The theory of the visual perception of Rudolph Arnheim. Principles of design: Visual perception and principles of gestalt

A noticeable milestone on the development of the problem of the psychology of perception was the study of Rudolph Arnheim "Art and Visual Perception", having a subtitle "Psychology of the creative eye". This book basically increased from applied research on the perception of various visual forms carried out in the row of gestagenxihology, i.e. psychology engaged in the study of holistic perception. The main parcel of Arnheim is that perception is not a mechanical registering of sensory elements, but acts as the ability of the insightful and inventive Grapping reality. Arnheim sought to identify how the objective factors are configured and interact in artistic perception as they provoke certain ways of understanding. Another problem, delivered by Arnheim, - What are the opportunities subjective activity Our eye, in which his capabilities of comprehension of significant models of the visual structure and the creation of the internal effect. The ability of a person's eye to immediately appreciate the main qualities of the artistic whole, according to the researcher, on certain properties the image itself. He gives an example: white squarewithin which a dark disk is placed. If we see that the disk is shifted from the center of the square, then such a kind of unbalanced composition, or, according to Arnheim, an "eccentric" disk, causes a certain sense of inconvenience. The symmetric position of the disk in the center of the square gives rise to a feeling of stability, after which something like a sense of satisfaction appears. Similar observation can be detected in music. What is dissonance? This unstable consonance, requiring permission, exit, involving some further development, expected effect. Connce, on the contrary, always corresponds to the feeling of sustainability, approval, stability, permission.

Reflecting in this direction, Arnheim comes to the conclusion that each having visual boundaries model - picture, sculpture, architectural construction - has a punch point or the center of gravity, which instantly fixes our eyes. This feature of perception consciously uses sculptors, and photographers, when they strive to invent an unstable dynamic composition, i.e. After a fixed image, transfer the action, movement, tension that requires permission. So, the dancer or athlete can be depicted in the position, which will be self-sufficient, or in a position, which our imagination will perceive as a continued movement.

Beljukin dm. View from Olkhon Island in the evening. 2009.

The story of the pictorial and photo art has accumulated great amount Receptions that allow, without changing the volume of the same drawing, or place it in the depth of the picture of the picture, or move to the fore. Analyzing a lot of works, Arnheim shows, in particular, in which P. Cesann in the portrait of his wife (1890), it seeks an expressive effect: the figure of a woman in a chair is full of energy; It remains in place, but at the same time as if rising. Special dynamic head location in profile charges portrait of an element of activity. The main output Arnheim is as follows: We may not pay a report, how difficult work makes our eyes, but it is arranged so that always grabs central shape elements , instantly differentiating them from private in any image. Random or private composite formulations are always crystallized around such parts of the picture, which can be estimated as fairly independent and independent.

Working out the theory of the artistic impact of works of fine art, Arnheim relies on a number of ideas that were expressed by researchers earlier. So, G. Völdlin at one time came to the conclusion that if the picture is reflected in the mirror, then not only changes it appearance, but also its meaning is completely transformed. He believed that this was due to the usual picture reading habit from left to right. With mirrored image, the image perception changes significantly. Völdlin drew attention to certain constants of perception, in particular on the assessment of the diagonal, which comes from the lower left corner to the right upper as ascending , and the diagonal coming from the upper left corner to the right lower, as descending. The same object looks heavy if it is not in the left, but in right parts of the picture. Analyzing the Sistine Madonna of Rafael, the researcher confirms this example: if the figure of a monk, changing the situation of the slide, to rearrange from the left side to the right, then it becomes so heavy that the composition is entirely tipped over.

Lecture 2.

The application of the laws of visual perception in the composition. Organization of composition.

Allocate 5 laws of visual perceptionwhich are based on the psycho-physiological concept of visual perception by the people of the surrounding world: completion, continuity (view movement), similarity, neighborhood, alignment.

The law of completion It is based on the human brain property independently create or supplement the missing visual information and to replenish its missing parts. This taking the viewer is involved in the creative process, independently completing the missing parts, visually seeking to complete the form.

Law of Movement: - A man's glance subconsciously chooses movement from left to right, from darker to lighter, the look moves to light and beyond the light; - Starting a review in a certain direction, the viewer will look in this direction until anything else (more interesting) will not distract his attention. Using the law of continuity, you can create and organize a stream of visual information in the composition, causing a viewer with a sense of composite movement, activity and dynamism.

Law of similarity - Composition objects that have similar signs and properties, such as shape, size, visual mass, color and light, texture and texture, as well as location on the picture plane, will be perceived by the viewer as interrelated objects (likeness in shape, size, color, texture ).

Neighborhood law(proximity) – The objects of the compositions that are closer to each other are perceived as belonging to one group (Neighborhood, Touch, Overlay).

Alignment law – It is based on a subconscious striving of the brain to equalize visual objects in relation to each other, taking into account their mutual location (as well as forms, sizes, mass, colors and textures). Any object means their own axis - 2 central, top, bottom and two on the sides. Aligning other objects of the composition with respect to these axes creates groups that in the end leads to the unity of the form of the composition. Types of alignment: edible (horizontally, vertical), central, relatively inclined axes.

Basic principles of visual perception - arise from the laws of visual perception, creative use of them can ensure the completeness and unity of the composition. These are the principles of restriction (selection), contrast, accent, dominant, balance, rhythm, harmony, general unity.

The well-known composite reception - text partition, the breakdown of the whole on a limited number of groups, the grouping of the elements, is necessary, because the integer is mastered by a similar method of consistent approximation. This method is due to the presence of a physiological threshold of perception, our brain can at the same time can perceive no more than 5_7 elements or groups

at the same time. With a large number of elements, the form is no longer perceived as an integer and seems fragmented. Basic principles of visual perception - leak out of laws visual perception, creative use of them can ensure the completeness and unity of the composition. These are the principles: restrictions (selection), contrast, accent, dominant, balance, rhythm, harmony, general unity.

The principle of restriction, selection - Composition objects must be selected so as to create and maintain visual interest. A person occurs visual interest when something new, with unexpected signs, or familiar, but organized in a new one, causing a sufficient emotional response falls into sight. The visual system and the human brain can perceive only a certain number of forms, sizes, colors, textures in the composition, the task does not overload the viewer with an abundance of visual objects, their complexity. The art composition is created not only fitting elements, but by selection of such elements that transmit emotions, the mood of the author.

The principle of contrast -the opposite, two or more object object with sufficiently sharply expressed opposite properties: dimensions, shape, color, black and white difference, location, texture. With the help of contrast oppositions, you can:

Create a dynamic voltage between objects of the composition (conflict);

Mutually strengthen the properties of objects;

Enlarge visual diversity.

Opposites cause increased human interest as natural phenomena In life - old age, heat-cold, fire-water.

The principle of accent -attract the viewer's attention to a specific part of the composition (in the center of interest) increase in size, form distortion, color brightness, detailed elaboration, direction movement

Laws composition

"Law whole determines the relationship of parts of the whole largest to each other and to the whole;

law proportionth determines the location of parts of the whole;

law rhythm expresses the nature of the repetition or alternation of parts of the whole;

law symmetry determines the location of parts of the whole;

law the main thingin general, shows what parts of the whole are combined. All these five laws of composition with

The quality of the subject-spatial medium visible by the person does not always correspond to reality. This is due to optical illusions, the cause of which are both the physical properties of objects and the peculiarities of human vision, as well as its primary approximate skills.

When looking at a complex subject formation, a person seeks to reduce this complexity to a simple more ordered system: symmetry has a grouping action, asymmetry separates. The perception of volume - spatial forms is largely depends on the position of the viewer regarding these forms.

These signs are a visible manifestation of the most important principles of the composition, which underlie composite construction. It:

1. The principle of appropriateness.

2. The principle of unity of complex (integrity of the work).

Z. The principle of dominant (the presence of the main, leading start).

4. The principle of coented parts as a whole.

5. The principle of dynamism (movement is the basis of life and art).

6. The principle of equilibrium, equilibrium parts of the whole.

7. The principle of harmony (the harmonic unity of the form of the form among themselves and the unity of the form and content in the composition based on the dialectical unity of opposites).

Creating a work of art, that is, harmony, it is necessary to fulfill its two indispensable conditions: the first is equilibrium, the second is unity and coented.These are the basic laws of the composition.

Equilibrium, unity and coented, Composite Center - Let us dwell on composite equilibrium. equilibrium -such a state of form, all elements are balanced among themselves, it depends on the location of the elements between the relative center. Equilibrium is achieved by aligning the expressiveness of groups or elements of the composition, balancing forms and style of processing - for example, the sameness of the right and left side, based on symmetry. However, it is not necessary to confuse this concept with a simple equality of quantities. Equilibrium It depends on the location of the main masses of the composition, from the organization of the composite center, from the plastic and rhythmic constructions of the composition, from its proportional memberships, from the color, tonal and textural relations of individual parts between themselves and is integer, etc.

Achievement of equilibrium asymmetry - Separate elements with its composite construction (axis, rhythm, center) balance each other in such a way that the general is obtained visually stable and static.

Equilibrium Differently manifested in symmetric and asymmetricmPositions. Symmetry itself is not yet a guarantee of equilibrium in the composition. Quantitative inconsistency of the symmetric element and plane (or disproportion

parts and whole) becomes visually unbalanced. Man always

items to equilibrium forms, which creates a more complete psychological

comfort, harmony of habitat in a spatial environment. It is much easier to balance the symmetric composition than asymmetric, and it is achieved by simpler means, since symmetry already creates prerequisites for composite equilibrium. Equilibrium can be dynamic - The inner movement of parts that creates the impression of instability, but not beyond the scope of the whole, must be stopped by the details that soothes the inner movement and do not give it details from the framework of the composite space.

Thus, it can be concluded that none of the means and laws of the composition separately create a harmonious work, since everything is interdependent or balanced. If in his creative search, the artist actively begins to apply one of the means to create a more expressive artistic image, the result of this approach should be the revaluation of the entire composite construction of the work. It may be necessary to change its proportions, an increase or, on the contrary, a decrease in the number of elements of the composition, revising the tonal and color ratios, etc.

Symmetry, asymmetry, static and dynamism. Correctly found symmetrical composition perceived easily, as if immediately, regardless of the complexity of its construction . Asymmetric Sometimes it requires a longer comprehension and discloses gradually. However, the assertion is that the symmetric composition is more expressive, illegally. The history of the arts confirms that the composition asymmetrically constructed according to the laws of harmony is not inferior, from the point of view of artistic value, symmetrical. The choice of construction or structure of the work depends on the artistic vision of the author, from his desire to find a more expressive composition for creating a specific artistic image. Most frequently used views symmetryare mirror with a vertical or horizontal axis, centric Corner. Actively used symmetry In architecture, decorative and applied art, less often - in machine painting, graphics, sculpture. This technique is especially good for approving the topics, since it allows without internal oscillations to extremely focus the attention of the viewer on the image. Therefore, symmetry was very actively used in cult painting. If you carefully consider the composition of the iconostasis of the Orthodox church, we will see her vertical axial construction. The picturesque construction of the architectural details will be invincible, which, as on the rod, are planted on the axis. However, with attentive consideration, you can see the mandatory deviations from the symmetry (or in the hair curls, or in the depth of the wall relief interpretation), which attaches a certain painting to this reception, creates a "false" symmetry.

We have already mentioned about centriciansymmetries, actively attracting attention to the center, as well as about the corner. Unlike the centric, it creates a movement. Movement to the center - centripetal, movement from the center - centrifugal. Such a composite reception was widely used and is now applied in decorative and applied art: when painting ceramic dishes, scarves, in solving plafones, planes of the floor in the interior, etc.

Properties and quality compositions:

Harmonious integrity and image forming, -led already at the stage of formation of a volume - spatial structure. Therefore, work on the form should be carried out at the beginning of the design, when the design scheme is detected, the layout principle is detected, i.e. Placement and intercourse of the main parts of the object.

The main and secondary in the composition

principles of restriction (selection), contrast, accent, dominant, balance, rhythm, harmony, general unity.

The first conversation O. harmony in the composition, About her main and indispensable condition - equilibrium - led us to the logical conclusion that everything is interdependent: and the number of elements, and their configuration, and their ratio with the composite plane and among themselves, and their color, tone and textured solution, and T . D. Therefore, seeking to fulfill the law of harmony, it is necessary to fulfill the conditions of the Second Law - unity and coented.Conversely: creating unity, the integrity of the work, you thus solve the task of its balance. Only by completing these two conditions, you can say that they created a harmonious composition.

...Harmony There is a communication different parts in a single whole. This relationship

the most complicated, the finest, diverse. It is clear that to link the pieces of each other so that they represent some completed whole, it is possible only by the similarity of the things themselves, in other words, due to the fact that it is contained in each part. This should be expressed in the unity of the plastic solution, the shaped and semantic disclosure of the topic, in the unity of formation, color and textual solution. Unitycan be achieved by coented. But before you understand in various options for coented, pay attention to organization of the Composite CenterSince the coented occurs mainly between the center and other elements. It is the composite center that is an expressive artistic image and carries a semantic load. However, there is a principle of composite construction when the center may be "pause". With organization composite Center The laws of visual perception of the plane should be taken into account. As a rule, it is located in the active, central part of it. Displacement relative to the geometric centerit also gives the work of greater internal tensions and plastic expressiveness in the disclosure of the artistic image and theme.

We will analyze several options. In a composition consisting of simple

perception of elements, an element appears, complicated by silhouette. Of course, he will attract attention strongerthan a group of simpler form. It is he who will start playing the role at the expense of his complexity dominanti or composite center. However, it is necessary to fulfill the condition of unity and coented the entire composition. In this example, the coeximation may be expressed in submission to the complex center of a coloristic solution or in the introduction of newly similar forms of the forms - lines, as well as in the use of such harmonization facilities such as rhythm, contrast, nuance, and identity, the specific conversation about which will go below.

The history of the arts offers us various schemes for building compositions. In one embodiment, the organization of the composition center is carried out in the most little in the form of an element, and in the other - the most big. Composition of the center of which is pause - The first - creating a movement to the center, which is not expressed by any form, by using one of the means of harmonization - rhythm. The second is the location of elements like in shape, color and texture, without any accent. Thus, the composition is like a frame.

The ability to read the text seems simple process: We will send your eyes to the letters, we see them and know what they say. But in fact, this is an extremely complex process based on the work of a series of brain structures that specialize in visual perception, as well as on recognizing various subcomponents of vision.

Perceiving means interpreting environmental information obtained through sense authorities. This interpretation depends on our cognitive processes and knowledge available. Spectatic or visual perception can be defined as the ability to interpret information that achieves eye through the light of the visible region of the spectrum. The result of the interpretation that our brain performs on the basis of this information is that it is known as visual perception or vision. Thus, the visual perception is a process that begins in our eyes:

• Photo desigration: Light rays pass through eye pupils and excite the cell receptors in the retina of the eye.
• Transmission and basic processing: Signals that create these cells are transmitted through the visual nerve to the brain. First, the signal passes through optical chiasms (where information from the right field of view is sent to the left hemisphere, and from the left field of view - in right hemisphere), then information enters the side crankshaft and Talamus.
• Information processing and perception: Next, visual information obtained through the eyes is sent to the visual cortex of the bold brain shadow. In these brain structures, the information is processed and sent to the other parts of the brain so that we can use it.

Characteristics forming visual perception

In order to get an idea of \u200b\u200bhow difficult this feature is, we will try to imagine what our brain does when we see a simple soccer ball. How many factors does he have to determine? For example:

• lighting and contrast: We see that there is a focus of lines, more or less illuminated and having a diameter, which distinguishes it from other environmental objects and background.
• The size: This is a circle of about 70 cm. In diameter.
• The form: has a circle form.
• Location: Located in three meters from me, right. I can easily get to it.
• Color: White with black pentagons. In addition, if the lighting suddenly change, we would know that his colors are black and white.
• Measurements: exists in three dimensions, as it is a sphere.
• Traffic: in currently without movement, but you can give him a movement.
• Unit: There is one, and it differs from the environment.
• Using: It serves to play football, designed for kicks.
• Personal relationship with object: Looks like the one we use in training.
• Name: soccer ball. This last process Also known as.

If you think that these are a lot of steps, think about the fact that our brain performs this process constantly and with incredible speed. In addition, our brain does not perceive information passively, but uses the knowledge available to "complete" information about what he perceives (so we know that the ball is a sphere, even when we see it flat in the photo). IN baseline brain and adjacent departments ( temple and Dark SharesThere are several areas specializing in each of the previously described processes. For correct perception, the coherent work of all these departments is required.

When we look at your desktop, our brain instantly identifies all objects located on it, which allows us to quickly interact with them. Knowing it easy to understand great value this process in our everyday life And how important it is important for normal functioning in any life situation.

Examples of visual perception

• Driving a car is one of the most complex everyday tasks in which many cognitive functions are involved. Visual perception It is one of the ways driving. If one of the processes of visual perception is violated, the driver threatens his life and the life of other people. It is important to quickly determine the position of the car regarding the road and other vehicles, the speed with which they move, etc.
• When a child is at a lesson, his visual acuity and perception should be optimal in order not to miss the details of the material explanable. Violations of this ability can lead to a decrease in the child's academic performance.
• In visual art, for example, in painting, visual perception is all. When we want to draw a picture and dream of making it realistic and attractive, we must check our visual perception and work out every detail, the shade of color, the prospect ... Of course, to appreciate the works of art, we also need a good visual perception, not enough to see.
• Visual perception is essential for any activity related to monitoring or supervision. The guard, which in view of the violation of perception cannot correctly evaluate what is happening on the surveillance chambers, will not be able to properly perform its work.
• Of course, in everyday life, we constantly use visual perception. If we see the approaching bus on the road, its image is becoming more and more in our mind. Nevertheless, our brain is able to interpret the changes that are not real. We continue to see a regular size bus no matter how close or far he is from us. We also need a visual perception to move in space, so as not to confuse medication, cook food, make cleaning at home, etc.

Pathology and disorders associated with problems in visual perception

Visual perception disturbances may be accompanied by various problems and difficulties at different levels.

Full or partial loss of vision as a result of damage to the perception authorities leads to the inability of perception (blindness). It may be caused damage to the very eye (for example, eye injury), damage to information transfer paths from eyes to the brain (for example, glaucoma) or damage to brain departmentsresponsible for analyzing this information (for example, as a result of stroke or cranial injury).

But, perception is not a unitary process. There are specific damages that can break each of the processes described above. Disorders of this type are characterized by damage to the areas of the brain responsible for certain processes. These disorders are known as visual agnosia. Visual agnosia defined as inability to recognize known objects Despite the preservation of visual acuity. Classically agnosia is divided into two types: perceptual agnosia (the patient can see parts of the object, but is not able to understand the object as a whole) and associative agnosia (the patient can recognize the object as a whole, but cannot understand what object this is speech). It is difficult to imagine how people's perception functions with these disorders. Despite the fact that they can see their sensations are close to what they suffer from blindness. In addition, there are even more specific disorders, such as, for example, Akinetopsia (inability to see traffic), Daltonism (inability to distinguish colors), transcopaging (inability to recognize familiar faces), Alexy (acquired inability to read), etc.

In addition to these disorders, in which the skill is lost to perceive visual information (or part of it), there are also possible violations in which the information obtained is distorted or does not exist at all. It may be a case hallucinations in schizophrenia or other syndromes. In addition, scientists are described by the type of visual illusions in people who have lost sight: Charles Bonn syndrome. In this case, a person who has lost sight, after a long period, during which his brain does not receive visual activity, there is a self-activation of the brain, provoking visual illusions in which the patient is seen geometric figures or people. However, in contrast to hallucinations in schizophrenia, people with this syndrome know that things they see are not real.

How to measure and evaluate visual perception?

Spectatic perception helps us to perform many types of daily activities. Our ability to move and interact with environmental, complete obstacles, directly depends on the quality of visual perception. Thus, an assessment of perception can be useful in various areas of life: in study (to know whether the child can see school board Or read books) in the field of medicine (in order to know that the patient can confuse medicines or needs a constant supervision), in professional circles (almost any work requires reading, observation or control skills).

With the help, we can effectively and reliably assess various cognitive abilities, including visual perception. The test that offers cognifit ("Cognifit") to assess the visual perception, based on the classic Nepsyny test (Corkman, Kirk and Kemp, 1998). Thanks to this task, you can be able to decode the elements presented in the exercise, and the number of cognitive resources that the user has to understand and perform the task in the most efficient way. In addition to visual perception, the test also measures memory for names, response time and information processing speed.

• : Images of objects appear on the screen for a short period of time and disappear. Following this, four letters appear, and only one of them corresponds to the first letter of the object name. Task - choose this letter correctly. It is necessary to perform a test as quickly as possible.

How to restore or improve visual perception?

Spectacular perception, like other cognitive abilities, can be trained and improved. Cognifit ("Cognifit") makes it possible to do it professionally.

Restoration of visual perception is based on . Cognifit ("Cognifit") offers a series of exercises and clinical games aimed at rehabilitation of visual perception and other cognitive functions. The brain and its neural connections are enhanced by the use of the functions that depend on them. Thus, if we regularly train the visual perception, the compounds of the structures of the brain involved in perception are strengthened. Therefore, when our eyes send information to the brain, neural connections will work faster and more efficient, improving our visual perception.

Cognifit ("Cognifit") consists of an experienced team of professionals specializing in the study of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis processes. That did possible creation personalized Cognitive Stimulation Programswhich adapts to the needs of each user. The program begins with an accurate assessment of visual perception and other basic cognitive functions. Based on the results of the assessment, the Cognifit cognitive stimulation program ("Cognifit") automatically proposes the mode of personal cognitive training in order to strengthen visual perception and other cognitive functions, which, according to the results of the assessment, need to be improved.

To improve visual perception, it is extremely important to train regularly and correctly. Cognifit ("Cognifit") offers tools for evaluation and rehabilitation, allowing to improve cognitive functions. For correct stimulation, it is necessary to devote 15 minutes a day, two or three times a week..

Cognitive Cognitive Stimulation Program ("Cognifit") available online. The program contains a variety of interactive exercises in the form fascinating games For the brain in which you can play using a computer. At the end of each session Cognifit ("Cognifit") will show a detailed improvement chart. Cognitive state.

Insects

The visual apparatus of birds has features that have not survived in human vision. So, in the bird receptors there are microspheres containing lipids and carotenoids. It is believed that these microspheres are colorless, as well as painted in yellow or orange color - Perform the function of specific light filters that form "curve of visibility".

Eye man

Stereoscopic vision

Many species, the lifestyle of which requires a good estimate of the distance to the object, eyes look forward toward, rather than on the sides. So, mountain rams, leopards, monkeys provide better stereoscopic vision, which helps to evaluate the distance before the jump. Man also has good stereoscopic vision (see below, section ).

An alternative mechanism for estimating the distance to the object is implemented in some birds, the eyes of which are located on different sides of the head, and the field of volume is small. So, the chickens perform constant oscillatory movements head, while the image on the retina quickly shifts, inversely proportional to the distance to the object. The brain processes the signal, which allows you to catch fine mining with a high accuracy with a beak.

Each person's eyes seem identical, but still somewhat different, so the leading and slave eye is distinguished. Determining the lead eye is important for hunters, video operators and individuals of other professions. If you look through a hole in an opaque screen (hole in a sheet of paper at a distance of 20-30 cm.) To the removal item, and then, not a shifting head, alternately close the right and left eye, then for the driving eye the image does not shift.

Human view physiology

Color vision

A person's eye contains two types of photosensitive cells (receptors): highly sensitive sticks responsible for twilight (night) vision, and less sensitive columns responsible for color vision.

Uniform irritation of all three items corresponding to the weighted average daylight, also causes a feeling of white (see the psychology of color perception). The three-storey theory of color view was first expressed in 1756 by M. V. Lomonosov, when he wrote "about the three-matters of the bottom of the Oka." A hundred years later, a German scientist was developed by G. Helmholtz, who does not mention famous work Lomonosov "On the origin of light", although it was published and briefly set out in German.

In parallel, there was an opponent theory of the Color of Evald Gering. She was developed by David Hail (en: David H.Hubel) and Torsten N.Wiesel (en: Torsten N.Wiesel). They received the Nobel Prize of 1981 for their discovery. They suggested that the brain comes into the brain is not at all about red (R), green (G) and blue (b) colors (theory of Young-Helmgolts color,). The brain receives information about the brightness difference - about the difference in the brightness of white (y max) and black (y min), about the difference of green and red colors (G-R), about the difference between blue and yellow colors (B-Yellow), and yellow (Yellow \u003d R + G) is the sum of red and green colors, where R, G and B are the brightness of the color components - red, R, green, G, and blue, B.

Despite the seeming inconsistency of the two theories, according to modern ideas, both are faithful. At the retinal level, the three-hundredth theory is valid, however, the information is processed and the data is entered into the brain already consistent with the opponent theory.

For the color vision of man and monkeys correspond to the three genes encoding photosensitive proteins of the arms. The presence of three different proteins reacting to different wavelengths is sufficient for color perception. In most mammals, only two such genes are, so they have non-bloody eyesight. In the event that a person has two proteins encoded by different genes, it is too similar, Daltonism develops.

Binocular and stereoscopic vision

• - Data from different authors

Most of the characteristics of human binocular vision is due to the characteristics of neurons and neural connections. Neurophysiology methods show that decoding the depth of an image specified on the retina with a set of disparatomes begin the binocular neurons of the primary visual bark. It was shown that the most important requirement for the implementation of stereoscopic vision is the differences in the images on the retina of two eyes.

Due to the fact that the fields of view of both eyes of a person and higher primates intersect, the person is capable of better than many mammals, identify the appearance and distance (the accommodation mechanism also helps) to close objects mainly due to the effect of stereoscopicity. The stereoscopic effect is preserved at a distance of approximately 0.1-100 meters. The person has spatially visual abilities and volumetric imagination is closely related to stereoscopy and ipsey bonds.

Properties of Vision

Luminous sensitivity of the human eye

Light sensitivity is estimated by the magnitude of the threshold of the light stimulus.

A man with good eyesight is able to see night light from the candle at a distance of a few kilometers. However, the light sensitivity of the view of many night animals (owls, rodents) is much higher.

The maximum light sensitivity of the eye sticks is achieved after a sufficiently long-lasting dark adaptation. It is determined by the action of a light flux in a body angle of 50 ° at a wavelength of 500 nm (maximum sensitivity of the eye). Under these conditions, the threshold energy of light is the amount of about 10 -9 Erg / s, which is equivalent to the flow of several optical range quanta per second through the pupil.

The sensitivity of the eye depends on the completeness of adaptation, on the intensity of the light source, the wavelengths and the angular sizes of the source, as well as from the time of the irritant. The sensitivity of the eye decreases with age due to the deterioration of the optical properties of the sclera and pupil, as well as the receptor link of perception.

Visual acuity

The ability of various people to see large or smaller items from the same distance at same form The eyeball and the same refractive strength of the dioptric ocular system is determined by the difference in the distance between the cylinders and the retinal flashes and is called urgency. To verify the visual acuity, the table is applied.

Binocularity

Considering the subject with both eyes, we see it only then is single when the eye axes form such an angle of convergence (convergence), in which symmetrical reinforced images on the retina are obtained in certain respective places of sensitive yellow spot (FOVEA centralis). Thanks to this binocular vision, we are not only judged about the relative position and the distance of objects, but also perceive the impressions of the relief and volume.

The main characteristics of the binocular vision are the presence of elementary binocular, deep and stereoscopic vision, the sharpness of stereo and the fusion reserves.

The presence of elementary binocular vision is checked by splitting some image into fragments, some of which is presented to the left, and part is the right eye. The observer has elementary binocular vision, if it is able to make a single source image from fragments.

The presence of deep vision is verified by presenting silhouette, and stereoscopic - accidentally point stereograms, which should cause a specific experience of the depth, differing from the impression of spatiality based on monocular features.

Stereo severity is the value of the reverse threshold of stereoscopic perception. The stereoscopic perception threshold is the minimum detected disparativity (angular displacement) between the parts of the stereogram. It uses the principle that is as follows. Three pairs of figures are presented separately to the left and right eye of the observer. In one pairs, the position of the figures coincides, in two others one of the figures is shifted horizontally to a certain distance. The subject is asked to specify the figures located in ascending order of the relative distance. If the figures are specified in proper sequenceThe test level increases (disparatosis decreases), if not - disparatosis increases.

Fusual reserves - conditions under which there is the possibility of a motor fusion stereogram. Fusion reserves are determined by the maximum disparativity between the parts of the stereogram, under which it is still perceived as a bulk image. For measuring the fusion reserves, the principle is used inversely used in the study of the sharpness of stereoment. For example, the subject is asked to connect (spin) into one image two vertical stripes, one of which is visible to the left, and the other is the right eye. The experimenter begins to slowly breed the bands first at the convergent, and then with divergent disparacy. The image begins to "fall apart" with the values \u200b\u200bof the disparacy characterizing the observer fusion reserve.

Binocular may be violated with squinting and some other eye diseases. With strong fatigue, there may be temporary squint caused by the disconnection of the slave eye.

• See also binocular, stereoscope.

Contrast sensitivity

Contrast sensitivity - the ability of a person to see objects, weakly differing in brightness from the background. The assessment of contrast sensitivity is made according to sinusoidal lattices. Increasing the threshold of contrast sensitivity can be a sign of a number of eye diseases, and therefore its study can be applied in diagnosis.

Adaptation of vision

The above properties of vision are closely related to the ability of the eye to adapt. Adaptation occurs to changes in illumination (dark adaptation), the color characteristics of the lighting (the ability to perceive white items white even with a significant change in the spectrum of the incident light, see also white balance).

Adaptation is also manifested in the ability of vision to partially compensate for the defects of the visual apparatus (optical defects of lens, retinal defects, cattle, etc.)

Defects of Vision

The most massive disadvantage is fuzzy, unclear visibility of close or remote items.

Defects Crustalika

Network defects

Literature

• A. Agel "Anomalies, Refraction and Accommodation Eye" (1881, Translation from german Dr. Dobrovolsky);
• Longmore, "Guide to the study of view for military doctors" (recycled by Lavrentiev, 1894);
• A. IMBERT, "LES ANOMALIES DE LA VISION" (1889).

1. Psychology of visual perception

Object and subject of psychology of art

Relying on the theory of art philosophy, will answer the question of the importance of art for the science of psychology. Art as an object of study of psychology is considered by K. G. Jung in the work "On the relation of analytical psychology for works of literature." From the point of view of K. G. Yung, the art of art can be considered as psychological activity, which is why art is an object of psychology (Jung, Neumann, 1996). As a subject of study, the process of artistic creation, the form of reflection of which is presented in relation to:

"Man of the creative" artistic image that invests his idea to its content, which determines the form of expression;

"Perceiving man" that gives the content of the already created image by allegories and associations.

In other words, the nature of the formation and the content of the artistic image depends on personal settings, the previous experience of creating (apperception) and the fact that K. G. Jung indicated both "concoser". It is an outdoor aspect of creativity that determines the freedom of fantasy of the creative subject. In this regard, the source of creative action K. G. Yung calls "Autonomous Complex" - independent of the influence of the consciousness of mental education. In the theory of deep psychology, the Autonomous Complex is defined as a structural formation, filled with infantile and archaic content. The energy of this complex acts as the source of manifestation and deployment creative potential. From the point of view of the theory of deep psychology, an artistic image is a symbolic reflection of the sphere of unconscious mythology, under which Jung understood "Collective unconscious".

Another position adhered to Sigmund Freud, believing that the image is a mirror of a personal unconscious, not symbolic education, but symptomatic manifestation. According to psychoanalysis, unrealized feelings and needs are supplanted from consciousness in the scope of the unconscious. The displaced content is traumatic and requires its permission. The artistic effect acts as an act of manifestation of displaced intention, giving it a complete semantic form. From here, the information hidden in an artistic image allows you to identify current to the subject side of its "internal" being.

Study of manifested values \u200b\u200band symbols artistic creativity Can be carried out in the following areas:

System analysis of the conditions and the process of creating artistic work;

Study of the peculiarities of cultural and historical time due to the nature of the reflection in the work of certain psychological aspects of society's life;

Analysis and interpretation of the personal features of the creative subject, which determine the artistic forms and styles of his self-expression;

Study of conscious and unconscious aspects of creativity;

Interpretation of the iconic and symbolic value of the image;

Study of the forms of reflection of the structural and composite characteristics of the work in the context of the analysis of the genesis of perception;

Study of the influence of the artistic image on the mental and somatic state of a creative and perceiving subject.

It should be noted that the psychology of art is the field of humanitarian knowledge, in the field of view of which theoretical and empirical studies of the two central aspects of creativity are presented:

Its result - structures and content of the artistic work;

Mental I. social aspects Personality creating or perceiving subject.

From the point of view of L. S. Vygotsky, three main areas of knowledge can be highlighted in the field of psychology: perception, feeling, imagination. Based on this provision, consider the main issues of the theory of perception, the interpretation of the content of which is directly related to the development of diagnostic criteria and correctional and developing models of art-therapeutic activities. A further analysis of the nature of sensual experience and imagination will be held in the context of the consideration of the genesis of the formation of an artistic image, its impact on the mental sphere.

The main provisions of the theory of visual perception are presented in the works of domestic and foreign scientists N. N. Volkov, A. V. Zaporozhets, V. P. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontieva, V. S. Kuzina, R. Arnheim, Baumgarter, R. S. Woodvorts, R. L. Gregory, J. Gibson, B. Keler, K. Koffka, Ch. Osguda, I. Renchera, etc. The well-known Soviet psychologist V. P. Zinchenko gives the visual system "important productive functions" . In his opinion, various brain structures responsible for perception participate in the generation of the image. In this case, the crucial value is given to the visual system. Concepts such as "visual thinking", "scenic consideration" (Zinchenko, p. 41), are the result of a joint action of various functional systems.

From the point of view of R. Arnheim, the visual perception in its structure is a sensual analogue of intellectual knowledge, i.e. perception is an act of visual judgment. The image is important, the content of which guides the imagination. "The world seems to us ordered due to the connection between the perception and meaning," Charles Osgood (the psychology of sensation and perception, 2002, p. 115).

According to the theory of environmental perception, not only the elementary sensations obtained during the perception, but also the impression of the holistic image of the observed object is determined by the nature of the effect of the medium. James Jerome Gibson - author of the theory environmental perception - Explores the meaning of light as a carrier of information about the state of the world (Gibson, 1988). In his opinion, the picture is the place of transmission of impressions about the nature of the coverage of the objects of the surrounding space. In other words, the object "imposes" himself to the subject, "setting up" him to the choice of certain aspects (invariants) of perception.

At the same time, the nature of perception depends on the conditions of the cultural environment and the type of activity of the subject itself. Perception correlates with the current presentations of the subject of the object, which are the result of its upbringing, the sensual experience of the reflection of reality, whose importance is due to the search for the best ways to interpret incoming information. According to Immanuel Kant, "thoughts without keeping empty, contemplation without blindness concepts" (Kant, 1994); The physical world for a person is only material for sensations, and the consciousness actively organizes this material in space and time, forming a concept for interpreting experience.

The theory of perception from the standpoint of Gestalt Psychology

In the first third of the XX century, the active development of the theory of perception was carried out within the framework of Gestalt Psychology (H. Erenfels, K. Cooff). Concept "Gestalt" translated from the German language means "form" or "the form". The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe theory of Gesthatta is that internal, systemic organization of the whole determines the properties and functions of its parts . In this regard, six classes of perception phenomena (F. H. Olport) stand out:

"Sensory qualities and measurements", the data of man in the experience of impressions from the perception of the object to which they belong;

"Properties of the configuration" relating to the form of a perceptual experience, to the allocation of "Figures on the background";

"Constantity Properties", which determine the possibility of recognizing items based on the previous experience of their perception;

"The phenomenon of the system reference in the perception of properties", built on a subjective scale of estimates;

"Subject of perception", indicating the value of the object for the subject;

"The phenomenon of the dominant installation or state", which determines the choice of the object and readiness for perception.

According to the theory of gestaltpsychology, with perception of phenomena, consciousness seeks to carry out perceptual organization of space. Studies M. Vertheimer allowed to carry out the classification of factors resulting in the desire to streamline the relationship of elements in the system (Wertheimer, 1923, p. 301-350).

Factor proximity . The closer (with other things being equal), objects to each other in a visual field, the more likely they are organized into uniform, holistic images.

Similarity factor . The more uniform and holistic images, the more likely they are organized.

Factor continuation . The more elements in the visual field turn out to be in places corresponding to the continuation of the natural sequence, i.e., they function as part of familiar contours, the more likely they are organized into single holistic images.

Closedness factor . The greater the elements of the visual field form closed integers, the more readily they will be organized into separate images.

In addition to externally organized factors - "objective stimulus variables" exist "Central factors" to which can be attributed meanings, meanings and relationships . It is the content of "central factors" determines the structure of the artistic space, the choice of its composite characteristics, color solutions. An analysis of the meanings nested into the artistic image makes it possible to investigate the personal characteristics of the subject, the semantic space of its cultural preferences.

History The study of this issue in the psychology of art has its own traditions. Interpretation artwork The respondents of various nationality and sociocultural orientation allowed the development of a number of tests aimed at studying the non-verbal semantic space. C. Osgood, Z. Bayes, L. Jacobovits, R. Bentler and A. La Wiel created tests of non-verbal semantics, in which the referment itself evaluates the quality of the work, determines the content of the artistic image. As a result of the interpretation of the test material, factors (features) were allocated, on the basis of which the respondent prefers one or another figure. These factors are such indicators as "evaluation", "power", "activity", "density" and "ordering". Batteries of projective drawings are recommended to use to study visual thinking to study intercultural comparisons.

However, according to V. F. Petrenko, when building semanthical scales, there was a mixing of two levels of analysis of visual material: the level of sensual tissue (expression plan) and the level of substantive content (maintenance plan) (Petrenko, 1998). For one category of scales, the choice of patterns is carried out by comparing the subject of perceived graphic forms that do not have an explicit substantive content, while the images of the drawings of another series of scales are endowed with a specific content.

To resolve this contradiction, we have developed the principles and a model for constructing projective diagnostics, based on which the subject of the study is the structural elements of the composition, including its meaningful, high-quality and formal characteristics. The study of the signs of composite construction is subject to an objective nature, statistically reliably.

Image as a composition: Structural approach in art therapy

According to the ideas of V. S. Kuzin, perception is characterized by such variables as integrity , insecurity, apperception, selectivity, constance (Kuzin, 1997), i.e., the signs that are inherent in the completed composition. Any targeted action associated with the act of perception is completed by finding a complete solution with integrity properties. How does the concept of "composition" with an art therapeutic methodology relate to the concept of "composition"? Therapeutic effect is an event structured in space and time. The psychologist finds such a composite solution to the problem in which all elements of a significant event on a new, more productive, rather than before, level of relationship are linked.

Thus, the interpretation of the nature of perception by the subject of the problem situation can be carried out in the process of studying the results of its composite construction. The artistic image is considered as a projection of its current meanings, relations and significant aspects of life. The distortion of the nature of the logic of building an image indicates cognitive and emotional-sensual disorders, on the internal and external conflicts of the individual.

Table 1

Characteristics of perception and criteria for the integrity of the composition (V. N. Nikitin, A. I. Lobanov)

It should be emphasized that the artistic image completed is a hierarchically built composite formulation, transmitting a creative idea and an emotional attitude of the subject to the subject of the image. We can talk about the degree of completion of the work, based on the analysis of its signs of expressiveness. The criteria for expressive compositions allow you to determine at what level an error occurs in the perception of the problem situation. The system of diagnostic criteria for studying the ability to a holistic expressive image was developed by us during the study of the nature of the composite construction reflecting the personal features of the creative subject.

Consider the content of the selected criteria.

1. "Apperception" - "Figure on the background."

Apparently, we can say that the decisive factor determining the nature of the perception and image of the object, the allocation of it style features and models of building an art composition, is the cultural and aesthetic education of the creative subject. Cultural standards - Operational units of perception, which mediate perceptual interactions, indicated A. V. Zaporozhets (Zaporozhets, 1967). Attention focuses on those properties of the subject whose value is updated in cultural mediumto which the subject of creativity belongs. The nature of the perception of objects is determined by socio-historical conditions, i.e., spatial-temporal factors forming cultural attitudes and personal intentions. Speaking otherwise apperceptionAs a pantry experience, knowledge, skills, views, interests, determines the peculiarities of the perception of the act of reality (Kuzin, 1997, p. 155).

Fig. eleven. An example of the proper selection of "Figures on the background"

Fig. 12.Work student of the artistic faculty. An example of incorrect allocation of "Figures on the background"

Essentially, the apperceptation predetermines the choice of the main element of the composition, around which the structure is built, leaving its secondary components in the background. Consciously or unconsciously distinguishes those signs of the image of the image that are most significant for the subject of creativity. Thus, the nature of choice "Figures on the background" Reflects the ability of a subject to a holistic representation and image image.

Violations. The problems of choosing a central figure on the background may be due to various reasons. For mentally healthy respondents, errors in the construction of the composition structure, as a rule, are due to the misunderstanding of the meanings and the values \u200b\u200bof the image elements for the artistic expression of the content of the topic. Significant factors in the surface perception of the created image are played by personal settings and updated needs.

For mentally problematic respondents, pronounced distortions in determining the main element of the composition may be associated with the nature of intellectual activity, in particular, with violations in understanding the selectivity and sustainability of semantic bonds of the elements of the composition (Khomskaya, 1987, p. 197).

For affective disorders, redundancy is observed, messy in the image of the composition details, unreasonable in choosing the central image element.

2. "Constance" - "Subject."

The second characteristic of visual perception is "Constance". Studies of the perception process suggest that each subject has properties and qualities that ensure recognition. Errors in recognizing the subject of perception, in particular, are related to the problems of attention. The nature of the perception of the subject determines the shape of its drawing, its place in the composition. "To look at the object - it means to live it and from this accommodation is full and deeply understand everything," M. Merlo-Ponti noted in his work "Phenomenology of perception" (Merlot-Ponti, 1999).

The ability to draw the constant features of the object can be defined as the ability to announcement. At the stage of the subject construction of the composition, the subject conducts a study of the properties of the properties and the qualities of the object. Understanding the typological characteristics of the image of the image (properties and qualities), predetermines the nature of the constructions of the composition. This can be seen by the example. graphic work V. D. Bubnova, in which the artist drawn the properties of the tree, revealing the topic of work. In turn, the constancy of perception ensures its selectivity, and the drawing of substitution in the composition is the conditionality of choosing its elements.

Fig. 13.V. D. Bubnova. "The trunk of an old tree", 1958. An example of the correct drawing of "Subject"

Fig. fourteen.Work student of the artistic faculty. Example of incorrect drawing of "Subject"

Violations. Neuropsychological analysis of violations during perception and image of the subject shows that the causes of formal and high-quality distortion in the figure are associated with the defeats of different levels of the visual system, the conflict in the emotional attitude and understanding of the artistic image. Thus, respondents with subject agnosia are observed in identifying the form of the subject, with optical-spatial agnosia, problems are noted in the image of the spatial characteristics of the subject (Khomskaya, 1987, p. 89-91).

When manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia, errors are recorded in the recipient of the image objects, in the distortion of formal and spatial parameters, in the schematization of the image elements, intentional exaggerated image of some and the dimension of other objects (front and rear plans).

3. "Valuation" - "conditionality".

As a third indicator, which characterizes the visual perception, V. S. Kuzin allocates "selectivity". The selectivity of perception provides a choice in the object of perception of those characteristics that reveal its value for the subject. An active election nature of perception should be noted. As shown by N. A. Bernstein, P. K. Anokhina, A. R. Luria, K. Pribrama, and others. In the field of neurophysiology and neuropsychology, the selectivity of perception is due to the work of two leading information selection mechanisms:

Anticipation mechanism - anticipation of perception results;

Control apparatus, comparison of the expected result with a real observed phenomenon.

Decisive in choosing actual objects of perception belongs to the attention, thinking and memory that predetermining the logic of perceptual action. The half of the perception process provides conditions for creating a holistic image, the input of which the signs of the image depicted are selected. The impression on the nature of the perception of the object, reflected in the form of subjective sensations and unfinished estimates, in artistic form "Torn" to the space of the picture. From the point of view of the psychology of perception, the transfer phenomenon is due to a sense of empathy to the subject of the image. According to V. Voringer, the selectivity of perception in realistic art determines the two forms of the image of the object: the first is associated with the imitation of the subject; The second is an image in the "naturalistic style" (Voringer, 1957). Imitation of items is carried out in the form of copies, it does not carry a sensual attitude towards the image object. On the contrary, working in the "naturalistic style", the artist is aesthetically determined by the form of which is due to its empathic attitude towards the item depicted.

Fig. fifteen.Work student of the artistic faculty. An example of the right "conditionality"

Fig. sixteen.Work student of the artistic faculty. An example of incorrect "conditionality"

In other words, the artist means for himself his own feelings in relation to the perceived subject. In the image, he not only appeals to his intuition, but makes a conscious choice of the elements of the image, the quality of their studies. An intuitive effect associated with empathia is directed by the meaning of the work and the ability of the subject to find expressive solutions. Criterion "Conduct" Allows you to determine the degree of awareness of the subject in choosing the image characteristics, the use of which during the image creates conditions for the formation of a holistic composition.

Violations. Analysis of the drawings of respondents belonging to various subcultural groups showed that the actualization in the image of certain qualities and properties of the composition is largely determined by target installations and value reference points. For marginal groups of young people, the selection of such elements of the image, which would emphasize the contrast of relations (both in form and color), excess dynamism and demonstrative symbolism.

For socially tolerant groups, a set of ordinary elements of the image indicating the conflict, non-critical adoption of social realities is dominated. The choice of socially acceptable objects and shapes of the image, as a rule, provides a soft, balanced drawing of relations between the elements of the composition, equilibrium of shadow and color connections, the staticness of the image.

4. "A meaningfulness" is "correlation."

The conscious idea of \u200b\u200bthe nature of the image of the completed product determines the strategy for the composition of the composition of the composition. According to R. L. Gregory, "Our reality is formed from personal perceptual hypotheses and from general conceptual hypotheses" (Gregory, 1970). The process of forming the composition is due to the ability of a subject to study the nature of the relationship between properties, shape and value of the image of the image, selecting the spatial solution of the composition depending on the target target. Criterion "The meaningfulness of perception" Reveals the nature of the vision by the subject of links between the meaning of the objects depicted and the meaning of the work created by them, the meaning that is captured in the name of the work.

Criterion "CONTENTS" The elements of the composition in the semantic space of the picture indicates the ability of the subject to holistically grab the image. As noted earlier, in the theory of gestaltpsychology, the phenomenon of the spatial correlation of the properties of the "Figures" and the meaning of the "background" is considered. According to E. Rubin, there are conditions that determine which surface of the image can be considered as "figure", and which is as "background" (Rubin, 1915). In his opinion, the "surface concluded within certain boundaries seeks to acquire the status of the figure, whereas the surrounding surface will be the background." In other words, the structure of the composition allows you to see how the space is organized, in what ways the "figure" and "background" acts, how the formal and meaningful elements of the picture to express the main idea are correlated.

Fig. 17.Work student of the artistic faculty. An example of correct "correlation"

Fig. eighteen.Work student of the artistic faculty. An example of incorrect "correlation"

Violations. From the point of view of modern scientific ideas about the nature of creativity, in the creation of an artistic image, the determination of its compositional relations takes the participation of both hemispheres of the brain. The robust system is responsible for a holistic sensual perception. Left-drying education participates in the processing of sensual impressions, operates with the concepts and categories (Nikolaenko, 2007).

In the manic phase of manic depressive psychosis in the patterns of recipients, individual elements of the composition are not related to each other; The artistic image appears as schematically, geometrically organized space. According to A. Yu. Egorov and N. N. Nikolaenko, with the manic phase, the shear of the inter impassary balance is directed towards the pathologically high activation of the left hemisphere, which "suppresses" an emotional and sensual attitude to created image (Functional asymmetry ..., 1991, p. 680-690).

With a depressed state, that is, in the oppression of the functions of the left hemisphere, in the consciousness of the recipient, the ability to represent a holistic image is preserved, but the intention of the composition of the composition is "erased". According to N. Freeman's research, for the depressive state, it is characterized by an exaggeration of the sizes of the image of the image of the image (Freeman, 1980). In contrast to this phenomenon, with manic symptoms, there is a decrease in the size of the drawing objects of the drawing.

When schizophrenia, as one of the forms of personality splitting, the focus of the activity of the right hemisphere passes against the background of the activation of the left-handed activity. There is intentional introduction into the structure of an artistic image of an iconic-symbolic range of elements, schematization and stylization of depicted objects (Zeigarnik, 1969).

5. "Integrity" - "expressiveness".

Concept "integrity", as well as the concept of "expressiveness", reflects the process of integrating the impression obtained during the creation and perception of the image. The impression is based on the perception of the elements depicted, including their properties, spatial location and correlation with the theme of the work. "To see the phenomenon in its whole, grab and keep this integer in an orbit of direct attention, developing the items to their necessary sound in the symphony of the whole - and composite and color - this is the basis of the foundations of art," said B. V. Johanson (to the question about the composition, 2000).

As an estimate of the criterion of the integrity of the composition is proposed to use the concept "Expressiveness". The expressiveness of the work speaks of such a structural-ordered image of the elements of the composition, which creates an impression of integrity, completeness, eccentricity, aesthetic maturity in the perceiving entity. Assessment of expressiveness of the composition is carried out by analyzing the semantic and ornamental characteristics of the holistic image.

Fig. nineteen.Work student of the artistic faculty. Example: "Holly" expressive image

Fig. twenty.Work student of the artistic faculty. Example: "fragmented" inexpressive image

It should be noted that any art carries a symbolic function. The art itself represents the projection of the inner world of creating, satisfying his "internal necessity." In the artistic work the image of the world is drawn up, ideas that have symbolic meaningFirst of all, for the artist itself. The study of the content of the artistic work allows you to look into the depths of the unconscious to the direct perception of the unconscious. Expressiveness of the work It indicates the harmonization of conscious and unconscious, rational and intuitive aspects of creativity, indicates the integrity of the personality structure of the most creative subject.

Violations. Problems in creating a holistic composition possessing high degree Expressiveness associated with violations of both cognitive and emotional-sensual spheres of man. Delays mental development, affective states, psychosis limit the imagination, determine the inability to logically build a holistic picture of the image. Personality with obviously pronounced mental disabilities has violations in the volitional sphere, which cause its inability to form in consciousness a holistic congruent image. For such a person, the disintegration of the unity of the image elements, hyperbolization of the significance of some and the denial of the values \u200b\u200bof other components of the composition is characterized.

The "composite" method of interpreting the structure of the design of the image can be used to analyze the personal and psychological characteristics and mental violations of the subject of creativity not only in the field of artistic and visual activities, but also as a diagnostic toolkit in dance and motor, musical and voice therapy and dramaherapy. The art composition is a projection of typological and subjective features of the person, an objective "cast" of unconscious installations and intentions, social cliches and cultural stereotypes. Thus, the analysis of the composition structure may be included in the projective diagnostic procedure in art therapeutic practice.

It should be noted that the nature of perception by the subject of reality depends on the sensitivity to the effects of media and internal factors. From the point of view of research of the Gustav of Theodore Fehner, a person is not available to a quantitative measurement of sensations on the impact of an irritant. Knowledge of changes in sensations is based on comparison of impressions from the primary and subsequent sensation to the corresponding stimulus. However, it is possible to measure the magnitude of the impact stimulus causing a slightly distinguishable feeling, including its minimum value. In other words, the measurement of the minimum irritation intensity allows you to determine the absolute threshold of sensitivity to defined type irritation.

Sensitivity to perception can be determined by such a thing as "Threshold of sensation" reflecting the ability of a person to distinguish the nature of the exposure to the irritant. The less the threshold of the sensation, the greater the sensitivity to the stimulus.

According to theories of psychophysics, We study the quantitative relationship between the effects of stimuli and the corresponding sensations, the relationship between sensitivity (E) and the value of the threshold stimulus (R) can be represented by the formula: E \u003d 1 / R. G. Fehner brought regularities in the nature of perception and reflection by the human environmental impact. The main law of psychophysics - "Weber - Fehner" - says: "The value of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of irritation magnitude" (Makarov, 1959, p. 52-56).

What is the importance of research in the field of psychophysics for art therapeutic practice? It is known that the nature of perception depends on the emotional and sensual state, socio-psychological attitudes and personal motives of the individual. The same object - a phenomenon is perceived by various actors in different ways. The work of art, possessing a polymodal, polyfunctional value, affects the subject of perception both on the threshold and in the sub-level levels. Knowing the possible nature of the influence of the artistic image and the process of creativity to the mental state of the recipient allows you to foresee the result of the therapeutic process, taking into account its individual features perception. For example, for one category of respondents focused on marginal, "major" installations and forms of behavior, the eccentric forms of therapy with color, music, game are relevant. For respondents, with a "minor" warehouse of character, more attractive soft, pastel tones in painting, harmoniously organized sound space, classic dance forms, etc.

Perspective construction

A person is a creature seen and expressing what sees. The vision of the perception object is based on perceptual strategies determined by the features of consciousness, appeping, motifs, the intentions of the subject and the physical conditions of the medium. A person sees what "holds" in the field of his understanding and meaning. His perception acts as a form of knowledge of the world, in which he, as a subject of action, directs his attention to what is relevant to him.

The visual perception of the world is three-dimensional. Choosing objects of the front or rear plan, a person determines their meaning in the context of their relationship. In the process of perception and awareness of the observed, what is in the background can be advanced, and, on the contrary, the actual can move back to the extreme horizons of perception. This choice of observation and experience plan varies depending on the mental state of the person, its sociocultural preferences.

In other words, the act of perception always implies the choice of objects, elements of the observation space, their composite representation and structuring into a single holistic education. Scientific-empirical and analytical studies carried out at the Department of Philosophical Anthropology and Art Therapy for 15 years have made it possible to develop criteria for assessing the human ability to composite construction, the use of which in art-therapeutic practice ensures the objectification of information on perception processes.

It should be noted that the compositional approach in art therapy is related to the study of the laws of composite construction in painting. In art highlight three types of composite artistic image constructions:

Frontal composition;

Volume composition;

Deep-spatial (volume-spatial) composition.

At the same time, the idea is noted that none of the compositions on the significance and degree of expressiveness have advantages over others. Preference is given to the image of the image that best matches the supplied artistic task (Golubva, 2004, p. 90).

We define the main differences in the types of composite construction.

Frontal compositions represented by "flat" image options, as well as compositions that have relief.

Volume composition Characterized by three dimensions (length, width, height), and two types of compositions are distinguished: symmetric and asymmetric. When constructing bulk composition The artist faces the need to solve the following technical questions:

Formation of volume in the surrounding space in a situation of "conflict" of volumetric forms on the plane.

Determining the effect on the volume of colors used and color relationships.

Selection of material texture as a qualitative characteristic of volumetric forms on the plane.

Actual for the construction of the composition is an understanding of the fact that, in contrast to a spot, dominant in the "flat" model of the image, impact bulk form The human psyche is stronger. In the theory of art, such a perceptual phenomenon is associated with the impact of the "physical mass" of the artistic image on the emotional-sensual sphere of man. However, we believe that we are most likely not about the physical phenomenon, but the meaning of encoded signs and symbols for a perceive subject.

In this case, the construction of the volume composition is carried out in the process of balancing forms in relation to:

Scale;

Proportions;

Volumes.

Special attention for the purposes of art therapy, from our point of view, has a construction process deep-spatial composition, which is a combination of planes, volumes and pauses between them. The persistent image of the space, reflecting the place and the role of the objects of the composition for creating a subject, acquires a crucial value. It should be noted that from a psychological point of view, the deep-spatial characteristics of the artistic image are the greatest weight into the degree of their impact on the person as a whole.

Theoretical works of artists and architects are devoted to the analysis of this issue, which attracts the development of techniques and the laws of building a three-dimensional space. Allocate two leading types of promising image: linear and air perspective, while linear promising construction is divided into frontal and angular Building. In the theory of linear perspective, direct and inverse perspectives occupy centrally. While creating direct promising construction Sizes of items decrease as they remove them from the foreground, on the contrary, when drawing reverse perspective - The dimensions of the back plan objects are exaggerated.

The air perspective is created on the basis of the choice of color tone and correction of the color of the colors that change as the items removed from the foreground. The character of the image depends on the transmission of a state of air masses, the nature of the light source (cousin, 1997, p. 145-150).

The study of the laws of perception and techniques for constructing the prospects B. V. Rauhenbach made it possible to allocate the so-called perceptual type of perspective. Perceptual perspective is the type of perspective that includes direct, inverse perspective and axonometry. It is known that each type of linear promising image has characteristic signs of distortion (height, width and depth transmission). So, in the case of a direct perspective distortion, it is reduced to a strong exaggeration of the size of the foreground items and a decrease in the objects of the far plan. At the same time, the ratio between height and width remains correct. The transfer of medium-plan objects occurs almost without distortion.

According to B. V. Raushenbahu, in reality, a person sees the objects of all plans in the perceptual perspective. An image of space and objects by using a perceptive system of perspective leads to flawless transmission of vertical planes and distortion towards an increase in width. From the point of view of theory artistic image The principle of perceptual perspective is more accurate in the image of the surrounding world.

It should be noted that by using the method of transmission of the depth of space on the plane, it is possible to change not only the nature of perception and image of the objective world, but to create conditions for the transformation of the nature of the adoption by the person of his environment. According to research N. N. Nikolaenko, there are stylistic preferences in a promising image in people with severe mental accentuations. Thus, in schizophrenia, the desire to create a direct promising image with the elaboration of the elements of the back plan and the dispersion of the parts of the composition is expressed. While with manic-depressive psychosis, the character of the image varies depending on the form of the disease. In the manic phase, the trend towards the image of a direct perspective is dominated, on the contrary, with depressed state, the central image is extended to the forefront, the patient refuses to draw a dialing space. The author notes the idea that the preference of the reverse perspective in the state of depression is associated with the desire of the patient to show the neighboring part of the composition of the composition. In the event of recovery, the recipient returns to the image strategy of a direct perspective with the drawing of the far space (Nikolaenko, 2007, p. 165-180).

Presented by N. N. Nikolaenko Conclusions are built on the study of the character of composite construction by respondents with pronounced forms of mental disorders. The question arises about the eligibility of the transfer of these observations to the practice of a psychologist working, as a rule, with mentally saved referents. Is it really, the preference of a promising image indicates dominants of the hemispheres of the brain, to which N. N. Nikolaenko indicates? Or the choice of space study of the composition is due to the cultural and individual characteristics of the creative?

It should be noted that in history european painting Sustainable dynamics of the character drawing of the artistic image are traced, priorities are distinguished in the methods of constructing the composition. So, in the painting of Renaissance, romanticism and impressionism, the study of space is carried out through an air perspective. The predominance of linear comprehensive solution can be observed in the works of representatives of classicism, symbolism, realism, in modern schools Painting. Of course, this trend in changing the styles of painting indicates a change in the nature of the perception of the world and its presentation in the form of an artistic image. You can make the idea that the time of rationalization and conceptualization has come to replace the direct experience of the reality transmitted by the decisions.

In other words, the nature of the prospective construction is due to both cultural preferences of man, and its mental state. Studies of the structure of a composite image of space, conducted with students of psychological specialization (more than 1,500 drawings), showed that for a significant part of introverts (35-40%), drawing anterior and average composition of the composition through the use of the elements of the reverse perspective and axonometry. For extroverts, which make up about 78% of the subjects, is characterized by the study of medium and rear plans using direct promising construction. For representatives of the first sample of subjects subjects, the subject matter, as a rule, act material and ideal objects with axiological value. Objects of attention of representatives of the second sample - extroverts, to a greater extent, are environmental objects, social connections and communication signs. Both samples are characterized by image perfect image yourself, his idea of \u200b\u200bthe world.

The use of other types of promising image in these samples causes substantial technical difficulties, and, as a rule, fails. It should be noted that when creating an artistic image, a person strives for the transfer of ideal standards forms and color relations that have developed in ontogenesis. In an attempt to express his vision of the world, the subject conveys its attitude to beauty and harmony in art; He chooses those artistic agents and techniques that allow him to close as much as possible to the image of the conceived.

Acquaintance with the basics of composite construction and types of perspective allows not only to expand the range of artistic possibilities, but to change the nature of perception and experiences by the subject of reality. The therapeutic effect occurs in the process of prolonged Art-action, including the study of the ontology of art, taking into account the individual characteristics of the nature and creative abilities respondent. This challenge is solved due to the synesthetic effect resulting from the synthesis of information from the theory and practice of philosophy, psychology and art.

Thus, the nature of the prospective constructions of the composition reflects both the features of individual perception and the attitude of the subject to the present and the future. Transformation of personality representations about himself and the world, correction of rigid installations and intentions can be carried out in the course of art therapeutic work aimed at forming a holistic picture of the world. The artistic image created in the art session is a source of harmonization of the identity of the creative entity.