Well, what about father?
“Yesterday I received news of his death,” said Prince Andrei shortly.
Kutuzov looked with frightened open eyes at Prince Andrey, then took off his cap and made the sign of the sign of the cross: “The Kingdom of Heaven is to him! God’s will be over all of us! ”He sighed heavily, with all his chest, and was silent. "I loved and respected him and I sympathize with you with all my heart." He hugged Prince Andrew, pressed him to his fat chest and did not let go of him for a long time. When he let him go, Prince Andrey saw that Kutuzov's blurred lips were trembling and there were tears in his eyes. He sighed and grabbed the bench with both hands to get up.
“Come, come to me, we'll talk,” he said; but at this time Denisov, who was just as little shy of his superiors as of the enemy, in spite of the fact that the adjutants at the porch in an angry whisper stopped him, boldly, knocking his spurs on the steps, entered the porch. Kutuzov, leaving his hands rested on the bench, looked displeasedly at Denisov. Denisov, introducing himself, announced that he had to inform his lordship of a matter of great importance for the good of the fatherland. Kutuzov began to look at Denisov with a tired look and with an annoying gesture, taking his hands and folding them on his stomach, repeated: “For the good of the fatherland? What is it? Speak. " Denisov blushed like a girl (it was so strange to see paint on this mustachioed, old and drunken face), and boldly began to outline his plan for cutting the enemy's line of operations between Smolensk and Vyazma. Denisov lived in these parts and knew the area well. His plan seemed undoubtedly good, especially because of the power of conviction that was in his words. Kutuzov looked at his feet and occasionally looked back at the courtyard of the neighboring hut, as if he was expecting something unpleasant from there. From the hut, at which he was looking, indeed, during Denisov's speech, a general appeared with a briefcase under his arm.

When defining the historical, geographical and ethnic principles of the Golden Horde, it is important to clarify the terminology used in historical literature. The phrase "Mongol-Tatars" appeared in Russian historical science in the 19th century. Initially, the "Tatars" were one of the Mongol-speaking tribes united at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. Temujin (Temujin, later Genghis Khan). After a series of aggressive campaigns of Genghis Khan "Tatars" began to be called in Chinese, Arab, Persian, Russian and Western European sources of the XIII-XIV centuries. all nomadic tribes (including non-Mongol ones), united and conquered by them. During this period, several states arose in Eurasia, in which the Mongols constituted the organizing and leading basis. They retained their self-name - Mongols, but the surrounding peoples continued to call them Tatars. During the existence of the Golden Horde, its ethnic basis - the Mongols assimilated by the Turkic-speaking Polovtsy - in the Russian chronicles were called only Tatars. In addition, several new Turkic-speaking peoples were formed on its territory, which eventually adopted the ethnonym "Tatars" as a self-name: Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Siberian Tatars.

Mongol tribes in the XII century. occupied the territory bounded by Altai, the Gobi Desert, the Big Khingan ridge and Lake Baikal. The Tatars lived in the area of ​​the Buir-nor and Dalai-Nor lakes, the Uryankhats settled in the northeastern regions of Mongolia and, the Khungirats occupied the southeastern part of Mongolia, the Taichiuds (Taichzhiuds) were located along the Onon River, the Merkits wandered along, and the Kereits and Naimans - further to west. Between the Yenisei and the Yenisei, the Oirats, the "people of the forests", lived in the taiga zone.

The population of Mongolia in the XII century. It was subdivided by way of life into forest and steppe. Forest peoples lived in the taiga and taiga zones and were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. Most of the tribes led a nomadic cattle-breeding economy. The Mongols lived in yurts, collapsible or mounted on carts. A cart with a yurt was transported by bulls, at the parking lots such carts were located in a ring. They bred horses, cows, sheep and goats, and camels to a lesser extent. hunted and practiced to a limited extent, sowing mainly millet.

Formation and disintegration of the empire of Genghis Khan

The nomads of the Temuchin family proper, akin to the Taichiuds, were located between the Onon and Kerulen rivers. In the internecine struggle at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. Temuchin subdued all the Mongol tribes and at the kurultai of 1206 was proclaimed by Genghis Khan (later this title was fixed as a name). After that, the neighboring peoples, and the "forest peoples" of the southern Baikal region, were subordinated. In 1211, the Mongols conquered the Tangut state, and then, within a few years, northern China. In 1219-1221 the state of Khorezmshah was conquered, which occupied Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Iran, and the basin of the middle Indus, after which Genghis Khan himself returned to. He sent his commanders Chjebe and Subetai-baatur with a large detachment to the north, commanding them to reach eleven countries and peoples, such as: Kanlin, Kibchaut, Bachzhigit, Orosut, Machjarat, Asut, Sasut, Serkesut, Keshimir, Bolar, Raral ( Lalat), cross the high-water rivers Idil and Ayakh, and also walk to the city of Kivamen-Kermen. "

Already at the beginning of the XIII century. the union, headed by Genghis Khan, included non-Mongol tribes (Uighurs, Tanguts,). The ethnic diversity of the concepts "Mongols", "Tatars" increased with the inclusion of the population of the northern, Tangut state, Central Asia, and the North into the Mongol state. By the 20s. XIII century The Mongolian state covered the area from Manchuria to the Caspian Sea and from the middle Irtysh to the middle Indus. It was a union of peoples of different languages ​​at different levels of socio-economic and political development. After the death of Genghis Khan (1227), the empire was divided between his descendants into uluses.

Ulus- among the Mongols, a tribal association subordinate to a khan or a leader, in a broad sense - all subordinate people, as well as the territory of nomads. With the formation of Mongolian states, this term is increasingly used in the meaning of "state" in general or an administrative-territorial unit.

The ulus of the great khan, which actually included China, Tibet, the Baikal region and the south of Eastern Siberia, was ruled by Genghis Khan's son Ugede (Ogedei). The capital of the ulus was in Karakorum and its ruler, initially - in fact, and later - formally, was the head of all Mongolian states. The Chzhagatai Ulus occupied Central Asia: the middle and upper reaches of the Amu Darya and Syrdarya, Lake Balkhash, Semirechye, Tien Shan and the Takla-Makan desert. The descendants of Hulagu received Northern Iran and gradually expanded their possessions to all of Persia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and the Caucasus. The eldest son of Genghis Khan, Jochi, inherited the western outskirts of the Mongol Empire: Altai, the south of Western Siberia to the confluence of the Ob and Irtysh and part of Central Asia between the Caspian and Aral, as well as Khorezm (lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya).

The folding of the main state territory of the Golden Horde

Under the name "ulus Jochi" (variants of "ulus Batu", "ulus Berke", etc.) in eastern sources, the state is known, which in Russians is referred to as "Horde" (the term "Golden Horde" appeared in the annals only in the second half of the 16th century, after the disappearance of the state). Jochi's son, Khan Bat, managed to expand the territory of his ulus. As a result of the campaigns of conquest from the fall of 1236 to the spring of 1241, the Polovtsian nomad camps, the Volga Bulgaria, and most of the Russian principalities were conquered and devastated. After that, the Mongols invaded the territory of Hungary, where they also won a number of victories, were defeated in, and then reached the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Despite the successes, by this time the troops of Batu were significantly weakened, which was the main reason for his return to the Black Sea steppes by 1243. From that moment on, a new state began.

The "core" of the Golden Horde, its territorial basis was the steppe zone of Eastern Europe - the Black Sea, Caspian and North Kazakhstan steppes up to the Siberian river Chulyman (Chulym) - known in the Middle Ages in the East as Desht-i-Kipchak. In the second half of the XIII century. the borders of the Horde were gradually established, which were determined both by natural geographical points and by the borders of neighboring states. In the west, the territory of the state was limited by the lower course of the Danube from its mouth to the southern Carpathians. From here, the border of the Horde stretched through thousands of kilometers to the northeast, almost everywhere passing through the forest-steppe belt and rarely entering the forest zone. The foothills of the Carpathians served as a border from, then in the middle reaches of the Prut, Dniester and Southern Bug, the Horde lands came into contact with the Galician principality, and in Porosie - with the Kiev region. On the left bank of the Dnieper, the border from the lower reaches of the Psela and Vorskla went to Kursk, then turned sharply to the north (sources report that the Russian city of Tula and its surroundings were controlled directly by the Horde Baskaks) and again went south to the sources of the Don. Further, the territory of the Horde captured forest areas, reaching in the north to the line of the source of the Don - the confluence of Tsna and Moksha - the mouth of the Sura - Volga near the mouth of the Vetluga - middle Vyatka -. There is no specific information in the sources about the northeastern and eastern borders of the state, but it is known that it possessed the Southern Urals, the territory up to the Irtysh and Chulaman, the foothills of Altai and Lake Balkhash. In Central Asia, the border stretched from Balkhash to the middle course of the Syr Darya and further west to the south of the Mangyshlak peninsula. From the Caspian to the Black Sea, the possessions of the Horde reached the foothills of the Caucasus, and the coast served as the natural border of the state in the southwest.

Within the outlined borders, the direct power of the Golden Horde khans existed in the middle of the 13th – 14th centuries, but there were also territories that were dependent on the Horde, which was expressed mainly in the payment of tribute. The dependent territories included the Russian principalities, with the exception of the northwestern ones (Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk and their internal estates, which became part of Lithuania in the second half of the 13th century), for some time the Bulgarian kingdom, politically fragmented by this time, and the Serbian kingdom ... The southern coast, where several Genoese colonies were located, was also a semi-dependent territory from the Horde. In the XIV century. The khans managed for a short time to capture some areas southwest of the Caspian Sea - Azerbaijan and northern Iran.

The population of the Golden Horde was very diverse. The main mass was made up of the Polovtsy (Kipchaks), who lived, as before the arrival of the Mongols, in the Black Sea and Caspian steppes. In the XIV century. the newcomer Mongols gradually disappeared into the Kipchak environment, forgetting their language and writing. This process was vividly described by one Arab contemporary: “In ancient times this state was the country of the Kipchaks, but when the Tatars took possession of it, the Kipchaks became their subjects. Then they (the Tatars) mixed and became related with them (the Kipchaks), and the land prevailed over their natural and racial qualities (the Tatars), and they all became like the Kipchaks, as if they were of the same clan (with them), because the Mongols settled on the land of the Kipchaks, they entered into marriage with them and remained to live in their land (the Kipchaks). " Assimilation was facilitated by the common economic life of the Polovtsians and Mongols, nomadic cattle breeding remained the basis of their way of life even during the existence of the Golden Horde. However, the khan's power needed cities to obtain maximum income from crafts and trade, so the conquered cities were quickly restored, and from the 50s. XIII century active construction of cities began in the steppes.

The first capital of the Golden Horde was Saray, founded by Khan Batu in the early 1250s. Its remains are located on the left bank of the Akhtuba near the village of Selitrennoye in the Astrakhan region. The population, reaching 75 thousand people, was made up of Mongols, Alans, Kipchaks, Circassians, Russians and Byzantine Greeks, who lived apart from each other. Saray al-Jedid (translated as the New Palace) was founded upstream of the Akhtuba under Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), and subsequently the capital of the state was moved here. Of the cities that arose along the right bank of the Volga, the most important were Ukek (Uvek) on the outskirts of modern Saratov, Beljamen on the Volga-Don pass, Khadzhitarkhan above modern Astrakhan. In the lower reaches of the Yaik, Saraichik arose - an important transshipment point for caravan trade, at the middle Qom - Madzhar (Madzhary), at the mouth of the Don - Azak, in the steppe part of the Crimean Peninsula - Crimea and Kyrk-Er, on the Tura (tributary of the Tobol) - Tyumen (Chingi -Tour). The number of cities and settlements founded by the Horde in Eastern Europe and adjacent Asian territories, known to us from historical sources and studied by archaeologists, was much greater. Only the largest of them are named here. Almost all cities were distinguished by ethnic diversity. Another characteristic feature of the Golden Horde cities was the complete absence of external fortifications, at least until the 60s. XIV century.

Immediately after the defeat of the lands of the Volga Bulgaria in 1236, part of the Bulgar population moved to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Before the Mongols came here, Mordvinians also left for Russia. During the existence of the Golden Horde in the Lower Kama region, the bulk of the population, as before, were Bulgars. The old Bulgarian cities Bulgar, Bilyar, Suvar and others have survived here (before the founding of Saray, Batu used the Bulgar as his residence), and also gradually rises to the north of the Kama. The process of mixing Bulgars with Kipchak-Mongolian elements led to the emergence of a new Turkic ethnos - the Kazan Tatars. The forest area from the Volga to Tsna was inhabited by a sedentary Finno-Ugric population, mainly. To control it, the Mongols founded the city of Mokhshi on the Moksha River near the modern city of Narovchat in the Penza region.

As a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the composition and number of the population in the southern Russian steppes changed. Comparatively settled and economically developed lands became depopulated. The first decades of the existence of the Horde in its northern territories in the forest-steppe zone lived the Russian population. However, over time, this zone empties more and more, Russian settlements here are falling into decay, and their inhabitants are leaving for the territory of Russian principalities and lands.

The westernmost part of the Horde, from the Dnieper to the lower Danube, before the Mongol invasion, was inhabited by the Polovtsians, Brodniks and a small number of Slavs. From the middle of the XIII century. the surviving part of this population joined the Kipchak-Mongolian ethnos, and the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Crimean peninsula were a nomadic area. There were few stationary settlements on this territory, the most significant of them was the Slavic Belgorod on the Dniester estuary, revived by the Mongols with the Turkic name Ak-Kerman. In the North Caucasus, the Horde khans waged a long struggle with the local tribes who fought for their independence - the Alans,. This struggle was quite successful, so the real possessions of the Horde reached only the foothills. The largest settlement here was ancient Derbent. A large number of cities continued to exist in the Central Asian part of the Horde: Urgench (Khorezm), Dzhend, Sygnak, Turkestan, Otrar, Sairam, etc. There were almost no settled settlements in the steppes from the lower Volga to the upper Irtysh. Bashkirs - nomadic herders and hunters - settled in the Southern Urals, and Finno-Ugric tribes settled along the Tobol and the middle Irtysh. The interaction of the local population with the newcomer Mongolian and Kipchak elements led to the emergence of the ethnic group of Siberian Tatars. There were also few cities here, except for Tyumen, Isker (Siberia) is known on the Irtysh, near modern Tobolsk.

Ethnic and economic-economic geography. Administrative divisions.

The ethnic diversity of the population was reflected in the economic geography of the Horde. The peoples that were part of it, in most cases, retained their way of life and economic activities, therefore, nomadic cattle breeding, and agriculture of sedentary tribes, and other industries were important in the economy of the state. The khans themselves and representatives of the Horde administration received most of the income in the form of tribute from the conquered peoples, from the labor of artisans who were forcibly relocated to new cities, and from trade. The last article was of great importance, therefore the Mongols took care of the improvement of the trade routes passing through the territory of the state. The center of the state territory - Lower - connected the Volga route with Bulgaria and the Russian lands. In the place of the closest approach to the Don, the city of Beljamen arose, to ensure the safety and convenience of merchants crossing the bridge. A caravan road went to the east through the Northern Caspian region to Khiva. The part of this route from Saraichik to Urgench, which ran through deserted waterless areas, was very well equipped: at a distance approximately corresponding to the day's crossing (about 30 km), wells were dug and caravanserais were built. Khajitarkhan was connected by a land road with the city of Madjar, from which there were roads to Derbent and Azak. The Horde communicated with Europe both by water and land routes: along the Northern Black Sea and Danube, along from the Crimean Genoese ports through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles to the Mediterranean Sea. The Dnieper route has largely lost its significance compared to the previous period.

Administratively, the Horde was divided into uluses, the boundaries of which were not clear and constant. In general, this concept itself in the period under consideration is increasingly used in the meaning of a spatial unit, although initially the "ulus" was also understood as the entire population given by the khan under the control of any person. It is known that since the 1260s. Until 1300, the western part of the Horde from the lower Danube to the lower Dnieper was the ulus of Temnik Nogai. Although these territories, formally considered part of the Horde, were given to Nogai by Khan Berke, their dependence on the center was nominal. Nogai enjoyed virtually complete independence and often exerted a significant influence on the Sarai khans. Only after the defeat of Nogai by Khan Tokta in 1300 was the center of separatism liquidated. The northern steppe part of the Crimean peninsula was the Crimean ulus. The steppes between the Dnieper and the Volga are referred to in the sources as the Desht-i-Kipchak ulus. It was controlled by high-ranking officials - beklyaribeks or vezirs, and the space of the entire ulus was divided into smaller units, which were under the control of the chiefs at a lower level - ulusbeks (a similar system existed in all administrative-territorial units of the Horde). The territory east of the Volga to Yaik - the ulus Saray - was the place of nomadism of the khan himself. The ulus of the son of Jochi Shiban occupied the territories of modern Northern and Western Siberia up to the Irtysh and Chulym, and the Khorezm ulus occupied the area southwest of the Aral Sea to the Caspian Sea. To the east of the Syr Darya was Kok-Orda (Blue Horde) with the center in Sygnak.

The listed names refer to the largest of the known to us uluses of the Golden Horde, although there were also smaller ones. These administrative-territorial units were distributed by the khans to relatives, military leaders or officials at their own discretion and were not hereditary possessions. The Golden Horde cities were special administrative units ruled by officials appointed by the khan.

Disintegration of the Horde

The reduction of the Horde's territory began at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. The defeat of Nogai in 1300 weakened the military power of the state in the west, as a result of which the Danube lowland was lost, captured by the Kingdom of Hungary and the emerging Wallachian state.

60-70s XIV century. - a time of internal strife and power struggles in the Horde itself. As a result of the mutiny of the temnik Mamai in 1362, the state actually split into two warring parts, the border between which was the Volga. The steppes between the Volga, Don and Dnieper, and the Crimea were ruled by Mamai. The left bank of the Volga with the capital of the state Sarai al-Jedid and the adjacent districts constituted a counterbalance to Mamai, in which the capital aristocracy played the main role, on whose whims the Sarai khans who replaced quite often depended. The line running along the Volga, which split the Golden Horde, existed quite steadily until 1380. Mamai managed to capture Sarai al-Jedid in 1363, 1368 and 1372, but these seizures were short-lived and did not eliminate the split of the state. Internal strife weakened the military and political power of the Horde, in connection with which new territories began to fall away from it.

In 1361 the Khorezm ulus broke away, having long been the bearer of separatist tendencies. Here, its own ruling dynasty was formed, which did not recognize the power of Sarai. The secession of Khorezm caused a major damage to the Horde, not only political, but also economic, since this region occupied a key position in the international caravan trade. The loss of this economically developed ulus noticeably weakened the positions of the Sarai khans, depriving them of an important support in the struggle against Mamai.

Territorial losses continued in the west. In the 60s. XIV century. in the Eastern Carpathian region, the Moldavian principality was formed, which seized the Prut-Dniester interfluve, destroying the Golden Horde settlements here. After the victory of Prince Olgerd over the Mongols in the battle at the Sinyiye Vody River (now Sinyukha, the left tributary of the Southern Bug), around 1363, Lithuania began to penetrate into Podolia and the right bank of the lower Dnieper.

The victory of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich over Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 allowed Khan Tokhtamysh to restore the relative unity of the Horde, however, the two campaigns of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1391 and 1395. dealt her a crushing blow. Most of the Golden Horde cities were destroyed, in many of them life died out forever (Sarai al-Jedid, Beljamen, Ukek, etc.). After that, the disintegration of the state became a matter of time. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. In the Trans-Volga region, the Horde was formed, occupying the steppes from the Volga to the Irtysh, from the Caspian and Aral seas to the South Urals. In 1428-1433. an independent Crimean Khanate was founded, initially occupying the Crimean steppes and gradually capturing the entire peninsula, as well as the Northern Black Sea region. By the middle of the 40s. XV century formed and isolated the Kazan Khanate on the middle Volga and the lower Kama, and in the 1450s – 60s. in the Ciscaucasian steppes, a khanate was formed with its center in Khadzhitarkhan (Russian sources call this city Astrakhan). In the XV century. at the confluence of the Tobol and Irtysh with the center in Chingi-Tur (Tyumen), the Siberian Khanate was gradually formed, initially dependent on the Nogai Horde. The remains of the Golden Horde - the Big Horde - until 1502 roamed the steppes between the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and the Volga-Don pass.