The people of the French. French character, features and differences from other peoples

France ... She is such a mysterious and attractive, aristocratic and mounted ... Probably, everyone admits that this country is the legislation of world fashion, and Paris is synonymous with sophistication. And about the grace and charm of its inhabitants go legends. We are confident that the Frenchwoman should be certainly sophisticated, stylishly dressed, slender Mademoiselle on the high heels and in a flirty hat.

Oh yeah, and without fail, the handbag from the couture. The Frenchman is an incredibly charming man, temperamental, loving, gallant. He is ready to write a lady of the heart poems and give life, protecting her dignity.

France is Coco Chanel and Jean-Paul Gautier, Alexander Duma and Victor Hugo, Edith Piaf and Patricia Kaas ... Great Motherland Great people.

What did the French differ from us, Slavs? Why, even in jokes, the French woman is thin and ringing, in a short lace peignoir, languidly eating a porcelain plate of lettuce leaves, and Russian is a sort of thunder-baba in the apron and with a rolling pin, which will stop the horse, and in a burning horse Easily enter? Why, protecting his honor, the Frenchman from the book novels, is gracefully moving, holds on the swords, and the Russian man rolls the sleeves, removes the lapties and starts a fist fight? What is the difference between the French mentality and our? Let's try to compare and figure out.

Pride and Prejudice

The French, especially Parisians, love themselves. They are proud that they are French, and consider their nation of the most beautiful in the world. The order of all the rest is much better. It seems that the feeling of self-esteem and respect for themselves, they absorb with maternal milk. The Frenchman knows what he deserves all the best only because he was born french. Take at least a meal ceremony. The table must be beautifully served, portion, albeit small, but exquisitely decorated, all the ingredients are lined with taste, each in its place. The French desserts are masterpiece - in a tiny cake chef, without regretting yourself, invests many hours of labor, although it knows that a little later confectionery miracle will be eaten in a matter of minutes.

Here a person is in the center of everything, and everything is done for him and for him. If at school is a children's park, then be sure it is exactly the park, and not a place for walking dogs, drinking beer and smoking herbs. Delicious flowers and fresh beggar benches, beautiful fountains with water suitable for drinking, and well-groomed tracks. And even a special gendarme, bypassing. In addition, there is a gate closing over the night at the goal. In short, everything for small Parisians. City buses ride clearly on schedule, which, by the way, can be obtained in any kiosk, and the subway trains per hour go every minute. The state works for people, in no case vice versa.

Ability to live and enjoy life

The second trait of the French - the ability to take everything from life. The so-called "Savoir Vivre". This is a very multifaceted and multicomponent concept, to curse which is completely under power, probably only the true son of France. This ability to live qualitatively, enjoying every minute. Good manners, politeness and elegance in everything. Exquisite clothing - Oh, a real Parisian will never acquire a new clothes that arrived from China! These are rules good tone - The real Parisian will never be publicly correcting makeup.

Compliance with etiquette - a man during a meeting will never allow himself to remove the jacket or weaken the tie. This is a subtle sense of humor - every Frenchman is obliged to be able to discharge the tense situation in a witty joke. And, of course, this is an excessive French courtesy. In no case, even the dead is drunk, even while being death, you can not forget about the foundations of politeness - Healthy, shake your hand to every man; warmly thank for the service provided; expressing a request, do not forget to say "please"; And leaving, even in a hurry, you need to say goodbye to everyone and kiss the hands of the ladies. Otherwise, you can easily stop taking in society. Simply put, Savoir Vivre is the ability to live with taste. It is it that gives France so strong attractiveness, real magnetism.

Freedom and tendency to monumentalism

True Parisman considers himself free - in the sense that he puts his interests above all the rest. It can move the road to red or go to the checkout without a queue. He with a slight sense of his own superiority refers to representatives of other nationalities. The British for him are too boring, the Slavs - fiercely brought up, Americans are stingy and hypocritical. How, because he is a Paris, he is blue blood! He knows how to negotiate and defend his opinion.

However, at the same time french freedom It implies responsibility for their actions, unlike freedom of Russian, which is almost always equal to anarchy and chaos. And, unfortunately, a few Russian is brought up in the spirit of love and respect for himself - it is rather constant discontent with himself, disbelief in their strength, disappointment and a sense of dissatisfaction.

We respect the Europeans with reverence, while the French are looking at all, except for themselves, condescendingly and a bit down. Maybe therefore, Paris architects suffer from giantomania? However, even it has true French features - new buildings fit so well in the landscape and look so aesthetically, that sometimes you will not understand, two hundred years or a couple of dozen. And no ridiculous beamless, spoiling landscape, is only refinement and style.

Political correctness

The French are very scrupulous in everything related to political correctness. If a gang can fly in Paris, in which there are Africans or Arabs, they will never concentrate attention! Rather focuses on white, even if there are a minority there. Gradually, such behavior led to the fact that the emigrants became increasingly unfastened, they almost immediately robbed and kill, and the French press only threatened her finger and explains all this by vices of the bourgeois society.

What is he - portrait of a true Parisian?

According to romantic stereotypes, the French are large ladies and tireless lovers, they are seductive and in-knightly polite, conscious and witty, bold and ambitious. However, for the most part, these images are inspired by the films about France and the heroes of the novels of Alexander Duma. In fact, not everything is so rosy. The average Frenchman in our time is quite nervous and irritable. Those who have a salary seems low, constantly unhappy that they do not increase it. Those who have a worthy earnings complain that he is lowered.

Peasants are growing due to the fact that the country will be taken great amount Cheaper Foreign Food. Small shopkeepers scold supermarkets, because of which their business does not withstand competition and brings losses. State employees have a consistently not bad salary, but they are not quite satisfied - they are not satisfied with the number of privileges put them. Young people are afraid to stay without work - a good place does not guarantee even a red diploma.

Schoolchildren smoke and indulge in alcohol. Is it really a familiar picture? France is also at the crossroads, however, people do not surrender and seek outputs. The rate is done on the development and promotion of high technologies in industry. Therefore, today a portrait of a successful self-realized French is: it qualified specialist, an employee of a large international company, elegant and expensive dressed, not parting with a laptop and telephone. Plus, he - contrary to all ideas about the French - an exemplary family man and a caring father. Now in France it is considered a good tone.

Here they are, the French. Something perhaps they should learn what - to take an example with them, not forgetting that every nation is beautiful and unique!

What ordinary Russian people know about the French? In fact, not so much. Those who have never been to the homeland of Hugo, often in their ideas about the French use common stereotypes. Portrait typical french"In most cases, it looks slightly strange: a sophisticated fader of frogs and Bordeaux, with an indispensable scarf on the neck and a baguette under the arm driving in the morning with Croissant, and in the evenings - champagne in the room of the hotel ... But is it?

About stability

If we talk about stable habits, the French are unconditional opponents of experiments. Stability and constancy are valued by them most. It can come around to funny: the bread is always bought in the same bakery, Friday dinners pass in the favorite restaurant, and the holidays - on the resort that I liked you. Is it worth talking about the affection of the Frenchman to his work? As well as to their country. A typical Parisian can know several languages, especially if it is allowed to him on the debt of the service, but in any case it remains sure: there is no country better than France, and there is no particular sense to ride abroad. According to the Frenchman, the Earth rotates just around Paris. And representatives of other nationalities, the French frankly regret, because they, alas, will never become owners of such a subtle taste and such a wide horizon as residents of France.

Each Frenchman sincerely considers himself "the mostst" - in politics, fashion, art, culture, gastronomy ... and not listed. Well, if in some area the Frenchman does not feel himself a connoisseur, then this is, of course, only because this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge is absolutely not interesting for him and in life is not needed.

About kisses and style

Another stereotype is about unique French kisses. The French man is generally represented by the majority of foreigners with a certain hero-lover. But in fact, most of the "frogs" are ordinary guys, often, by the way, are in front of the ladies. The reason for this is in the well-known freezing of the Frenchwoman and their notorious independence.

By the way, about Frenchwomen. Not always they look so elegant and stylish, as it is trying to demonstrate the mass media. Fucked byfemined byfemines, French francs often forget about their appearance. But men in France really follow them - sometimes even more carefully, rather than women.

It is believed that the French do not pronounce the sound of "P", but this is true only in part. It all depends on what region of the country was born and grew by a person - Corsicans, for example, have an emphasis in which there is no characteristic French "P".

The French are pretty lazy, and this is true. The average Frenchman uses all possible recreation cases: lunch break, coffee break, day off, shortened day, illness, strike ... This applies especially office workers. However, the merchants in numerous shops are also like that do not happen.

About food

By the way, about the shops. French hostesses are one of the most meticulous in the world. In Europe, it is not accepted in advance to harvest the products in advance, and in France it is like death. A typical Parisian housewife is a daily shopping, pickily choosing every piece of cheese. All purchased must be perfectly fresh. The process of making food gives the French incredible pleasure - more pleasant, perhaps only talk about cooking food.

Regarding food, the French are even more conservative than in terms of work or preferences of car brands. Everything should be the same as the maintenance is: fua-gra - only with sweat, coffee - only after the dessert, and feel God to add milk into it! Yes, table setting and even the order of dispersion of guests at dinner is also subject to strict canons.

About tourists

Attitude towards tourists from the French wary, if not to say hostile. Sincerely considering his country best in the world, the French believe that any visitors by default is not so smart and sophisticated. And if the tourist also actively focuses on behavior - for example, reveals the map, stopping in the middle of the sidewalk, - then this is a reason to express his open contempt for him.

The French are not too friendly. However, this is not a reason to refuse to visit Paris: if the tourist behaves "right", he will always be happy everywhere. And if you can explain with local in French, the attitude towards you will be especially warm.

France is a distinctive country with an outstanding population of more than 64 million people, 75.5% of which are offacarious French living in urban areas, and only 74% of them speak exclusively in their native language. Annual population growth of more than 230 thousand people.
We will get closer to the rural life of the French people, the peculiarities of his character and the main signs of the essence of men and women will help this peculiar guide.

All as is about the French

Over the years, the established ethnic image of any Frenchman is characterized by increased sensitivity to the entire national and highly developed ambition. According to ethnic signs, three types of personality are distinguished.
The first one refers to the descendants of Galov, for which is characteristic high growth French, blond hair, light skin and blue eyes. The second is descendants of the Celts, characteristic type Dark-haired brunet (ki) of medium or low growth. The third - obvious descendants of the legumes are short-headed and low-spirited skin.
Among other things, the straight nose is characteristic of all types, a slightly elongated face and in most cases a clear leaning towards Khusobhe. Looking at the Frenchman, you can immediately understand that this is a sophisticated nature, with a rich internal potential, full of romance and nobility.
Along with all the charm, and with all French names, they have their own unique originality. No wonder, many compare them with the singing of the nightingale - Louise, Elsa, Paul, Michel, who often once belonged to either grandparents or grandfathers. but modern families Most often give their children names borrowed from other countries.
With the course of the centuries-old history, the distinctive features of the French, which manifest themselves in their character and image of thinking. Analytical warehouse of the mind, the wealth of imagination, persistent toastness and courage in the knowledge of the new - here is the image of a modern Frenchman.
They constantly drive their restless temperament, so they are characterized by rapid decision making at times, contrary to common sense, but in any case it leads to a long-awaited result due to their extraordinary intuition.
It is also characterized by quick exciterity and quickness of character, which is often accompanied by increased emotionality. Nevertheless, in everyday life - it is ulcer, cheerful, sincere, brand little, but at the same time amazing gallantic personnel. According to statistics, France is considered the most frivolous country in the world. Many residents are fond of the game in different lottery, they spend huge funds to spend and therefore are known as a slightly wasteful people.

The identity of each representative of the strong sex of the French people, despite the characteristic originality of behavior, and character is endowed with common features, which in the aggregate are consigned to a certain stereotype.
The first is an insurmountable joy of life, even, despite the problems that have arisen, the true Frenchman never falls into the despondency and does not inflate the scandal in a flat place, most often everything is translated into an ordinary joke and remains outside the walls of the house. For they are considered a bad tone to advertise.
The second is increased attention to your own person, the opinion of others is very important. For them, a thorough choice of wardrobe and maintenance external view. Chic and at the same time mental ease, intertwined with a real French humor - what it particularly affects the formation of each individual.
The third - romance from nature and gallant from distant ancestors, for them the family is stability, peace, reliable stronghold and support in a difficult situation. They are not at all difficult to get into the apartment or sit with the child, from which the execution of the age of the majority requires only one thing - to be able to behave at the table and not to lag in their studies.
The hobbies include addiction to cooking, shopping, a good car, their home and dinner festive dinners, which are so revered in French families.

From the early childhood Representatives of weak gender teach to careful care for themselves, the selection of clothing, and do not forget about good manners, so that the Frenchwoman formed is a self-sufficient woman, shining an attractiveness and endowed with special charm. By elegance, they have no equal, they manage to closely monitor themselves in any life situations - they are always on top and look charming. The choice and purchase of jewelry is one of the main addies of the French women who do not feel sorry for any money.
Family and work for them are no less important aspect in life where special attention is given to raising children. In everyday life, or in a restaurant - they are inherent in a special attractive charm and inner beauty.

Culture French

What is the difference between the French, so they are their zeal to a special reverence of their cultural values, which they require from all, at least in their presence. Recognition of other people's authorities to them alone and this is quite justified. It is only worth mentioning about the majestic cathedrals and churches that have become national Treasure Not only of this country, but also of humanity.
A special place in the cultural consciousness of the French people is given to fashion where all varieties of her styles and directions are concentrated. Moreover, it seems the impression of the congenital sense of own style of each resident of this country.
Moreover, when choosing a machine, preference is given only to domestic producers - this is a strict rule for a larger population.

Famous French

It's no secret that France is the "Hitter" of the great minds of humanity, works and inventions of which have become the present property of all mankind. This is the world famous writers Jul Verne, Adexandr Duma, Victor Hugo, composers Charles Lekki, Jacques Offenbach, Couturier Pierre Cardin and Coco Chanel, singer Patricia Kaas and Mari Mother, and of course sent to I.
It is impossible not to remember the famous painters of Alfred Sisley, Henri Matisse, Edgar Degas.

The numerous monuments of the oldest cultures are evidenced by the early settlement of France, in particular beautiful samples of primitive art (figurines, stone bas-reliefs, cave painting). Separate periods of Paleolithic (Shell, Ashhel, Moustier, Orignac, Solwere, Madeleine) received their names in science precisely by those French areas where the real remnants of these cultures were found. In France, numerous monuments of the megalithic culture of Neolithic - Mengira, Cromlekh, Dolmen are best studied.

Ligures lived in the antique era in the southeastern part of France; This area received the name of the Ligurian coast. In IV century BC e. Part of the ligurov was pushed by the Celts to the East, to the Bay near Genoa, and the part was cohalted. Here, in the Mediterranean coast, in the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Phoenician and Greek colonies were founded. The main Greek colony was massive (massaly, modern Marseille), based on the VI century. BC e. Focyers (Small Asia). Other Greek colonies were founded later, which gave rise to cities, to this days, retained modified ancient names: Nicea. (Nice), Antipolis (Antibes), A. relate. (Arles). The Greeks brought with their grape vine, olive, fig and pomegranate trees, cypress.

In the south and southwest of France various Iberian tribes lived. Aquitans lived between Pyrenees and Garonny, by whose name all southearts of the country had long been called Aquitaine. In the VI century n. e. Vasconians came from Spain in Aquitain. Mixing with Aquitans, they became known as Gasconians, and their settlement area - Gasconus. Ethnonym "Wascons" was postponed in modern name Basque (for their origin, see p. 498-499).

The most numerous group of tribes, which was based on the formation of the French people, were Celts, or Galla, who gave the name of the country, - Gallium.

In the middle of the first to n. e. Gallic tribes lived scattered on the huge space of Central Europe and in a small part of Malaya Asia. The distribution zone of Latena culture, which is considered to be Galla, stretches in a wide strip through the territory of modern Central France through Switzerland, South Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia and Romania.

In the "Notes about the Gallic War", Julia Caesar is given to certains about the resettlement of Celtic tribes in Gaul, as well as evidence of their material culture, social relations, family life. By the time of the Roman conquest, Gallium was divided into three parts: the South occupied Aquitans, the average - the actual Galla, North of the hay, lived Belgi - Celtic tribes, to the well-known degree mixed with the Germans.

In Gaul for the championship fought EDU and seklans. In the West there was a tribe of the Centons. In the center of Gaul had lands of carnuts, parisions, pictons, turons. The names of the Gallean tribes are preserved in the names of many cities and locations of France. Parisian gave the name Paris (in antiquity of Lutection), Sentons, Pictons, Turons gave the name of the provinces of Sentonzh, Puatu, Yulen.

The basis of the farm Galov was agriculture, they took over the culture of grapes from the Greeks. A cattle breeding was developed. The main agricultural "guns of this time: a plow with iron lemene, iron sickles and braids. Gallov had numerous iron and copper mines. Latent ceramics was made on a pottery circle. Clay vessels are richly isolated. The style of jewelry testifies to the identity of Gallic art, despite The presence of Greek and eastern influences.

Galla created complex fortification structures, they were skillful in the construction of ships.

Gallov has spread enamel production borrowed from the south. Galla created a peculiar dark red enamel, which covered bronze and iron objects.

Galov settlements had a view of the villages. There were also strongly fortified settlements that served as a shelter in wartime. Gradually, the fortified points turned into cities that became the focus of crafts and trade. These cities were bibrakte, main city The Eduev tribes, located on the slopes of the Bowre Mountain in Central France, and the capital of Mansubiye Azia (modern Alis). There were a lot of workshops of Kuznetsov, copper founders and enamers.

Celtic tribes stood at various stages of social development: some still lived communal-generics, others experienced the stage of decomposition of generic order and they have seen a birth to know, which has vested extensive lands and large herds. The mass of the free Gallian population was depending on the aristocracy. There were several categories of dependence: slaves, debtors, customers. The tribes were combined into unions, which often fought with each other because of lands and pastures suitable for processing.

In 58-52 BC e. Gallium was conquered by the Romans, Roman legions were introduced here. After conquest, reinforced novelization began. In socio-economic terms it was manifested in the establishment of a developed slave-ownership. At the end of II century n. e. There were large latifunds of Gallic and Roman nobility. In the latifundians and fives (the estates of the emperors), many slaves worked on the miners and public works. Coluntia received wide development in Gaul.

Romanization went, however, unevenly in different parts of Gaul. Gusto-populated by the Romans of the Southern Region of the country with such rich cities as Narbon ,.arelate, Nemauzda, Vienne, Grazianopolis, Garonne and Budigala terrain and Burdigala made up as if the natural continuation of Italy. Until now, in these cities, many monuments of the Roman era are preserved: Amphitherators in Arles and Orange, which are now used for performances under open sky, arena, temples, triumphal arches, aqueducts, bridges, tombs.

A less pronounced and less uniform was the nomanization of the Lugdun province, the boundaries of which were held in Loire and Seine, the regions of the north and northeastern Seine and Aquitaine, which included all southeast lands.

In the Lugdong province, the southern regions were most racified, especially Lugdunum himself (now Lyon). Trade and crafts were concentrated there. In the rest of the province, the Gallic population was weaker than mixed with the Romans. Here, many cities retained old Celtic names. In Aquitaine, there was also no solid massifs of Roman settlements. In the mountainous regions deserted shores The bay bay, in the swampy areas, the old Celtic centers have been preserved almost in untouched. The area north of Pyrenees (Gascon) remained entirely by Iberian.

In Belgic, which occupied almost all the northeast of modern France and the land on the sheldard and the average Maas and Moselle, the nomanization was superficial. There were little Roman colonies, only the cities were Roman garrisons and the Roman merchants lived. The main occupation of the population was horse breeding and sheep, production of wool and wool fabrics. Only in the Valley of Mosen, grapes and fruits were bred. Here arose rich Roman villas.

The inhabitants of the most novel parts of Gaul dominated grain farms, viticulture and winemaking, oil and oil.

The exchange between Italy and Gallic regions was widely unfolded. From Gaul in Rome, the cheap grain was exported, olive oil.

All well-known in cities flourished ancient world Craft industry, existed trade and craft corporations. Cities connected good roads. In V c. There are already more than 100 cities in Gale. Many citizens were literate, the study of Greek and Latin literature flourished in the highest layers of society. Massulia, Burdigala (Bordeaux) and AugustOdunum (Oden) were famous for their scientists and ribors. Already in the IV century. far beyond gallies was known high school In Bordeaux.

The long-term domination of the Romans in Gaul, the cultural community of the Roman and Gallea population led to the formation of Gallo-Romanesque nation. Roman schools, Roman culture, the Roman administration contributed to the fact that the population is primarily urban - it became to absorb Latin. Here, in the conquered provinces, the people's language spread, the so-called vulgar Latin spread. As they enter the cities in the village, Vulgar Latin itself was changed. It was digested in different ways in various parts of the country. Various languages \u200b\u200bof aborigines, various degree The north and south's nomanization caused the dialectal features of the vulgar-Latin speech in Gaul. The vocabulary of the Latin language enriched at the expense of Gallic language. Gallic elements of speech have been preserved primarily in the names of rivers, brokes, settlements. In addition, french dictionary preserved up to three hundred Celtic words relating mainly to agriculture and peasant life: charrue. (plow), sOC. (coulter), mouton. (Baran), Lois (goat), ruche. (hive), tonneau. (Barrel), etc. So there was a new ethnic community, which spoke on a somewhat transformed language of the Romans and the combined culture of two peoples. Gallai perceived Roman culture and at the same time retained and transferred to the winners some elements of their culture, such as clothes: pants, hooded raincoat, special shoes - Wooden shoes.

The Romanization process of Gaul was completed by V c. n. e., by the time of the collapse of the Roman Empire.

An important milestone in the ethnic history of France was the invasion of Gallia of the German tribes. It began in the III century. At the beginning of the V c. The southern Gaul regions were captured by Westges who took almost all Avitation from Loire to Garonna and founded the Toulouse Kingdom; Later, Westges captured Gasconus, Provence and almost all of Spain, and at the end of V c. Captured the central regions (the present Berry, Limuzen and Overlin). In the eastern regions of the country, in the valley of the Songs and Rhones, Burgundy was founded by the Kingdom of Burgundy.

The Armoric Peninsula (Modern Brittany) gradually settled Britons who fled from Britain from the invasions of Anglo-Saxons.

The northern regions from Loire to Somma and Maas remained more than having gallocked, but they were cut off from direct communication with Italy. At the end of V c. These areas were captured by powerful and militant tribal Soyuz Franks under the leadership of Chlodiurn. By mid vi in. Frank, subordinate to his power of Visigas and Burgundy, began to dominate all Gallia. The Franksk Power of Meroving, in which Gallium and Native Priesna Lands of Franks came. The Frankish aristocracy led by Chlodwig received Christianity from Rome, which is the € V c. It became the official religion of the state.

The limits of the Franksky state were expanded in the successors of CLODIV. With Carle, the Great (about 800), the state of Franks turned into a huge empire that swept the western part of Germany, all France and the northern part of Italy. Entering the Frankish state, Gallium retained, however, their cultural features.

The German peoples brought their orders in Gallium: there was a broken slave state and the country's public system has changed. Free neighboring community (brand) - the basis agrarian relationship German residents had a great impact on the agricultural mounted by the Romans; Stroy Gaul. The most finished form of community relations had in the northern regions between Laurea and Somme. The influence of the slave-ownership of Gaul, the presence of Gallo-Roman colons and slaves accelerated the class differentiation among the Germans. In the VI century In Gaul began to fold the feudal land ownership.

At the end of the VI and the beginning of the VII century. In the complex peripeties of internecine wars, four parts of the Franksky state clearly took shape: North-Western part of Gaul with Paris, mainly with the Gallo-Romance population; Burgundy - the former independent kingdom in which there were special dialects of the Romanesque language; Aquitainees - Southeast lands, as well as Australia - the northeastern part inhabited by the eastern francs and the tribes subject to them; This part entered Germany. In neastrics, large land ownership, secular and church. In Burgundy and Aquitania, a small and medium land tenure remained, there were many cities remaining from the Roman era in which crafts and trade.

In the conditions of becoming a new feudal formation, the process of changing the language, the process of the formation of the Northwrangus and Provencal nations was. By the beginning of the IX century. Under the influence of a higher Gallo-Roman culture, Frank was assimilated, lost their tongue, learning Galloromanian speech. Gallo- romanesque language Tried some influence of the Frankish language, there were many German words in its composition relating mainly to military, administrative, legal and household sphere ( werra. - War, FR. guerre. ; sporn. - Spur, Fr. Schegop; treuwa. - truce, art-franz. trieve. etc.). Gallo-Romanesque Latin for the first half of the IX century. has undergone significant changes. She was no longer Latin, but the "Romanesque" language, the official language of the Frankish kingdom.

The difference between the language of Latin literature and the Romanesque, which was spoken by the population, became particularly sensitive in the period of Caroling Revival. In the era of Karl the Great, the foundations of the Middle Ages of the Middle Ages were laid. In the famous Palace Academy, the study of classical poets, speakers philosophers, members of the Academy created poetic compositions and scientists treatises on the right Latin, which deepened the gap between the written language and the colloquial speech. In Reichensky Glossary (end of the VIII century), several hundred words and expressions of classical Latin were translated into popular speech. The decision of the Turkish Cathedral of 813 was prescribed to priests to pronounce the sermons on in native languageSince Latin has become incomprehensible to the masses. The first French text known to us is the famous "serments" ("oaths") ^ which in 842 exchanged in Strasbourg Korole Karlg bald and Louis German. To understand their troops, Louis has brought the oath in Romanesque language, Karl - in German. In addition to this document, the most ancient monuments of French writing relate to religious preaching literature, for example, Cantilene Evlalia (about 900).

An important stage in the ethnic history of the French was the discharge in 843 from the broken Caroling Empire of the Westofrank Kingdom, which became known as France. The boundaries of France more or less corresponded to the language border, but still did not coincide with it. "So, outside of it, the Burgundy lands and the western part of Lorraine, where Romance dominated. The reunification of these areas with France has continued many centuries.

A variety of ethnic base, the different degree of novelification and the development of feudal relations in the north and south of the country contributed to the long-term preservation of the differences between the North and South. The dialects of the northern part of the country united into the group langue d. ! oui. . South dialects that have experienced the impact of the language of the Vest Reade langue d. ’ oC. - Okolitan language. These names originate from various pronunciation of the word "yes" as « oui. » in the north and "OS" in the south. The language border was held along the northern edge of the central array, which was separated by the existing IX century. Related Severofranzuz and Provencal Nations.

In the middle of the IX century. The Normans who captured the north of the country invaded the limits of France. In 911, one of the Norman leaders - Roller - established his power at the mouth of the Seine. Here the Duchy of Normandy was formed. Norman conquerors were soon assimilated by a more numerous local population, but imposed some imprint on his tongue and culture.

In x in. France was divided into county and duchy, which for the most part corresponded to the areas of spreading old tribal groups and almost coincided with the administrative division of Gaul in the times of Roman dominion. From the XI century French kings started

french lands. As joined the Royal Domain of Duchy and Counties became provinces.

In the conditions of feudal fragmentation and separation in the provinces there were independent dialects. The Normarantsuz language included the Norman, Picardian, Walloon, Larring, Poitatvin and Central Phrencourtsse (Il-de-Francian) dialects. The South Franczesky (Okolitansky, Provencal) language included the Lyon dialect, Dochine and Savoy dialects and Swiss cantons, which, together with Dialects, Franch Conte, were combined into a group of southeastern dialects.

In the X-XII centuries. The ethnic and language isolation of the south from the north was very noticeable. The cities of the South (Nam, Montpellier, Narbonne, etc.), which reached the heyday during this period, were economically more connected with the Mediterranean than with the inside of the country.

In the south already in the XII century. The first romanesque literary language in Western Europe was created and the creativity of Podbadurov poets (see Folklore section, pp 397).

In the north of the country in the XII century. Special position was held by the dialect of Il de-France. Gradually, with the growth of Paris and Ile de France as the center of Northern France, this dialect developed into a language common to all northern French. By the end of the XIII century. Only Picardia and Normandy dialects remained their meaning.

In the XI-XII centuries. Heroic epic was recorded and was recorded, which came to us in the form of poems, the so-called songs about Acts ( chansons dE. geste. ).

In the formation of a national culture in connection with the growth of free Yurodsk communities - communities - a prominent role was to play a democratic urban culture, in particular literature.

In this period there was a medieval theater. In Paris, Toulouse, Montpellier appeared the first universities. Folk traditions and taste expressed in works of architecture. Severofranzes cities are homeland gothic style (Cathedrals in Paris, Chartres, Amiens and many others).

Before the beginning of the XIII century. Level of Economic I. cultural life The south of France, especially Provence, was higher than in the northern regions, but in military peaceloith, the northern regions were stronger. Kings and Knights of Northern France, taking advantage of the spread in the south of Albigoy Yressee, subjected to the southern regions to the terrible defeat and joined Toulouse county to the King domain (1208-1229).

Centenary War (1357-1453) with England for French lands slowed down the development of culture, detained the unification of the peoples of France. The long-term occupation of the French regions was accompanied by their ruin and emptying. The tax oppression and civilian feudal intersubs aggravated the class struggle. In 1358, the largest uprising in the history of France began in the history of France and one of the largest in the history of Europe - Jacceria (from the mocking nickname "Jacques-Prostak", which the nobles gave the peasants). In Paris, the rebellion of citizens broke out under the leadership of the merchant German Etienne Marseille.

The sense of national self-consciousness, aroused in the people in the period of century of war, manifested itself in the mass struggle of the French people with foreign invaders. At the head of the troops, who won the British near Orleans (1429), stood a simple peasant girl, Patriot, the heroine of France Zhanna d'Ark.

The revival of the economy of France after the end of the century of war strengthened royal power. In turn, the economic policy of Louis XI (1461 -1483) contributed to the revival of crafts and trade, strengthening economic ties. With Louis Xi, the fighting two centuries of the struggle for the eastern border areas, which included the ownership of the Burgundy dukes.

Economic ties and cultural community of the North and South in the XV century. And even by the middle of the XVI century. were still weak. The cultural traditions of the southern regions associated them with closer with Catalonia and Italy than with North France. In Northern France by the end of the XV century. There was a nationwide language, although along with him in certain areas, especially in the North-West and the North-East, local dialects remained. During this period, the penetration of the Northwranzus language to the south began. However, Provencal language continued to remain a spoken language.

The origin of capitalist defendance made important changes in all directions of life french society. Accelerated the pace of economic development. New classes were born - bourgeoisie and proletariat. The class struggle aggravated, political life became complicated. It was the era of the heyday of culture. The National language was established in all those areas of public and cultural life, where Latin prevained before. Great importance For the development of the National Language, the law was published in 1539, the law prescribed consumption in proceedings and in the French administration instead of Latin and local dialects.

From the very beginning of the XVI century. France like other European countries was covered by the Renaissance movement, or revival. It was a struggle against the feudal-church worldview, for the creation of a new, secular culture based on the principles of humanism. In the scope and depth of this movement, France was inferior only in Italy. Renaissance marked the formation of a nationwide culture of France.

French humanism was characterized by folk traditions. The largest figure of French humanism is Francois Rabl (1494-1553), one of the creators of nationwide literature and literary French.

In politically, the XVI-XVIII centuries. There were a period of domination of absolutism, which took the most finished, classical form in France. True, in the XVI century. And the political, and economic, and the cultural unity of France was jeopardized by religious wars. In the south and in some other provinces, Protestantism has spread; It manifested itself a separatism of local feudal and spontaneous displeasure of the peasants. Religious wars (1562-1592) led to even greater mixing of the population, to erasing regional differences. Many Protestants (Huguenotes) were forced to move to other countries. Catholic religion remained in France dominant. King Heinrich IV (1589-1610), restored the unity of the country, declared a claim to all lands, "where they speak French."

The absolute monarchy in France, the flourishing of which was the time of the reign of Louis XIV (1661-1715), was historically progressive, she performed "as a civilizing center, as the founder of national unity" during this period, economic and national relations in the country intensified, Centralized manufactories developed, economic specialization in the regions was created, the national domestic market increased. The development of economic relations was accompanied by the strengthening of political centralization.

The political hegemony of France in Europe, which was achieved by the price of numerous wars, cruel oppression and exploitation of the masses was also strengthened. In the village and in the cities, folk uprisings continuously broke out in different areas of the country. A sharp contrast to folk poverty was the luxury of the Royal Court and the court aristocracy. At the royal court, prominent French poets, writers, musicians, artists gathered. The French yard asked the tone of the court and aristocratic life to all countries of Western Europe. The broad expansion of French court culture beyond France led to the French hegemony, which became in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Language of diplomacy and international language " secular society»All European countries.

France in the XVII century. It became the birthplace of rationalism, the new philosophical direction, the creator of which was Rene Descartes.

The style approved in the literature and art of France XVII century. and a significant part of the XVIII century, received the name of classicism. Absolute value Classicism attached the "laws of mind". Creators of classicism in all areas of culture sought to observe clarity, measure, rigor. The principle of symmetry and harmony especially clearly performed in the works of visual and applied art - layout of cities, in gardens and parks of the time geometrically melted. Coriferation of classicism in painting XVII century. was Nicka Poussin (1594-1665), most famous artists This direction is Claude Lorren (1600-1682), Louis Lenen (1593-1648) and Jacques Callo (about 1592-1635).

The theater was revived strict rules ancient tragedy. In the literature, French Classicism has reached a vertex in the tragedies of Pierre Cornel (1606-1684) ("LED", "Horace") and Jean Rasin ("Andromaha", "Berenika", "Fedra"). Jean-Batist Moliere (1622-1673) became the creator of a classic comedy - a realistic, splashing fun, healthy folk humor. Close to tradition folk creativity The comedy of Moliere had a huge impact on the development of the French comedy XVIII century. from Renyar and Lesja to Boualers and Comedy of All european countries. Until now, they are not going from the scene of European theaters, professional and amateur, the comedy of Moliere Don Juan, Tartuf, the "Moorishmanship" and others. Exemplary French Theater Comedie. frangaise. referred to as the "house ^ Moliere". The largest after Moliere writer, adjusted to the free-water flow inside the classicism, was the Basinople of Lafontane, widely known and outside of France. His tongue is close to living folk speech. The theority of classicism was Nicola Bouoye, the poetic treatise of which "poetic art" had a pan-European significance of the Classicism Code.

Expressive advanced ideas This era was the bourgeoisie and the best representatives of the liberal overlooking the nobility. The main content of the ideological life of France of that time was the intense struggle with political and cultural system feudal absolutism, ideological preparation of the country to the bourgeois revolution. The period in the development of French culture and public life, which began from the second decade of the XVIII century, is referred to as the Epoch of Enlightenment.

The French enlightenment was closely related to the educational movement in other European countries, but the active participation of the masses in the preparation of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution gave the French Enlightenment to great democratic. French enlighteners expressed not only the interests of their class, but also the entire oppressed people. The leading French writers of this era were not only artists, but also thinkers - publicists, pamphletists, moralists, philosophers. The philosophy of French enlighteners was not homogeneous. Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Francois-Marie Voltaire (1694-1778) criticized the despotic forms of the board, the church exposed criticized christian religion. Julien Lametry (1709-1751), Claude Adrian Gelvetiya (1715-1771), Denis Didro (1713-1784),

Paul-Hanri Golbach (1725-1789) amounted to the core of the philosophers-materialists of the Epoch of Enlightenment. French materialism XVIII century. served as one of the most important milestones towards the development of dialectical materialism.

The radical criticism of the feudal forms of ownership and operation * of the feudal-absolutist state gave Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-178), the ideas of which were inherited by the leaders of the Great French bourgeois revolution by Maximilian Robespierre, Jean-Paul Marat and other Yakobin leaders.

On July 14, 1789, the people rising in Paris took the assault and destroyed the prison fortress Bastilia, which served as the beginning of the revolution in the whole country. Peasant uprisings and performances embraced all France.

Revolution 1789-1794. He passed under the guidance of the bourgeoisie, but it participated in the wider masses of the peasants, artisans, workers in small merchants. After turbulent performances and direct requirements of the working people in 1792, the monarchy was overthrown and a democratic electoral system was introduced. Under the pressure of the peasant movement, Convert in the summer of 1793 completed the destruction of feudal relations. The Great French Revolution was the first in history by the bourgeois revolution, in which the struggle against feudalism was brought to the complete victory of the bourgeoisie over the dominant class of feudal society. Feudal orders in the village, domestic customs duties and the workshop system were destroyed, the lengthy privileges of the nobility and clergy were canceled, the church and emigrant land were sold out, the Democratic Republic was established, a new revolutionary army was created.

V.I. Lenin, asking the importance of the Great French Revolution, wrote: "The entire XIX century, the century, which gave civilization and culture to all mankind, passed under the sign of the French revolution. In all ends of the world, he did only that he spent, carried out in parts, finished what was created by the great French revolutionaries of the bourgeoisie "1.

The conquest of the revolution was crucial for the national cohesion of the people of France. Since 1790, division on the provinces was abolished. According to a new administrative division, the country was divided into departments that received the names of rivers, mountains, lakes. Gradually overcome a dialectal fragility, the French began to prevail in the south.

The growth of the industry, which caused the casting of peasants from the villages in the cities and the transition of them to the situation of workers, contributed to the assimilation of the French language to the emerging proletariat that flowed into the cities from different dialectal regions. An important factor The approval of a unified national language was the creation of a unified national army. With the abolition of feudal partitions and customs obstacles who divided France on isolated areas, conditions were created for the development of a single national market. In the battles with the armies of foreign coalitions (almost all feudal Europe fell against the young bourgeois France), attempted to conquer the revolution, the national self-awareness of the French people was strengthened.

The Great French Revolution has had a great influence on the development of French and global culture. French scientists under the leadership of the revolutionary authorities developed a metric system, adopted later in most countries of the world. A lot of new introduced French scientists during the metallurgical production, in chemical science, biology and other industries of science and technology. The largest mathematics of this time - the creator of the theory of analytical functions of Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-1813), author of a number of works on heavenly mechanics, Creator of cosmogonic hypothesis Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827), Creator Designed Geometry Gaspar Monzh (1746 -1818), biologists Jean-Batist Lamarc (1744-1829) and Etienne-Joffroa Saint-Ilher (1805-1861), an outstanding Himdk Antoine-Laurent Lavauzier (1743-1794), who has established the law of conservation Substances were the largest scientists of their time.

The revolution transformed the art and literature of France, brought them to the people, filled with revolutionary content. The largest painter Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) reflected a pathos of the revolution in his canvases, created images of people from the people. Political cartoons were widely spread, topful withered cheerbags. France's art life beat the key; Completed mass festivals, exhibitions, much attention It was paid to the aesthetic education of the masses.

Theaters put the plays of revolutionary content. Marie Joseph Shhenie - most famous author Tragedies of revolutionary classicism. Revolutionary songs were created, many of whom are the work of folk art. The creativity of the composers of the State School and Kerubini, which created revolutionary anthems is imbued with revolutionary ideas.

One of the most popular songs of that time is "Marselyza", written by Ruju de Lill, became the state anthem of France.

Many democratic conquests of the Great French Revolution were destroyed in the periods of the thermidorian reaction that followed the revolution, directory, during the Consulate and Empire of Napoleon. The new major bourgeoisie came to power, rich in revolutionary years. Domestic politics States were aimed at preserving and strengthening the bourgeois system created by the revolution.

The main goal of Napoleonic wars was the struggle for markets, for the economic and political prevalence of France in Europe. The wreck of the Napoleon Empire led to the celebration of a noble-monarchic reaction in Europe, to the restoration of Bourbon in France.

During the restoration period, political domination belonged to the nobility and clergy. But the economy of France continued to develop on the capitalist path. The restoration mode was forced to reconcile with indigenous changes in the nature and distribution of property that occurred in France during the revolution and under Napoleon.

Capitalist operation of workers, impoverishment and ruin of small artisans and shutters caused natural speeches of workers in different places countries. Advanced thinkers of France set a question about change public buildingThe teachings of Saint-Simon and Fourier and Fourier and Fourier were created.

People's masses, dissatisfied with the policies of the government restoration, on July 28, 1830 raised the uprising. 1830 was a turning point in the history of the nation. Power finally moved from the hands of the nobility into the hands of the bourgeoisie, primarily the financial aristocracy. In France, there was a bourgeois monarchy. Together with the numerical increase in French proletariat, its class solidarity and ability to revolutionary resistance increased. Already in the early years of the July monarchy, there were workers of the uprisings in Lyon (1831-1834). The class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat has become the determining factor in the life of the country.

Events of the political life of the 30s-40s (first of all, the revolution of 1848) had a huge impact on the growth of the consciousness of the people. During this period there were favorable conditions for the development of democratic culture. The anti-bourgeois tendency in the environment of cultural figures of small-bourgeois democracy was limited and often inconsistent, but the fact that many advanced writers set themselves the task of exposing the public practice and ideology of capitalism, testified to the deep turn in the public life of France.

This period includes the work of the largest novelist Viktor Hugo (1802-1885). One of the first places in european literature Written-realist writers Standal (Henri Bailen, 1783-1842) and Onor de Balzac (1799-1850), which is fairly called the historian of the morals of its century. During this period, a wonderful artist was created by Prospere Merim (1803-1870), opposing the state and beauty of the characters of people from the people, opposing the vulgarity and hypocrisy of the bourgeois society. The oppressed position of a woman in the bourgeois society, the life of the peasant brightly reflected in his novels an outstanding writer Georges Sand (Aurora Duduevan, 1804-1876).

In the XIX century Lived and worked well-known painters-romance (Eugene Delacroix, etc.) »The leaders of the romantic school. They were alive responded to topical political topics, real life Reflected in their canvases. Rodonamel critical realism in french art XIX. in. There was an Oneorn house (1808-1879), who exposed in his caricatures of the flavors of the French bourgeoisie, who had truthful images of workers, artisans, stray actors and beggar of Paris. In the canvases of the largest representatives of the critical realism of Husty Kourba (1819-1877) and Jean Francois Mill (1814-1875) affected the untruth reality, paintings peasant life, life of the labor nation.

Creativity of French Impressionists XIX century. Claude Monet (1840-1926), Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), Eduar Mane (1832-1833), Auguste Renoara (1841-1919), Edgar Degas (1834-1917) was important milestone in the history of world art.

Creativity of great realist writers of the second half of the XIX century. Gustava Flaubert (1821-1880), Alphonse Dodé (1840-1897), Gi de Maupassant (1840-1902), and in the newest time - Anatoly France (1844-1924) and many others - invaluable The contribution of the French people to the world treasury of culture.

In the XIX century clearly manifested privacy, internal contradiability cultural Development French nation. Democratic culture and progressive ideology developed and strengthened in the fight against the ideology of the monarchist-clerical reaction with its protection of the Meshchansky "order", the fear of progressive changes in public life.

The dominant classes of France have repeatedly distinguished national interests, went to national treason in fear of the revolutionary activity of the masses. It was both in the year of the Paris commune (1871), and in our time - in 1940 (Vichists). Throughout the country's history, genuine carriers of the national idea, folk masses and its advanced detachment were folk masses and its advanced detachment.

Invaluable the contribution of the French people to the development of the world revolutionary movement and world revolutionary thought. The working class of France was the most active and cohesive squad of the European proletariat. IN february Revolution 1848. The participation of the working class was decisive. In June 1848, the workers of Paris first nominated the slogan of the "Social Republic", and on March 18, 1871. For the first time in the history of mankind, they took power into their hands, having carried out the experience of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Paris commune has had a huge impact on the subsequent development of the international labor movement. The experience of the commune enriched the revolutionary theory of Marx and Engels.

At the beginning of the XX century. French capitalism has entered the imperialist stage. A specific feature of the French capitalism of this era was its usury character. France has become one of the richest countries of the world, although in industrial terms it was much weaker than other imperialist powers. From one third to the floor, the Ovin of all the savings of the country turned into loans, which France provided other countries. This was constrained by the development of the productive forces, the domestic market.

An important milestone in the history of France became the first world Warin which France acted as an active member of the triple Commonwealth. In 1914-1918. In France, new industrial centers were formed, new industries emerged. In connection with the development of the industry, the process of production and capital concentrations and accelerated, the giant industrial monopolies have emerged, the power of the largest banks has increased. The genuine owners of France, defining its policies, became the financial oligarchs: de Vandelle, Schneder, Rothschilds.

The period between the two world wars was marked by the attempts of French monopolists to establish their hegemony in Western Europe. The growth of imperialist contradictions, opposition to England and the United States has broken these efforts. The seizure of the fascists of power in Germany strengthened the threat to the world in Europe. Instead of together with the USSR and other countries, to go along the way to create collective security, the French ruling circles occupied the position of the "peace" of the aggressor. The result was deplorable - in 1940, Germany broke the French army and dictated France the humiliating conditions of the world.

Against the Hitler's occupation, all healthy forces of the nation were risen. Communists stood in France at the head of the resistance movement in France. The detachments of resistance ("Maki") a lot contributed to the liberation of the country, providing assistance to the Union forces, landed in Normandy in 1944

The Second World War led to the weakening of French imperialism. France lost a quarter of its foreign capital investments; As a result of national liberation wars in the colonies, the disintegration of the French colonial empire began.

In the field of culture of the 20th century, the increased role of the progressive French intelligentsia was noted. Among the writers, painters, science figures who received world recognition, a lot of communists. Realistic and humanistic traditions of French literature are continued in the works of Roger Martin Du Gara, Henri Barbus, Viyan Couturier fields, Antoine de Saint-Exupery, Louis Aragon, Elza Tyol, and others. In the field of painting, the progressive ideas of modernity were reflected in the work of Pablo Picasso, Fernana , George Effel and others. Of the modern scientists worldwide recognition The scientific and social activities of Frederica Jolio-Curie (1900-1958) and Irene Zoliologyuri (1897-1956), opened the phenomenon of artificial radioactivity.

In the post-war France a class struggle increased. We have noticeably strengthened their positions left forces. The influence of the Communist Party has increased. Pre-war bourgeois batchs, mostly stained by either non-contrast of fascism or open collaborationism, lost their own effect. But on replacing them, a large bourgeoisie created new parties. 1945-1958 Characterized in France the most acute political struggle.

Strengthening internal political and economic difficulties aggravated by the growth of national liberation movement in the French colonies (War in Indochite in 1946-1954 and especially the war in Algeria in 1954-1961) - all this prompted "200 families" to find a "strong person" capable of ensuring inviolability of their income. With the arrival of de Gaulle in 1958, the Era of the "Fifth Republic" began in France, the distinguishing sign of which was the strengthening of the power of the president by reducing the powers of the Parliament.

In foreign policy, French diplomacy seeks to lead its own, not always agreed with the United States and other NATO partners, line.

The cessation of colonial wars, some of the financial and economic measures of the government favor the development of the economy. However, the offensive on the democratic rights of citizens, the agricultural in a litik (reducing the number of small farms under the flag of "intensification of production"), the creation of its own impact of atomic force cause discontent of the workers.

On the one hand, the concept of belonging to the country (citizenship, citizenship) can be based on blood relations. This concept organically implies the definition of the "country of the nation", which determined the political division of Europe in the XIX century. For the first time, the rule was formulated in France, in 1803, in the Civil Code of Napoleon I. Subsequently, this rule was adopted by a majority of European countries, including Russia (1964).

On the other hand, affiliation to the country can be based on the place of birth. Due to a number of reasons, in 1889, France takes a law, according to which anyone born on french territorymay claim French citizenship to achieve majority. At the same time, the old rule was maintained: the child of two French citizens automatically became French, regardless of the place of birth.

The third possibility of obtaining citizenship - accepting it after some time in the country - appeared in France in 1927, due to the large stream of immigrants, including the first wave of Russian emigration.

Thus, the principles of obtaining French citizenship differ significantly from adopted in Russia.

Ethnogenesis and development

Modern myths about ancient ancestors

The French national myth begins with Celts (Gallov) - the most Western Indo-European group, early separated from the Pyranceoevroytsev and created an original culture for several centuries before the conquest of Caesar. The most powerful tribes were the arvel (in the mountainous terrain of modern overnight) and EDU (between Sona and Laoire). Indo-European Celts pushed out south more ancient population (For example, neolithic ligurov), only one of the branches of Iberov - Aquitans have been preserved in a small amount in the western part of the pyrenees. The name of the historic location of Gascon recalls the old Basque Area, which, however, unlike Spain did not save a special national status here.

Mix the era of the great resettlement of peoples

During the great resettlement of the peoples, the Christianized Galloromanian population was pushed out in the southeast by Burgundy, in the south-west of posges and ultimately was subordinated by Salic Franks. The victory of francs over the aleasans in the battle with Tolbiak was later presented [by whom?] As the beginning of French history. Several hundred thousand pagan francs, who made up the highest layer of society, ruled over the Catholic majority of Galloroomans, which had 6-10 million people. After the baptism of the King of Franking Chlodvail I, his tribesmen were gradually mixed with the local one. Normans were added to the German peoples of the Epoch of the Great Resettlement in the X century. The ability of the Galloroman cultural majority to assimilate the aliens in this case, it was brighter than everything: during the entire several generations, Normans became full of francophones, winning England subsequently and South Italy. Unlike them, Celtic Bretons from the British Islands in the V century, retained their cultural identity to the present day.

In the course of the formation of a powerful frank state during the reign of Karl, the Great Galoroman culture received a cosmopolitan tint. After the separation of the state in 843, the unity of the Galloromanian nation was manifested in the appearance of a new language. Whereas in the East-Frankk kingdom (future Germany), the German language dominated, in the West Frankish kingdom (future France) Dominated Galloromansky. Until the X century, both by Westernfrank Carroling and from Eastern Franc rulers, at least theoretically preserved the idea of \u200b\u200bunity of the Frankish Empire. Therefore, the appearance of the first french States by most historians dates back to 987, starting with the coronation of the Hugo Cappe.

People and state in the Middle Ages

National Consciousness of the New Time

Religion, culture, art

Cultural and Language groups of French origin

Language

Francophone (French speakers) minority of other countries (for example, Wallona in Belgium or Swiss) are not French.

From the drummer, who, according to Denisov's orders, was given vodka, lamb and whom Denisov ordered to wear into Russian caftan, so that, not referring to the prisoners, to leave it during the batch, the Petit's attention was distracted by the arrival of Dologov. Petya in the army heard many stories about the extraordinary courage and the cruelty of Dolokhov with the French, and because since Shelokhov entered the hut, Petya, not a launching eye, looked at him and became more compressed, twisted his headed head, in order not to be Unworthy of such a society as share.
The outerness of Dologovka strangely struck by his simplicity.
Denisov was dressed in Chekken, I wore a beard and on the chest, the image of Nicholas the Wonderworker and in the manner say, in all receptions showed the feature of his position. She, on the contrary, before, in Moscow, who worn a Persian costume, now had the appearance of the most famous guards officer. His face was purely chisen, he was dressed in the Guards Vatuchy Sultuke with George in the Petwee and in a straightforward simple cap. He removed in the corner of a wet burqa and, approaching Denisov, not healthy with anyone immediately began to ask about the case. Denisov told him about the intentions that had large detachments on their transport, and about sending petitions, and about how he answered both generals. Then Denisov told everything he knew about the position of the French squad.
"It's so, but you need to know what how many troops," said Solokhov, "it will have to go." Not knowing right, how many of them, it is impossible to go into business. I love to do carefully. Here, if some of the Lords want to go to their camp with me. I have uniforms with your own.
- I, I ... I'll go with you! - cried out Peter.
- At all, you do not need to ride, "Denisov said, turning to Dolokhov," and I will not go to anything. "
- That's fine! - cried in Petya, "Why don't I go? ..
- Yes, because there is no need.
- Well, you sorry me, because ... because ... I'll go, that's all. Will you take me? - He turned to Dolohov.
"Why ..." - scattered by Shahov, peering into the face of the French drummer.
- How long have you had this one? He asked Denisov.
- Now they took, but nothing knows. I left him PG "and myself.
- Well, and where are you the rest? - said Doolokh.
- How where? I send under G "Aspi)!" Suddenly blushing, cried down Denisov. "And I boldly say that there is not a single person on my conscience. Do you have a tg" Extract TG "Identy Lee, TG" Ista Lee, a person under the convoy in Gogh ", than Magic "AT, I am PG" Jamo I will say, the honor of a soldier.
"This is a young county in sixteen years old to say these courtesy decently," Solokhov said with a cold smile, "and you have time to leave it."
"Well, I'm not saying anything, I just say that I will definitely go with you," Petya said timidly.
"And we are with you time, brother, throw these courtesy," continued to share, as if he found a special pleasure to talk about this subject, annoying Denisov. - Well, what did you follow to yourself? He said, shaking his head. - Then, what do you feel sorry for him? After all, we know these your receipts. You will send them a hundred people, and thirty will come. Peel with hunger or bite. So isn't it equal to them and not take them?
Esaul, pure eyes, nodded his head approvingly.
"This is all g" Avno, there is nothing to talk here. I don't want to take my soul. You're talking "Icher - POMS" IT. Well, Hog "Osho. Only not from me.
Shelahov laughed.
- Who did not tell me twenty times to catch? But they caught - me and you, with your knighthood, anyway on the osinka. - He paused. - However, it is necessary to do the case. Send my Cossack with a Blind! I have two French uniforms. What, we go with me? He asked Petit.
- I? Yes, yes, certainly, it blurs almost to the tears, cried out Peter, looking at Denisov.
Again, as long as Dolohov hung with Denisov about what to do with prisoners, Petya felt awkwardness and hurried; But again, I did not have time to understand what they were talking about. "If they think so much, famous, it became necessary, so necessary, it became good," he thought. - And most importantly, it is necessary that Denisov do not bother to think that I will listen to him that he can command me. I will certainly go with Doolov to the French camp. He can, and I can. "
Denisov did not go to all the convictions of Denisov answered that he was also accustomed to do everything neatly, and not the name of Lazarus, and that he never thinks about himself.
- Because, - you agree yourself, if you don't know right, how much life depends on this, maybe hundreds, and here we are alone, and then I really want it, and certainly, I will definitely go, you can't hold me , "He said," Worse will be worse ...

Dressed in French Sinsels and Ciiver, Petya with Dolokhov went to that seek, from which Denisov looked at the camp, and, having left the forest in the perfect darkness, descended into the hollow. Having gone down, Solokhov ordered the accompanying Cossacks to wait here and drove a large trot on the road to the bridge. Petya, having silent from excitement, rode with him next.
"If you get, I will not give alive, I have a pistol," Peter whispered.
- Do not speak Russian, "Doolokhov said a quick whisper, and at the same moment a bit was heard in the dark:" QUI VIVE? " [Who goes?] And the ringing of a gun.
Blood rushed into the face of Petit, and he grabbed the gun.
- Lanciers du Sixieme, [Sixth Shelves' Ulans.] - Shatokhov said, not shortening and not adding the horse's stroke. The black figure of the watch stood on the bridge.
- Mot D "Order? [Feedback?] - Shelokhov helped the horse and drove a step.
- DITES DONC, LE COLONEL GERARD EST ICI? [Tell me, is there Colonel Gerard?] - he said.
- Mot D "Ordre! - Not responding, said the clock, blocking the road.
- Quand Unfulier Fait Sa Ronde, Les Sentinelles Ne Demandent Pas Le Mot D "Ordre ... - Slokhov shouted, suddenly flashed, hitting a horse on a watch. - Je vous Demande Si Le Colonel Est Ici? [When an officer is circulating a chain, no clocks are not asked Review ... I ask if there is a colonel?]
And, without waiting for an answer from the hourly watch, She drove into the mountain.
Noticing a black shadow of a man moving across the road, she stopped this man and asked where the commander and officers were asked? This man, with a bag on his shoulder, soldier, stopped, closedly approached the Horse Dolokhova, who was putting his hand to her, and simply told him that the commander and officers were higher on the mountain, on the right side, on the farm courtyard (so he called the Lord estate).
Driving on the road, on both sides of which the French spell sounded from the fires, She turned to the Yard of the Lord. Having drove into the gate, he tears from the horse and walked over to the Great Flowing Costor, around which, speaking loudly, was sitting several people. In the bowler with the edge, something, and soldiers in the cap and blue were coin, standing on his knees, brightly lit by fire, interfered with a shomepol.
- Oh, c "Est Un Dur A Cuire, [With this feature you are not allemen.] - said one of the officers who were sitting in the shadows from the opposite side of the fire.
- Il Les Fera Marcher Les Lapins ... [He braids them ...] - Another said with laughter. Both were silent, peering into the dark on the sound of the steps of Dologov and Petit, who approached the fire with their horses.
- Bonjour, Messieurs! [Hello, gentlemen!] - Loudly, pollen said.
The officers stirred in the shadow of the fire, and one, a high officer with a long neck, waging the fire, approached Rolokhov.
- C "EST VOUUS, CLEMENT? - He said. - D" Ou, Diable ... [Is that you, Clement? From where, damn ...] - But he did not finish, having learned his mistake, and, slightly frowning, as with an unfamiliar, greeted with Dolokhov, asking him than he could serve. Shellov said that he caught his regiment with his comrade, and asked, turning to everyone at all, did the officers of anything about the sixth shelf did not know. No one knew anything; And the pave seemed that officers were hostile and suspiciously inspecting him and Dolokhov. Several seconds were all silent.