Renaissance: Preautoresans, early, high and later revival. Painting: Renaissance

Renaissance - Translated from French means "Revival". That was the way there was a whole epoch, symbolizing the intellectual and artistic flourishing of European culture. Revival originated in Italy at the beginning of the XIV century, the arrangement of the era of the cultural decline and the Middle Ages), which was based on barbarism and ignorance, and, developing, reached his peak in the XVI century.

For the first time, the historiographer of Italian origin, the painter and the author of the work of the life of famous artists, sculptors and architects at the beginning of the XVI century wrote the history of the Revival.

Initially, the term "revival" meant a certain period (the beginning of the XIV century) of the formation of a new wave of art. But after a while, this concept has acquired a broader interpretation and began to designate a whole era of the development and formation of culture opposite to feudalism.

The Renaissance period is closely associated with the emergence of new styles and techniques of painting in Italy. There is an interest in ancient image. Secondness and anthropocentrism are inalienable features that fill the sculptures of that time and painting. The Renaissance displaces asceticism characterizing the medieval era. It comes to the whole worldly, limitless beauty of nature and, of course, a person. Artists of the Renaissance are suitable for the vision of a person's body from a scientific point of view, try to work out everything to the smallest details. Pictures are becoming realistic. Painting is saturated with a unique style. She installed the main canons of taste in art. A new concept of worldview called "humanism" is widely distributed, according to which a person is considered the highest value.

Renaissance period

The Spirit of Bellows has a wide expression in the pictures of the time and fills painting special sensuality. The Renaissance binds culture with science. Artists began to consider art as a knowledge branch, studying thoroughly human physiology and the world around. This was done in order to more realistically display the truth of God's creation and the events on their canvases. Much attention was paid to the image of religious plots, which acquired the earthly content due to the skill of geniuses, such as Leonardo da Vinci.

There are five stages of development of the Italian art of the Renaissance.

INTERNATIONAL (CREDITAL) Gothic

The root gothic (ducento) originated in the early XIII century is characterized by excessive colorfulness, pompousness and cordiality. The main view of the paintings is the miniature with the image of altar stories. Artists use temporary paints, creating their painting. The era of the revival is rich in the famous representatives of this period, for example, such as the Italian painters Wittor Carpaccio and Sandro Botticelli.

Previation period (PRASTORESANCE)

The next stage, which is believed to anticipate the Renaissance era, is called PRASTERESANCE (Treceno) and falls at the end of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. In connection with the rapid development of the humanistic worldview, painting of this historic period reveals the inner world of man, his soul, has a deep psychological meaning, but at the same time has a simple and clear structure. Religious plots are departed into the background, and the secular becomes leading, and a person with his feelings, faith and gestures speak as the main character. The first portraits of the Italian Renaissance occupying the place icons appear. Famous artists of this period - Jotto, Pietro Lorenzetti.

Early rebirth

At the beginning, the stage of early rebirth begins (QuattroCento), symbolizing the flowering of painting with the lack of religious plots. Faces on icons acquire a human look, and a landscape, like a genre in painting, occupies a separate niche. The founder of the artistic culture of the early Renaissance is the mosaic, at the heart of the concept of which is intellectuality. His paintings have high realism. Great Masters explored a linear and air perspective, anatomy and used knowledge in their creations, on which the correct three-dimensional space can be seen. Representatives of the early Renaissance are Sandro Botticelli, Piero della Francesca, Pollyolo, Verokko.

High revival, or "golden age"

From the end of the 15th century, the stage of high revival began (Cinquecento) and lasted relatively long, until the beginning of the XVI century. His center was Venice and Rome. Art figures expand their ideological outlook and are interested in space. A man appears in the image of a hero, committed as spiritually and physically. Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael, Titian Titionero, Michelangelo Buonarotti and others are considered figures of this era. The great artist Leonardo da Vinci was a "universal person" and was in constant search for truth. Cashing sculpture, drama, various scientific experiences, he managed to find time for painting. The creation of "Madonna in the rocks" clearly displays the style of lighting style created by the painter, where the connection of light and shadow creates the effect of compound, and the famous "Joconda" is made using the "dimupto" technique, creating the illusion of haze.

Later revival

In the period of late revival, which falls at the beginning of the XVI century, there was a seizure and looting of the city of Rome by Germanic troops. This event marked the beginning of the erasing era. The Roman Cultural Center ceased to be a patron of the most famous figures, and they were forced to disperse into other cities in Europe. As a result of the increase in the inconsistencies in the views between Christian faith and humanism at the end of the 15th century, mannerism becomes the prevailing style characterizing painting. The era of Renaissance is gradually coming to an end, since the basis of this style is considered a beautiful manner that overshadows ideas about the harmony of the world, the truth and the distinction of the mind. Creativity becomes complex and acquires the features of the confrontation of various directions. Brilliant work belongs to such well-known artists as Paolo Veronese, Tinooretto, Jacopo PonutoMo (Carrucci).

Italy became the cultural center of painting and gave the world in brilliant artists of this period, the paintings of which to this day cause emotional delight.

In addition to Italy, the development of art and painting has an important place in other European countries. This course was called, it is especially worth noting the Renaissance Age, which has grown on its own soil. The end of the century war caused the growth of universal self-consciousness and the development of humanism. In French art there is a realism, relationship with scientific knowledge, to the images of antiquity. All listed features bring it closer to Italian, but the presence of tragic notes in the canvases is a significant difference. Famous artists of the Renaissance in France - Angurran Sharonton, Nicola Froman, Jean Fuku, Jean Clue Senior.

Head "Introduction". Universal art history. Volume III. The art of the Renaissance. Author: Yu.D. Kolpinsky; Under the general edition of Yu.d. Kolpinsky and E.I. Rothenberg (Moscow, State Publishing House "Art", 1962)

Revival believes the beginning of a new stage in the history of world culture. The stage of this, as noted by F. Engels, was the greatest progressive coup from all those experienced by humanity (see K. Marx and F. Engels, Op., Vol. 20, p.346). The meaning that had a revival for the development of culture and art, with him can be compared in the past only the era of the heyday of an antique civilization. In the era of revival, modern science originated, especially natural science. It is enough to remind about the brilliant scientific guesses of Leonardo da Vinci, about the foundation of Francis Bacon an experienced study method, about the astronomical theories of Copernicus, about the first successes of mathematics, about the geographical discoveries of Columbus and Magellan.

Of particular importance was the revival for the development of art, the approval of the principles of realism and humanism in the literature, theater and visual arts.

The Renaissance Art Culture is unique and incredit value for humanity. On its basis, an advanced artistic culture of the new time arose and developed. Moreover, the realistic art of revival opens up essentially the first stage in the history of the art of the new time. The basic principles of realism, the system of realistic language of the visual art of the new time developed in the art of revival, especially in his painting. The art of revival was of great importance for the further development of architecture and science. The same applies to a large extent to the theater and literature.

The flowering of the culture and art of Renaissance had worldwide historical significance. However, this does not mean that the culture of all peoples of the world during the transition from feudalism to the bourgeois society passed through the period of rebirth both through the mandatory stage of its development. In order for the depths of the late feudal society for the first time, and defeated the anti-refortional, realistic and humanistic artistic culture of the Renaissance type, the advanced secular worldview has developed, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe freedom and dignity of the human personality has emerged, there was a combination of certain historical conditions that were possible in a certain part. The globe, namely in Western and partly Central Europe.

The economy and culture of medieval Europe at the first stages of the development of feudalism lagged from early blooming mighty cultures of the East (Arab East, China, India, Central Asia). In the future, however, it was in Europe that for the first time the prerequisites for the transition from feudalism to capitalism, that is, to a new, higher social and historical formation. These new social relations were still in the depths of the European feudal society in trade and craft cities - urban communes.

It is exactly the fact that in some of the economically most developed areas of medieval Europe, the city gained political independence, facilitated the origin of the early Baptist relations. On this basis, a new culture arose was opened by a new culture, called the Renaissance Culture (Rinashimto - in Italian, Renaissance - in French). Thus, the first anti-refortal culture in the history of humanity arose in the capitalist development of independent cities-states on the path of the capitalist development of independent cities, sporadically into the array of the European continent, which was generally at the stage of feudalism.

In the future, the transition to the initial accumulation, a stormy and painful restructuring of the entire economy and the social system of Western Europe caused the formation of bourgeois nations, the formation of the first national states. Under these conditions, the culture of Western Europe has moved to the next stage of its development, by the period of mature and late revival. This period is the general level of the development of early capitalism as part of the decomposing feudalism. However, the addition of culture and this period was based on the development and further development of those ideological, scientific and artistic conquests, which were achieved in the urban culture of the previous stage of revival. The term "revival" himself appeared already in the 16th century, in particular the Vazari, the author of the famous life methods of Italian artists. Vasari considered his epoch as the time of revival of art that had had occurring after the centuries-old domination of the art of the Middle Ages, which Renaissance theorists considered the time of complete decline. In the 18th century, the age of enlightenment, the term revival was picked up by Voltaire, highly appreciated the contribution of this era to the fight against medieval dogmatic. At 19 in. This term was distributed by historians to the entire Italian culture of 15-16 centuries, and subsequently on the culture of other European countries that have passed through this stage of historical and cultural development.

During the 19th - early 20 V. Historical and art historical science, both Western European and Russian, was much done on an in-depth study of literature, art and culture of this wonderful era. However, only Marxist Historical Science and Art Consoles managed to consistently reveal genuine historical patterns that determined the nature of the Renaissance culture and its progressive revolutionary importance in the development of the principles of realism and humanism.

In the era of imperialism, and especially in recent decades, frankly reactionary theories, trying to deny the principal opposite of revival of the Middle Ages, were distributed in bourgeois science. In other cases, the realistic art of revival is interpreted by bourgeois science as a decadeble, naturalistic, "materialistic", etc.

This desire of reactionary scientists to investigate the traditions of realism and humanism of the Renaissance Modern advanced science, and first of all, Soviet art and artistic, opposes consistent protection and the study of a remarkable contribution to the culture of mankind, in every way emphasizing him truly a truly progressive, revolutionary role.

Of great importance in the formation of the Renaissance culture was to appeal to the Great Realistic Heritage of Antiquity, not fully lost in medieval Europe.

With a special completeness and consistency, the culture and the art of revival were carried out in Italy, whose land was saturated with the magnificent remains of ancient architecture and art. However, the decisive importance that determined the exclusive role of Italy in the formation of the culture and art of Renaissance was the fact that it was in Italy that the economy and the culture of medieval cities-states were most consistently developed and already in 12 -15 centuries. There was a transition from medieval trade and crafts to early-capitalist relations.

The culture and art of the Renaissance and the North-West of Europe, especially in advanced for the time of the Netherlands cities of the 15th century, as well as in a number of Germans (Priesna and South-German cities) were widely and peculiar development. Later, during the initial accumulation and formation of national states, the culture and art of France played a big role (the end of the 15th century and especially 16 centuries) and England (end 16 - early 17 century).

If the art of revival in its consistent form developed only in some countries in Europe, the development trends towards humanism and realism, essentially similar to the principles of the Renaissance, were very widespread in most European countries. In the Czech Republic in the decade preceding the Gusitsky Wars, and in the era of the Gusite wars, the original version of the transitional, renaissance in its type of culture was developed. In the 16th century In the culture of the Czech Republic, the art of late revival was developed. With its special ways, the evolution of the art of rebirth in Poland was the evolution. An important contribution to the culture of the late Renaissance was the art and literature of Spain. At 15 in. Renaissance culture penetrated in Hungary. However, its development was interrupted after the defeat of the country by the Turks.

Wonderful cultures of the peoples of Asia in their historical evolution did not know the Renaissance. The stagnation of feudal relations, characteristic of these countries in the Epoch of the late Middle Ages, extremely slowed their economic, political and spiritual development. If within 5-14 centuries. The culture of the peoples of India, Central Asia, China and in part of Japan in a number of essential relations averaged the culture of the peoples of Europe, starting with the era of the Renaissance The leading role in the development of science and art has passed for several centuries to the culture of the peoples of Europe. This was due to the fact that due to the unevenness of historical development in Europe earlier than anywhere, the prerequisites began to ripen for the transition from feudalism to a higher phase of social development - to capitalism. It is this temporary social and historical factor, and not the mythical "superiority" of the White race, as they tried to approve bourgeois reactionary ideologues and apologists of the colonial expansion, led to an important contribution of Europe since the Renaissance Age of the world artistic culture. An example of the wonderful ancient and medieval cultures of the East, and in our time the drill flourishing of the national culture of the peoples of Asia and Africa, which was on the path of socialism or freed from the colonial yoke, quite convincingly expose the entire falsehood of these reactionary theories.

The great conquests of the Renaissance Culture If not directly, they indirectly contributed to the development and victory of the advanced antifeodal culture of all nations of the world. All peoples overcoming the feudal stage of their development in the struggle for the creation of a new national democratic culture, innovative developing original realistic and humanistic conquests, earlier or later applied in some cases directly to the heritage of the Renaissance, in others - to the experience of modern secular, democratic ideology and The realistic culture of the new time, which, in turn, increased on the basis of further development, deepening and creative processing of rebirth achievements.

For example, during the historical development of Russia, the culture of the Russian people at the turn of 17-18 centuries. It became before the task of decisive overcoming the conditional and religious forms of Old Russian art who had already exhausted themselves and turned to consciously realistic mapping of new reality.

This process was largely facilitated and accelerated by the possibility of taking into account the experience of Western European realistic art of the 17th century, which turned on, in turn, on the artistic conquest of the Renaissance.

What are the historical driving era of the Renaissance, in which the ideological and artistic peculiarity of this era, what are the main chronological stages of its development?

In medieval cities-states, in handicraft shops and merchant guilds there were not only the first primitives of new production relations, but also made the first timid steps to form a new relationship to life. In the labor noses of the medieval city, in the enslaved mass of the peasants there was a spontaneous hatred for oppressors, a dream of a fair life for everyone.

These forces, ultimately, caused the first crushing punch to feudal relations, cleared the road to the bourgeois society.

However, the first time, in the 12-14th centuries, anti-refortion trends in culture developed in the form of a purely class identity of the medieval burgherness, approved their interests and its estate dignity within the framework of an existing medieval society and its culture. Despite the growing moments of the immediate realistic image of reality, the art of medieval cities as a whole maintained religious and conditionally symbolic. True, in medieval literature, such complete naive realism of genres originated very early, as, for example, "Fabio" - peculiar fairy tales - novels, opposing the dominant culture and literature of the feudal era. But they also worn directly folklore character and could not claim the leading position in culture and art. Progressive ideological aspirations have performed in the form of religious heresies, in which the desire for overcoming asceticism and dogmatism of medieval ideology existed in a veiled and distorted form.

Religious in shape, and in part and in content the art of the European Middle Ages at one time played a certain progressive role in the history of world culture. His conquests are already known to us. However, as the public self-consciousness of the main public groups in the cities, which were on the path of bourgeois-capitalist development, the entire system of medieval art, which was generally conditional in nature and inextricably linked with the general church-religious structure of spiritual culture, became a brake in the further development of realism. It was not about the development of certain realistic values \u200b\u200bwithin the framework of the conditional system of medieval art, but on the creation of a software conscious, consistently realistic artistic system, on the development of a consistently realistic language. This transition was an organic part of the overall coup of the worldview, the coup in the entire culture of this era. There was a new, secular, free from church dogmatic and scholastic culture on the change of medieval culture. He was brewing the need for restructuring, moreover, the destruction of the old artistic system. From the moment when the secular beginning displaces the religious, maintaining him only external plot motives, when interest in real life, to its main manifestations won the victory over religious ideas, when consciously personal creative start takes over the impersonal lengthy traditions and prejudices, then comes Renaissance. Its achievements are the achievements of humanistic culture and realistic art, which claim the beauty and dignity of a person who knows the beauty of the world, who realized the strength of the creative possibilities of their mind and will.

As mentioned above, the appeal to the heritage of antiquity, especially in Italy, significantly accelerated the development of the art of revival and to a certain extent determined a number of its features, including a significant number of works written in the stories of antique mythology and history. However, art at the dawn of the capitalist era did not constitute a revival of the culture of an ancient slave-ownership society. Paphos was a joyful and passionate desire for the knowledge of the real world in all his sensual charm. The deployed image of the environment (natural or household), on the background and in a close relationship with which the person lives and acts, has had the creativeness of the revival artists is incommensurable greater importance than for their ancient predecessors. The image of a person from the very beginning of the Renaissance was distinguished by greater individualization and psychological concreteness than in the art of ancient classics. Appeal to the ancient realism and its creative rethinking was caused by the internal needs of the social development of their time and they are subordinated. In Italy, with her abundance of antiquity monuments, this appeal to antiquity was especially facilitated and widely developed. The close relationship between medieval Italy with Byzantium was of great importance. The Culture of Byzantium has preserved, albeit in a distorted form, many antique literary and philosophical traditions. The process of mastering and processing an ancient heritage was accelerated by the resettlement to Italy of Greek scientists from the captured by Turks in 1453 of Byzantium. "In rescued under the fall of the Byzantium, manuscripts, a new world appeared in the greek antique statues from the ruins of Rome, Greek antiquity appeared; The ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared before its light images; In Italy, an unprecedented flowering of art came, which appeared as if the reflections of classical antiquity and which was no longer able to achieve anymore "(K. Marx and F. Engels, Op., Vol. 20, p. 345-346.) With italian humanists, poets, artists, these knowledge have become the property of the entire European Renaissance Epoch.

Although the victory of a secular beginning in culture corresponded to the interests of the young, full strength of the bourgeoisie of Renaissance cities, it would be wrong to reduce the whole importance of the art of revival only to the expression of the ideology of the Renaissance bourgeoisie. The ideological and life content of the creativity of the Titans of Renaissance as Jotto, Wang Eyk, Mazacho, Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael, Michelangelo, Titian, Dürer, Stuzon, was incomparably wider and deeper. The humanistic orientation of the art of Renaissance, its heroic optimism, proud faith in man, the wide population of his images objectively expressed the interests of not only one bourgeoisie, but also reflected the progressive aspects of the development of the entire society as a whole.

The art of revival arose in conditions of transitional time from feudalism to capitalism. As the further approval of capitalist relations in Europe, the Renaissance culture was inevitably had to disintegrate. Its flourishing was associated with the period when the foundations of the feudal public lifestyle and the worldview were (at least in the cities) are thoroughly loosened, and bourgeois-capitalist relations have not yet been formed in their entire TRIGHESSIVE, with all their subsection "morality" and soulless hypocrisy. In particular, they had not yet had time to noticeably appear to manifest themselves alone for the comprehensive development of the personality of the consequences of the bourgeois division of labor, one-sided bourgeois professionalization. At the first stage of the development of the revival, the personnel of the artisan, especially in the field of the production of household items, was not yet completely ousted, destroyed by a manuff, which only made his first steps. In turn, an enterprising merchant or banker did not turn into a impersonal appendage to his capital. Personalizing, courage, courageous resourcy did not lose its value. Therefore, the value of the human person was determined not only and not so much the "price" of its capital, but also by its valid qualities. Moreover, active participation in one degree or another of each citizen in public life, as well as the decay of old feudal mains rights and morality, the instability, the mobility of new, still developing relations, the intense struggle of classes and classes, the clash of personal interests created particularly favorable circumstances for The flourishing of the personality of active, full energy, inextricably linked with all sides of the modern social life. It is not by chance that the criteria for the criteria of the church morality, to replace the dual and far from life, the ideal of a person of the Middle Ages - or a asket monk, or a warrior - a knight "without fear and reproach" with his code of feudal slave loyalty to Suzero - comes a new ideal of human value. This is an ideal of a bright, strong person, seeking happiness on Earth, covered by a passionate desire to develop and approve the creative abilities of its active nature. True, the historical conditions of the Renaissance era contributed to the statement in the medium of the dominant classes of famous moral indifference or direct amorality, and these moments have an increasing influence. However, the same causes of general and cultural development simultaneously contributed to the awareness of the best ideologists of the era of the beauty of the beauty and wealth of human characters. "People who founded the modern domination of the bourgeoisie were all anything, but not by people bourgeois-limited. On the contrary, they were more or less sheaves characteristic of that time the spirit of bold adventures (K. Marx and F. Engels, Op., Vol. 20, p. 346.). The comprehensive brightness of the characters of people of the revival, which was reflected in art, is largely due to the fact that "the heroes of the time did not become still slaves of the division of labor, which creates one-scene, whose influence we are so often observing with their successors."

Advanced people, especially the initial stage of the development of revival, could not in this transitional time to catch the actual defects and the social deformities of the upcoming capitalism and in general, for the most part did not seek a specific analysis of social contradictions. But, despite some naivety and partly the utopianness of ideas about life and man, they brilliantly guessed the actual development opportunities laid down in a person, believed in his genuine liberty from the slave dependence on the forces of nature and the spontaneous contradiction of a developing society. Their aesthetic ideals from the point of view of world-historical were not delusion.

In the era of the Renaissance, art played an exceptional role in culture and determined a largely face of the era. Separate shops and corporations, competing with each other, decorated the temples and square with beautiful artwork art. Representatives of rich patrician giving birth both from personal ambition and political calculation, and from the desire to complete the pleasure of pleasure with their wealth, the magnificent palaces erected, built expensive public structures, arranged lush festive spectacles and processions for fellow citizens. An unusually large role, especially in the 14th and 14th centuries, played orders and the city itself.

Painters, Wawie, the architects, moving the spirit of noble competition, sought to achieve the greatest perfection in their works. Especially art 15 V. We worked openly social character and was directly addressed to the wide mass of citizens. Frescoes, paintings, statues and reliefs decorated cathedrals, city hats, squares, palaces.

Therefore, in a number of relations, the culture of the Renaissance, especially in Italy 15 V. The least reminded the culture of classical Greece. True, sculpture and especially architecture relied mostly on the experience of ancient Roman, and not actually a Greek artistic tradition. However, the spirit of heroic humanism, sublime citizenship, the close connection of artistic culture with the spiritual interests of citizens of the city, their proud patriotism, the desire to decorate, elevate in the art images of their hometown, brought together the culture of an independent Renaissance city commune with a free ancient culture. II, a number of features strongly distinguished the art of revival from the art of Greek "associated with an earlier historical stage of the development of society - with slavement.

Firstly, the Greek art of the classical period, that is, associated with the flourishing of the policy, there was no particularly acute sense of individuality, personal uniqueness of the image of a person, so characteristic of the art of revival. The art of revival for the first time in the history of realism found the way to create an image, which combined the bright disclosure of the individual identity of the individual with the identification of the most socially typical and characteristic qualities of a person. The basics of the portrait of the new time were laid at that time. True, antique art also created a number of masterpieces of realistic portrait. But the antique realistic portrait bloomed in the conditions of the crisis and decay of the culture of classical pore. A realistic portrait of revival is inextricably associated with the period of his highest heyday (portraits of Wang Eki, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Durera, Titian, sculptural portrait of Italian masters. 15th century). The portrait of Renaissance is permeated by Paphos of the approval of the person, the consciousness that the diversity and brightness of individualities are the necessary feature of a normally developing society. The approval of the freedom of personality, the diversity of its gods to a certain extent was the inevitable consequence of the fight against the feudal hierarchy, the inequality and the estate partitions of the Middle Ages, cleared the road with a new public relations.

In the art of the Renaissance, which laid the foundation of the artistic culture of the future capitalist society, otherwise, than in the ancient Greece, the question of the reflection of the life, "labor and days" of the citizens of the commune was resolved. In the classic slave-owned policy, the sphere of ordinary everyday interests, the conditions of life and life were considered unworthy of great art and in a very weak degree, they were reflected only in Vasopysi and partly in small plastic. For people of the free city-state-state Renaissance, the fight against asceticism and mystics of medieval ethics, the adoption of the beauty and dignity of the pretentious - earthly life predetermined the joyful reflection of the entire wealth and diversity of life, life of their time. Therefore, although the main character of the image was an excellent image of a perfect person, the composition of the compositions was often filled with the image taken from the life of episodes, deploying in realistic interiors or on the streets and squares of the native city.

A characteristic feature of the Renaissance art was unprecedented before this flourishing of realistic painting. In the Middle Ages, remarkable monumental ensembles were created in the Middle Ages, full of sublime spirituality and solemn greatness. But it is in the era of Renaissance, painting for the first time reveals the possibilities of a wide coverage of life, the image of human activity and its surrounding life environments. The hobby characteristic of the era contributed to the mastery of the human anatomy, the development of a realistic perspective, the first success in transferring the air environment, the skills of building an angle, that is, the necessary amount of professional knowledge, which allowed painters to realistically truthfully depict a person and the surrounding reality. In the period of the late revival, the development of a system of techniques that attach the direct emotional expressiveness of the smear, the most textured surface of the picture, and mastering the transmission of lighting effects, the comprehension began the light-air perspective. Communication with science in this era was peculiar and very organic. It did not reduce only to the use of the possibilities of mathematics, experimental anatomy, natural sciences in general to improve the skill of painters, whites, architects. Pafos Mind, faith in it. Infinite forces, the desire for the awareness of the world in its lively figurative integrity equally permeated and the artistic and scientific creativity of the era, determined their close weaving. Therefore, the brilliant artist Leonardo da Vinci was and a great scientist, and the works of the best scientists and thinkers of the epoch were not only imbued with the spirit of peculiar poetry and imagery, as, for example, Francis Bacon, but often the innermost essence of these scientists on society was expressed in the forms of fiction ("Utopia" Thomas Mora).

Essentially, for the first time in the history of art, the environment, the life situation in which people exist, are struggling are realistic. At the same time, a person remains the focus of the artist's attention, and he strongly dominates over the surrounding and as if framing his living conditions.

Solving new tasks in its nature, painting accordingly developed and improved its technical means. Wide development in monumental painting received (especially in Italy) Fresco (Jotto, Mazacho, Rafael, Michelangelo). Mosaic almost completely disappeared, which gives the opportunity to achieve exceptionally strong and rich color and light effects, but less than the fresco, adapted for realistic transmission of volumes and their placement in the spatial environment, for the image of complex angles. Tempera technique, especially in the art of early revival, reaches its highest perfection. Much starts to acquire from 15 V. oil painting. In the 16th century It becomes the dominant technique. In its development, the Netherlands wizards of early Renaissance played a special role, starting with Jan Van Eyka.

Further development of machine painting, the desire for the maximum life transmission of the Communication of the Figure with the surrounding air environment, interest in the plastically expressive modeling of the form, and also awakened in the 20-30s. 16th century Interest in an emotionally pointed smear caused a further enrichment of oil painting techniques. The greatest master of this technique was Titian, who played an exceptionally important role in the subsequent development of painting.

The desire for a wide artistic coverage of reality and the well-known expansion of the "consumer" circle of art led, especially in the Nordic countries of Europe, to the flourishing of engraving. The engraving on the tree is improved, it reaches a particularly high development of the cutting engraving on metal, it is emerging and reaches its first success. In countries such as Germany and especially the Netherlands, wide popular movements, the unprecedented scope of the political struggle cause the need for art, quickly and flexibly responding to the requests of time, actively and directly participating in the ideological and political struggle. This form of art becomes primarily a engraving that has taken a significant place in the work of such outstanding artists as Durer, Golbaine and Bruegel.

The transition from handwritten to the printed book was greatly important for the heyday of the engraving. The opening and widespread of typography had a huge progressive importance in the democratization of science and culture, expansion and increase the ideological educational role of literature. The engraving was the only technique that ensured the possibility of perfect decoration and illustrate the printed book. Indeed, it is in the revival era that the modern art of illustrating and designing a book is developing. A number of publishers in Italy, the Netherlands, Germany create unique arts of editions as Elzevira, Aldina (their names originate from the names of the famous publishers of that time).

In sculpture, especially in the status devoted to mythological, biblical, as well as real modern figures, are approved in the heroisan and monumental form of typical features and qualities of the person of that time, the passionate force and energy of its character are revealed. A sculptural portrait develops. Wide distribution is obtained by a promising multifigure relief. In it, the artist combined the plastic clarity of the sculpture and characteristic of painting the depth of promising space, sought to portray complex events with the participation of a large number of people.

However, in relation to the circle of plots, the visual arts of the Renaissance, with the exception of the individual and group portrait (landscape and the historical picture, although they were born at that time, but did not receive widespread development), mainly continues to refer to traditional reasons, learned from Christian myths and testes, widely Complementing them with plots from antique mythology. A significant part of the works written in religious topics was intended for churches and cathedrals, had a cult destination. But in its content, these works were stressed by realistic character and essentially were devoted to the approval of the earthly beauty of a person.

At the same time, they add up as full-fledged independent genres and purely secular giving birth and sculptures, it reaches how the high level has already been individual and a group portrait is born. In the late revival period, as independent genres landscape and still life begin to form.

A new character in the Renaiss Epoch acquires applied art. The essence of the new thing that Renaissance brought to the development of applied art was not only in the wide use of the ancient motifs of the decor and the new forms borrowed from the ancient and the proportions of the items themselves (vessels, jewelry, partly furniture), although it was in itself . Compared with the medieval, there has been a decisive prudency of applied art. The proportion of the works of applied art and the architectural decoration, adorning the interiors of the Patriotic City of Patristian city nobody, the town hall, the dwellings of wealthy citizens, sharply increased. At the same time, if during the period of the developed Middle Ages the most advanced stylistic decisions were achieved when creating works related to church cult, and the found forms influenced the entire field of applied arts, then in the Renaissance Epoch, especially high and in part later, this dependence was rather inverse. Revival was a period of unusually high development of applied art, creating together with architecture, painting and sculpture a single style of the era.

At the same time, unlike the Middle Ages and the initial stages of the Renaissance, where all kinds of art are still closely related to the artistic craft, there is a gradual allocation of painter and sculptor from the medium of artisans. By the beginning of the high revival, a master of painting or sculpture is an artist, a bright gifted creative personality, fully separated from the rest of the masses of artisans. In case of success, he is a rich, which is a prominent place in the public life of his time. The apparent personal freedom of creativity had its own certain advantages, but she taled in itself and the danger of the unsettless of personal destiny, carried elements of competition and personal rivalry, prepared that separation of the artist from the life of the people, which was so typical for the era of developed capitalism. The new position of the artist in society taled in itself and the danger of gap between the "high" and "handicraft" art. But this danger has affected the harmful on the applied arts just much later. In the period of revival, this relationship was not fully broken, it is only worth remembering the wonderful jewelry of the wjaber of the late revival of the Chellya, the activities of the Frenchman Pallisi, who connected in his face a large-scale Humanist and a wonderful Maitolian master. Therefore, it is not by chance that almost all known types of applied art bloomed in the era of revival, but also rose to the new stage of their technical and artistic skills, such as a jewelry, art glass, painting on faience and so on. Cheerfulness and soundness of paints, elegant nobility of forms, an accurate sense of material capabilities, perfect technique, a deep sense of unity of style is characteristic of the applied arts of Renaissance.

In the architecture, the ideals of life-affirming humanism, the desire for harmoniously clear beauty forms have affected with no less strength than in other art types, and caused a decisive coup in the development of architecture.

First, secular development was widespread developed. Civil architecture - Town Hall, Loggia, Market Fountains, Houses of Charity, etc., is enriched with new principles. This nature of architecture originated in the depths of the medieval city commune and served the public needs and needs of the city. In the Renaissance, especially in the early period of his period, civil architecture gets particularly widespread and acquires monumental and secular character. At the same time, along with the architecture serving the public needs of the city, the type of architecture is completely new compared to the average centuries, the dwelling of the rich burgher turns into a monumental permeated by the spirit of festive cheerfulness of the Palace - Palazzo. Renaissance Palaces, especially in Italy, along with the town halls and temples, the architectural appearance of the Renaissance city was largely determined.

If north of the Alps (Netherlands, Germany), the new type of the architecture of the Renaissance city was created mainly by processing the gothic architecture in the spirit of greater harmony and increased festivity of forms, then in Italy, the gap with medieval architecture was more open and consistent. Of particular importance was the appeal to the ancient rational system, the rationality, the logicality of the construction of the architectural structure, the identification of the tectonic logic of the building. The humanistic base of the order system, the correlation of its scale and proportions with the scale and proportions of the human body has no less important.

From here and so characteristic of the revival of a wide appeal to festive-solemn architectural structures, against the background of which the image of a person dominating over the world or actively struggling in it in monumental sculptural and pictorial works is actively struggling in it for achieving their goals. Hence the earthly, secular character, peculiar to most of the church structures created in Italy for 15-16 centuries.

As already noted, the appeal to the ancient motifs was characteristic not only for architects. It is noteworthy deeply that when the Renaissance artists solved the task of creating heroic images by rethinking the old Christian myths and legends, they often referred, sometimes somewhat naive, to the authority of the ancients. So, the great artist of the German revival of Albrecht Dürer, expressing the assumption that a number of ancient treatises about art did not reach his time, because "these noble books were distorted and destroyed from hatred for pagan idols," notes further referring to the fathers Churches: "Do not kill with the evil of noble art, which was found and accumulated with great difficulty and effort. After all, art is great, difficult and noble, and we can turn it into the glory of God. For, as they gave their idol Apollon proportions of the most beautiful human figure, so we want to take advantage of our Christ for the Lord, the most beautiful worldwide. " Next, Durer approves his right to embody Mary's image in the appearance of the most beautiful woman Venus and Samson in the appearance of Hercules (A. Durer, a book about painting. Diaries, letters, treatises, t. L.-M., 1957, p. 20.).

Essentially, this meant nothing more than a strong change in the actual content of old Christian plots and motifs in visual arts. The beauty of natural human feelings, the poetry of real life resolutely displaced the mystical transformation and solemn elimination of the images of the Middle Ages.

The formation of the art of revival in the fight against the remnants of medieval art, the growth, the flourishing of the Renaissance artistic culture, and then the crisis in the late period of its existence proceeded in different ways depending on the specific historical conditions.

In Italy, where Renaissance received the most complete and consistent development, his evolution took place through the following steps: the so-called PRATINESSANCE ("Treatment"), that is, the preparatory period, when the first signs foreshadow the onset of the artistic coup, and then actually revival, in which An early, high and later revival should be distinguished.

The characteristic feature of the PRATINESSAN (last third of 13 - the beginning of the 14th century) is that in the art of its largest representatives - the painter Jotto, sculptors Piccolo and Giovanni Pisano, Arnolfo di Cambio - progressively realistic and humanistic tendencies are largely in religious forms.

In the north, to a certain extent similar to PRATINESSANS, it was not identified not so clearly and develops, unlike Italy, relying on the progressive directions of late Gothic. In the Netherlands, he comes to an end of the 14th century. And ends to the 10ths of the 15th century in the work of the Limeburg brothers and the sculptor Claus Slutuer. In Germany and France, these transient trends did not lead to a clearly dedicated to the new art stage of the art of the late Gothic. In the Czech Republic, which, along with Italy and the Netherlands, was then one of the most economically developed regions of Europe, in the second half of the 14th century. It originated in the depths of Gothic art Realistic and humanistic artistic direction, prepare the appearance of the art of revival (in particular, the creativity of theodorich and master of the Třebonsky altar). The crisis caused by the Gusitsk Revolution and its defeat interrupted this distinctive line in the development of Czech art.

The art of revival mainly developed in accordance with the two steps in the emergence, and then the initial period of the development of capitalism in Europe, which referred to the "capital" Marx: "... The first primitives of capitalist production are sporadically found in individual cities in the Mediterranean Sea already in The XIV and XV centuries, however, the beginning of the capitalist era refers only to the XVI century. Where she comes, the serfdom has long been destroyed and the brilliant page of the Middle Ages - free cities "(K. Marx and F. Engels, Op., Vol. 23, p.728).

The culture of the early rebirth in its historically unique form is precisely and could arise only in the face of the complete or almost complete political independence of such cities-states. The most consistently and fully, this stage was revealed in the art of Italy and the Netherlands. In Italy, it covers the entire 15th century to about 80-90s.; In the Netherlands - the time of the first decades of the 15th century. and before the beginning of the 16th century; In Germany - almost all over the second half of the 15th century.

The flowering of the art of early rebirth in Italy and Germany is completed by the so-called high revival (90s. 15 V.- Start 16 in.). The art of high rebirth, completing art in the 15th century. And bringing to the highest expression, his progressive trends, however, was a special, qualitatively peculiar stage of the development of the revival in general, with his desire for harmonious clarity and monumental heroic of a person's image. High revival gave the world of such titans like Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael, Bramte, Michelangelo, Georgeon, Titian, Durer, Golbaine.

In other countries, for example, in the Netherlands and France, the high revival period was expressed significantly less clearly. In some of them, it is not at all.

By the 30-40th. 16th century The culture of revival moves to the final stage of its development. In the situation of the addition of national states and the publicity of the political independence of cities, it in most countries acquires the nature of nationwide culture.

Features of the art of the late revival period, exciting the last two-thirds of the 16th century, and in England and the beginning of the 17th century, due to the fact that it has developed during the initial accumulation of capital, the development of manufactory, the deep crisis and the decay of old patriarchal feudal forms of the farm, who captured partly and rural areas of each country, turbulent colonial expansion and growth of anti-refortion movements of the masses. This movement in the Netherlands turned into a first successful bourgeois revolution. During this period, the ideological struggle of the reaction and progress forces acquires a particularly wide and acute character.

In the field of social and ideological struggle, it was, on the one hand, the time of increasing and expansion of both the antipodeal movement of the bourgeoisie of cities and even parts of the nobility and the mighty revolutionary lift of the masses. The ideological struggle expressing these processes proceeded often in a religious shell arising in the first decades of 16 century. Reformed anticatolic movements from moderate Lutheranity to militant Calvinism or Plebea equalizing anabaptism. On the other hand, the late revival period falls during the consolidation and restructuring of the feudal reaction forces, primarily the Catholic Church - the so-called counter-processing, with which the creation of the Jesuit Order is closely related.

The art of late revival developed in different countries of Europe is very uneven and in deeply peculiar forms. Italy was due to the great geographical discoveries aside from the main centers of the further economic and political development of Europe. The best forces in Italy failed to achieve the creation of a single national state, and the country became the object of struggle and robbery between rival powers - France and Spain. Hence the tragic character, which acquires at this time late Creativity Michelangelo, Titian and the art of Tintoretto. Of the large masters of realists of the late Italian Renaissance, only Veronese, with the exception of the last years of life, remains externally alien to the tragic problems of the era. In general, the artistic contribution of the progressive Italian masters of the late revival to the world culture was very significant. At the same time in Italy of this period, earlier than anywhere, there was a hostile realism, an artistic course, expressing the ideological interests of the feudal reaction, is the so-called manherism.

Germany after a short-term heyday of art, similar to his high revival in Italy, enters into a long and severe decline, caused by the collapse of the early bourgeois revolution and the political fragmentation of the country.

In the Netherlands, which experienced the period of revolutionary lift, in France, which has entered during the consolidation period of the National State, in England, where, within the framework of the strengthening absolutism, a rapid rise in economics and culture took place, the period of late revival with the whole severity of social, ethical and aesthetic contrasts was time Lifting culture and art and gave mankind of the Geuzon and Bruegel, Rabl and Shakespeare.

Very significant in the late revival period was the role of the dismantled contradictions of the culture of Spain, which became in the 16th century. For a short time one of the most powerful powers of Europe.

However, the Spanish monarchy put, unlike absolutism in France and England, is not to strengthen the national state, but the creation of a cosmopolitan global empire. This problem in the conservation period of the consolidation of bourgeois nations was reactive and utopian. II Clean Catholic Empire, the Spanish, Netherlands, Germany, a significant part of Italy, disintegrate under his scepter, for a short period of Spring, dreamed, exhausted and cutting to the end of the 16th century.

In the era of the late revival, for the first time in the history of art, the struggle of the realism and hostile trends, the struggle of progress and the reaction acts in a fairly open and consistent form. On the one hand, in the work of Late Titian, Mykellandgelo, Stuzon, Rabl, Bruegel, Shakespeare, Servantes, Realism rises another step in his desire to master the wealth of life, truthfully, from humanistic positions to express its contradictions, master the new parties to the life of the world - the image of the Human masses, clashes and conflicts of characters, the transmission of the sensation of a complex "multi-voiced" dynamics of life. On the other hand, the creativity of Italian mannerists, the Netherlands novelists, finally, passionate and complete tragic contradictions The art of the Spanish artist El Greco acquire more or less consistently antgumanist character. Contradictions and conflicts of life in their art are interpreted in a mystically distorted, subjectivistism random.

In general, the rebirth is a qualitatively new and important stage in the development of the art of revival. Having lost the harmonious cheerfulness of early and high rebirth, the art of late revival deeper into the complex inner world of man, wider reveals his connection with the outside world. The art of late Renaissance completes the entire great era of the Renaissance, differing in unique ideological-artistic peculiarity, and at the same time prepares the transition to the next era in the development of the artistic culture of mankind.

The era of the Renaissance is the heyday of all arts, including theater, and literature, and music, but, undoubtedly, the main among them, the most fully expressed the spirit of their time, was visual art.

It is no coincidence that there is a theory that the revival began with the fact that the artists ceased to be satisfied with the framework of the "Byzantine" style dominated by the "Byzantine" style and in search of samples for their work were the first to appeal to antiquity. One of the first refused by the "Byzantine manner" and began to use the black and white modeling of the shapes of Pietro Cavallini in the fresco. But the paintings instead of the icons for the first time began to create the largest master of the PRATINESSAN JOTTO. The first sought Christian ethical ideas to transmit through the image of real human feelings and experiences, replaced the symbolism with the image of real space and specific items. On the famous frescoes of Jotto in Chapel Del Arena in Padua can be seen next to the saints completely unusual characters: shepherds or PRYUU. Each individual person in Jotto expresses well-defined experiences, a certain character.

(((Epoch of early revival in art, the development of ancient artistic heritage occurs, new ethical ideals are formed, artists turn to the achievements of science (mathematics, geometry, optics, anatomy). Florence is played by the leading role in the formation of ideological and style principles of the Early Revival art. In images created by such masters as Donatello, Verrocko dominate the heroic and patriotic principles ("St. Georgy" and "David" Donatello and David Verrocko).

The founder of the Renaissance painting is Mazacho (Brankachchi Capella mupisi, "Trinity"), Mazacho could pass the depth of space, tied the figure and landscape with a single composite intent, attached to individuals portrait expressiveness. But the formation and evolution of a picturesque portrait, reflecting the interest of the revival culture to a person, are associated with the names of the artists of the Umrbian school: Piero della Francesca, Pinturikkoy.

The artist Sandro Botticelli is worth a mansion in the era of early revival. The images created by them are spiritualized and poetic. Researchers note the abstractness and sophisticated intellectualism in the works of the artist, his desire to create mythological compositions with a complicated and encrypted content ("Spring", "Birth of Venus").

The culmination in the development of ideologically-artistic principles of Italian Renaissance is becoming high rebirth. The founder of the high revival art is considered to be Leonardo da Vinci - a great artist and a scientist.

He created a number of masterpieces: "Mona Lisa" ("Joconda"), "Madonna Benua" and "Madonna Litt", "Lady with Mornostham". In his work, Leonardo sought to express the spirit of the Renaissance man. He was looking for sources of perfect art forms in nature, but it was his N. Berdyaev who considers it responsible for the coming process of engine survey and mechanization of human life, which tears off the man from nature.

Classical harmony painting reaches Rafael in the work. His art evolves from early cold-risen-unstained Umbral images Madonne ("Madonna Concatented") to the world of "happy Christianity" of Florentine and Roman works. "Madonna with a shcheler" and "Madonna in the chair" are soft, humane and even being ordinary in their humanity.)))

The first harbingers of the art of revival appeared in Italy in the XIV century. Artists of this time, Pietro Cavallini (1259-1344), Simon Martini (1284-1344) and (first of all) Jotto (1267-1337), when creating a traditional religious topics, they were repelled from traditional international gothic, but new artistic techniques began to use The bulk composition, the use of the landscape in the background, which allowed them to make images more realistic, lively. This sharply distinguished their creativity from the previous iconographic tradition, abundant conventions in the image. For the designation of their creativity, the term PRATINESSANS is used.

The Italian Revival Epoch is conventionally divided into a number of stages:
PRATINESSANCE (DRUCHTO) - XII-XIV century.
Early Renaissance (Tricoto and Quatrochetto) - from the middle of the XV - XV centuries.
High Renaissance (Cinkvice) - until the second third of the XVI century.
Late Renaissance - the second third of the XVI is the first half of the XVII centuries.

The art of the Renaissance

The era of the Renaissance is the heyday of all arts, including theater, and literature, and music, but, undoubtedly, the main among them, the most fully expressed the spirit of their time, was visual art.

It is no coincidence that there is a theory that the revival began with the fact that the artists ceased to be satisfied with the framework of the "Byzantine" style dominated by the "Byzantine" style and in search of samples for their work were the first to appeal to antiquity. One of the first refused by the "Byzantine manner" and began to use the black and white modeling of the shapes of Pietro Cavallini in the fresco. But the paintings instead of the Icons first began to create the largest master of the prostanesansance Jotto.

He first sought Christian ethical ideas to transmit through the image of real human feelings and experiences, replaced the symbolism with the image of real space and concrete items. On the famous frescoes of Jotto in Chapel Del Arena in Padua can be seen next to the saints completely unusual characters: shepherds or PRYUU. Each individual person in Jotto expresses well-defined experiences, a certain character.

In the era of Dustuto (XIII century) in Italy, instead of the literary language, the Middle Ages - Latin - the national language is gradually formed - Italian. The greatest writer of the time of Dante Aligiery (1256-1321) was a great contribution to his creation. In his early work "New Life", written in Italian, Dante tells the history of love for Beatrice, starting with their first meeting, when they were still at all children, and to death beloved when she was 18 years old.

The image of a simple townozhnka, aronsed by the love of the poet, he pesters through his life. And in the spirit of the era of the Renaissance of the scene from his "Divine Comedy", in which he depicts his beatrice sitting over the wagon symbolizing the church in the gates of purgatory.

In the Epoch of the Early Revival in Art, the development of ancient artistic heritage occurs, new ethical ideals are formed, artists turn to the achievements of science (mathematics, geometry, optics, anatomy). The leading role in the formation of ideological and style principles of art of early revival is played by Florence. In the images created by such masters as Donatello, Verrocko, dominate the heroic and patriotic principles ("St. George" and "David" Donatello and David Verrocko).

The founder of the Renaissance painting is Mazacho (Brankachchi Capella mupisi, "Trinity"), Mazacho could pass the depth of space, tied the figure and landscape with a single composite intent, attached to individuals portrait expressiveness. But the formation and evolution of a picturesque portrait, reflecting the interest of the revival culture to a person, are associated with the names of the artists of the Umrbian school: Piero della Francesca, Pinturikkoy.

The artist Sandro Botticelli is worth a mansion in the era of early revival. The images created by them are spiritualized and poetic. Researchers note the abstractness and sophisticated intellectualism in the works of the artist, his desire to create mythological compositions with a complicated and encrypted content ("Spring", "Birth of Venus").

One of the lives of Botticelli said that his Madonna and Venus impress the loss, causing a feeling of an indelible sadness to us ... Some of them lost the sky, others - the Earth.

The culmination in the development of ideologically-artistic principles of Italian Renaissance is becoming high rebirth. The founder of the high revival art is considered to be Leonardo da Vinci - a great artist and a scientist.

He created a number of masterpieces: "Mona Lisa" ("Joconda"), "Madonna Benua" and "Madonna Litt", "Lady with Mornostham". In his work, Leonardo sought to express the spirit of the Renaissance man. He was looking for sources of perfect art forms in nature, but it was his N. Berdyaev who considers it responsible for the coming process of engine survey and mechanization of human life, which tears off the man from nature.

Classical harmony painting reaches Rafael in the work. His art evolves from early cold-risen-unstained Umbral images Madonne ("Madonna Concatented") to the world of "happy Christianity" of Florentine and Roman works. "Madonna with a junk" and "Madonna in the chair" are soft, humane and even are usually in their humanity.

But the majestic is the image of the "Sicstinian Madonna", symbolically connecting heavenly and earthly worlds. Most of all Rafael is known as the creator of delicate images of Madonn. But in painting he embodied and the ideal of a revived universal person (portrait of Castiglion), and the drama of historical events.

Michelangelo - a master who joined in his art a wonderful physicity with deep spirituality of images inherited from medieval Christian culture. Already in the early work of Michelangelo, his tragic worldview was manifested ("Crucifixion"), the subtlest psychology of images and technical virtuosity ("mourning Christ" from the Cathedral of St. Peter). Creates Michelangelo and its concept of human history (picturesque sequestine chapel plane).

A special place in the era of high rebirth occupies a Venice school, in which the pleasure of life and love for nature has been connected with the humanistic ideal (Creativity Georgeon, Titian). Later, revival and mannerism reflect the crisis of Renaissance humanistic ideals.

During this period, Michelangelo's work reflects the aggravating tragedy of his worldview (the images of Capelich Capelich, especially the "night", "Terrible Court" and the frescoes of Paolina Capella). Artists continuing the traditions of high rebirth increases the thrust for decorativeness and pomp (Veronese), subjectivism and spiritualism increase.

For manaryists, the image is not built on the basis of the study of nature, as was the artists of the Renaissance, but on their inner feeling. Mañaryism is bizarrely intertwined mystic and ideals of court culture, he is full of allegories and artistic plastics. In manherism, the reneguance of the Renaissance Tradition (Correzo, Amanti, etc.) takes place.

Simultaneously with the crisis of revival art in Italy, it flows his flourishing in the Netherlands and Germany.

Yang Van Eyk is the central figure of the initial pore of the Northern Renaissance. In his work, one of the principal features of this art reflected: close relationship with the art of late Gothic. The Gent Altar, made by the brothers Wang Eyk, in his shaped strictly connects the strict religious feeling with the joyful and poetic perception of earthly beauty, ideal images with portraits of real people, complex symbolism with simple human emotions. In Portraights, Jan Van Eyka emphasis is placed on spiritual fullness and piety in psychologically reliable and naturalistic accurate images.

Complex symbolism, fantasy and grotesque are manifested in the work of the Jeronymus Bosch. His stylistics seems so unusual for that time that many modern art historians consider Bosch a prostineer of surrealism.

The development of the northern revival art is associated with the name of Albrecht Dürer, who laid the foundations of secular genres in Germany - portrait, landscape, household genres. In his work, another bright feature of the Northern Renaissance is manifested: the desire to portray a person with imperfect and ideal, but reliable.

Speaking about the art of the Northern Renaissance, of course, you should pay attention to the portraits of the Golbien and the creativity of Bruegel.

Summing up, it should be noted that the revival in Italy and the Reformation in Northern Europe can, as N. Berdyaev did, are considered as stages of the transition period, which marked the ending on a historic scale of one type of civilization (cosmogenic, traditional) and the beginning of a new, technogenic Civilization.

Italian Renaissance was a source for the Northern Renaissance and Reformation. Reformation supplemented and peculiarly developed Renaissance ideas. If the Italian revival has become the beginning of a new urban bourgeois culture, then the Reformation, creating Protestantism, ensured the dynamic development of capitalism in Europe.

The art of the Renaissance

The Renaissance - this is the heyday of all arts (theater, music, painting, architecture, literature, etc.). I will tell about literature and visual art.

Renaissance era literature - A large direction in the literature, part of the entire culture of the Renaissance. Takes the period from the XIV to the XVI century. The medieval literature differs from the fact that it is based on new, progressive ideas of humanism. Synonym for Renaissance is the term "Renaissance", French origin. The ideas of humanism are born for the first time in Italy, and then apply throughout Europe. Revival literature also spread throughout Europe, but acquired its national character in each individual country. The term revival means the update, the appeal of artists, writers, thinkers to the culture and art of antiquity, imitating its high ideals.

The concept of humanism

The concept of "humanism" was introduced by scientists of the XIX century. It comes from Latin Humanitas (human nature, spiritual culture) and Humanus (human), and denotes an ideology aimed at man. The Middle Ages housed a religious and feudal ideology.

In the era of Renaissance, there was a departure from the feudal and church ideology, the ideas of liberty will appear, the approval of the high dignity of a person, as a free Creator of earthly happiness. Ideas became defining in the development of culture as a whole, influenced the development of art, literature, music, science, reflected in politics. Humanism is a secular worldview, antidogmatic and anti -olastic. The development of humanism begins in the XIV century, in the work of humanists, such as: Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc. In the XVI century, the process of development of the new worldview is slowed down due to the effects of the feudal-Catholic reaction. Reformation comes to change.

Revival literature in general

Speaking of revival, we speak directly about Italy, as a carrier of the main part of ancient culture, and about the so-called northern revival, which was held in the countries of Northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.

For the literature of revival, the above-mentioned humanistic ideals are characteristic. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is also named, "Realization of Renaissance" (or Renaissance), in contrast to later stages, educational, critical, socialist.

In the works of such authors like Petrarch, Rabl, Shakespeare, Servanis expressed a new understanding of the life of a person rejecting the slave submissions, which the church preaches. They represent a person as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the wealth of the soul and mind. For the realization of the revival, the scale of images is characterized (Hamlet, King LIR), the poetization of the image, the ability to the big feeling and at the same time high intensity of the tragic conflict ("Romeo and Juliet") reflecting the collision of a person with his hostile forces.

For the Review Literature, various genres are characterized. But certain literary forms prevailed. The most popular was the novel genre, which is also referred to as the rebirth. In poetry becomes the most characteristic form of sonnet (stanza of 14 lines with a certain rhythm). Much development gets dramaturgy. The most prominent revival playwrights are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Publicistics and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Jordan Bruno refuses the Church in his works, creates its new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in the "Utopia" book. The authors such as Michel de Monten ("Experiments") and Erasmus Rotterdam ("Praise Stupidity") are widely known.

Among the writers of that time turn out to be crowned personnel. Poems writes the Duke of Lorenzo Medici, and Margarita Navararskaya, the sister of the king of France Francis I, is known as the author of the collection "Heptameron".

Fine art rebirth

The first harbingers of art reborn in Italy in the XIV century. Artists of this time, Pietro Cavallini (1259-1344), Simon Martini (1284-1344) and (first of all) Jotto (1267-1337) when creating the canvases of traditional religious themes, repelled from the tradition of international gothic (distinctive features of the painting of international gothic: colorfulness , sophistication and decorativeness, exaltation, refinement.), However, they began to use new art techniques: building a bulk composition, using a landscape in the background, which allowed them to make images more realistic, lively. This sharply distinguished their creativity from the previous iconographic tradition, abundant conventions in the image. For the designation of their creativity, the term PRATINESSANS is used.

Different centuries in the history of Italian art have names formed from the corresponding numeral:

doodle - 1200th. From ital. Ducento (two hundred). International Gothic.

twitched - 1300th. From Italian. Treceno (three hundred). PRASTORESANCE.

quatrocheto - 1400th. From Italian. QuattroCento (four hundred). Early rebirth, high revival.

chinkovento - 1500th. From Ital. Cinquecento (five hundred). End of high rebirth, later revival.

Early rebirth

At the beginning of the 15th century Philippo Brunlelleski (1377-1446), the Florentine scientist and architect, discovered and described the laws of a linear perspective in painting. This allowed the artists to receive perfect images of three-dimensional space on a flat pattern of paintings.

Another important step was the appearance of non-religious, secular art. The portrait and landscape were established as independent genres. Even religious plots acquired a different interpretation - the artists of the revival began to consider their characters as heroes with pronounced individual features and human motivation of actions.

The most famous artists of this period - Mazaccho (1401-1428), Mazolino (1383-1440), Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), Piero della Francesco (1420-1492), Andrea Manteny (1431-1506), Niccolo Pizzolo (1421- 1453), Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516), Antonello da Messina (1430-1479), Domenico Girondayo (1449-1494), Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510).

Sculpture received great distribution. Many forms were developed in the work of the sculptors: a statue, relief, bust, etc. They were achieved by new heights in the image of the plastics of the human body: emotions, body movements, complex scenes in multidimensional, promising reliefs. The most famous sculptors of this period are Donatello (1386-1466) and Lorenzo Hiberti (1381-1456).

High revival

The highest flowering of the art of Renaissance came to the first quarter of the XVI century, which was called "High Revival". Sansovino works (1486-1570), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarot (1475-1564), Georgeon (1476-1510), Titian (1477-1576), Antonio Corredjo ( 1489-1534) constitute a golden fund of European art.

Approaching the painting from the point of view of the naturalist, Leonardo da Vinci has achieved high mastery in the transfer of facial and human body, ways to transfer space, constructing the composition. At the same time, his work creates a harmonious image of a person who meets humanistic ideals. In the future, these innovations were developed by Raphael Santi.

The pictures and sculptures of Michelangelo Buonarot are full of heroic pathos and, at the same time, the tragic sensation of the humanism crisis. His paintings glorify the power and power of man, the beauty of his body, at the same time emphasizing his loneliness in the world

Creativity Georgeon and Titian is distinguished by the interest in the landscape, plot poets. Both artists reached great mastery in the art of the portrait, with the help of which the character and rich inner world of their characters were transmitted.

Later revival

After the looting of Rome by Imperial troops in 1527, Italian revival enters into the crisis. Already in the work of the late Rafael, a new art line is planned, called mannerism. For this era, inflammatoryness of lines, elongation or even deforming figures, often nude, tension and unnaturalness of poses, unusual, or bizarre effects associated with dimensions, lighting or perspective, use of chromatic gamut ebbit, the overload of the composition, etc. The first masters Manherism - Parmajanino, Pontormo, Bronzino - lived and worked at the courtyard of the dukes of the House of Medici in Florence. Later, the manherist fashion spread throughout Italy and beyond. In the 1590s, the art of Barochko (transitional figures - Tintoretto and El Greco) comes to change Mañaryism

North revival

Artists who lived north of the Alps did not have before their eyes the samples of ancient art. The archaeological dimension of the Italian Renaissance, who consisted in the study of newly open monuments of antiquity, was completely alien to them. The traditions and skills of gothic art remained for a long time, less attention was paid to the research of the ancient inheritance and the knowledge of the human anatomy. Portraits of northern artists (for example, Golbien) are deprived of the harmonization and idealization of reality, which are characteristic of their southern fellows; In their realism, they reach Donatralism. On the other hand, they do not ride with the elements of people, peasant life and folk traditions; Especially significant in this regard is the work of Peter Bruegel Elder.

At the junction of the international gothicia of preren-essential trends of the Vurburtian Netherlands1-th half of the 15th century, pre-terminal art. Complete and symbols are enthusiasticized with extreme attention to household details. The transition from Tempera to oil painting allowed the artist more relief and versatile to transmit diversity, depth and glitter of the objective world. All these achievements are associated with the names of Robert Campen and his students - Van Eykovirogiram brothers Van der Waiden. In the second half of the century, remnants of gothic and Italian influences are bizarked in creativity.

Although in Italy, the Quatrocherto epoch was followed by the achievements of the Netherlands artists, the Italian influence began to penetrate these edges only in the XVI century, when Bavarian Albrecht Dürer went to improve his art to Venice, and the School of Antwerp Mañerism was formed in the Netherlands, in particular , Mabuz. With the beginning of the Reformation, religious painting in the north of Europe fell under the ban, but new genres began to form, based not so much on rethinking the artistic achievements of previous generations (as in Italy), but on the direct observation of nature, - it is, a landscape, still life, genre painting.