Tatars in the history of the Russian state. Tatar customs and traditions

I am often asked to tell the story of this or that nation. Including often asked about the Tatars. Probably, the Tatars themselves, and other nations feel that the school history of Lucavil about them, something was in favor of political conjuncture.
The most difficult when describing the history of peoples is to determine the point from which to start. It is clear that everything in the end comes from Adam and Eve and all the peoples of relatives. But still ... the history of the Tatars is likely to begin with 375, when a big war between the Huns and Slavs on the one hand and Goths happened in the southern steppes of Russia. In the end, the Huns won and on the shoulders of retreats were ready to go to Western Europe, where they were dissolved in the knightly castles of the emerging medieval Europe.

The ancestors of the Tatar are the Gunns and Bulgars.

Often the Huns consider some mythical nomads who came from Mongolia. This is not true. Gunns are a religious military education that arose as an answer to the decomposition of an ancient world in Sarmatia monasteries on a medium volgar and chamber. The ideology of the Huns was based on the return to the original traditions of the Vedic philosophy of the ancient world and the Code of honor. It was they who became the basis of the Knight's Code of Code in Europe. According to racial signs, these were blond and redheads with blue eyes, descendants of the ancient arions, which time for centuries lived on the space from the Dnieper to the Urals. Actually, Tata - Aries with Sanskrit, the language of our ancestors, and translates as "Fathers of Arii." After the army leaves the Huns from South Russia to Western Europe, the remaining Sarmatian-Skift population of Lower Don and the Dnieper began to call himself Bulgarians.

Byzantine historians do not distinguish Bulgar and Huns. This suggests that Bulgarians and other Huns tribes were similar to customs, languages, races. Bulgars belonged to K. aryan race, spoke on one of the military russian jargon (option turkic languages). Although it is possible that people of the Mongoloid type as mercenaries were also present in the military teams of the Huns as mercenaries.
As for the earliest references to Bulgar, this is 354 years old, the "Roman chronicles" of an unknown author (TH. Mommsen Chronographs Anni Ccliv, Man, AA, IX, LIBER Generations,),and also the work of Moise de Khorene.
According to these records, before in the middle of the IV century, Gunns appeared in Western Europe, the presence of Bulgar was observed in the North Caucasus. In the 2nd half of the IV century, some part of the Bulgarians penetrated Armenia. It can be assumed that the Bulgars are not entirely Hun. According to our version, Gunna is a religious military education according to the type of today's Taliban of Afghanistan. With the difference that this phenomenon appeared then in the Aryan Vedic monasteries of Sarmatia on the shores of Volga, Northern Dvina and Don. Blue Rus (or Sarmatia) after numerous periods of decline and dawn in the fourth century of our era began new rebirth to the Great Bulgaria, which occupied the territory from the Caucasus to the Northern Urals. So the appearance of the Bulgarians in the middle of the IV century in the region of the North Caucasus is more than possible. And the reason that they were not called Hunov, obviously, in the fact that at that time the Bulgars were not called Huns themselves. The Huns called himself a certain estate of military monks who were the keeper of the Cobare of Vedica Philosophy and Religion, martial arts connoisseurs and carriers of a special Code of honor, which later lay down the basis of the Code of honor of the Knight's Order of Europe. All Gunnsky tribes came to Western Europe on one way, it is obvious that they came not at the same time, but by parties. The appearance of Gunnov is a natural process as a reaction to the degradation of an ancient world. As the Taliban today is a response to the processes of the degradation of the Western world, so at the beginning of the era of Gunns were the answer to the decomposition of Rome and Byzantium. It seems that this process is an objective pattern of development. social Systems.

At the beginning of the 5th century in the north-west of the Carpathian region between Bulgarians (Vulgars) and Langobards have doubled the war. At that time, all the Carpathians and Pannonia were ruled by the Huns. But this testifies that the Bulgarians were part of the Union of the Gunnsky tribes and that they came to Europe along with the Gunns. Carpathian vulgars of the beginning of the V century are the same Bulgars from the Caucasus of the middle of the IV century. Motherland of these Bulgars Volga, River Kama and Don. Actually, Bulgars are fragments of the Gunno empire, at one time destroyed the ancient world, which remained in the steppes of Russia. Most of the "people of long will", religious warriors who formed the invincible religious spirit of the Huns, went to the West and after the emergence of medieval Europe, were dissolved in knightly castles and orders. But the communities of their powers remained on the banks of Don and Dnipro.
By the end of the V century, two main Bulgarian tribes are known: the crooked and the witch. The latter settle down on the shores of the Azov Sea in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Taman Peninsula. Croaguri lived between the bend of the Lower Dnieper and the Azov Sea, controlling the Steppes of the Crimea, up to the walls of Greek cities.
They periodically (in the Union with Slavic tribes) make raids on the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. So, in 539-540, Bulgarians spend raids on Frace and Illyry to Adriatic Sea. At the same time, many Bulgarians come to the service for the emperor of Byzantium. In 537, the Bulgar detachment fights on the side of the deposited Rome with Gotami. There are cases and hostility between the tribes of the Bulgar, which the Byzantine diplomacy skillfully fastened.
About 558, Bulgars (mostly Krogigur), under the leadership of Khan, Zakregan invades Thrace and Macedonia, are suitable for the walls of Constantinople. And only the price of great efforts by the Byzantines stopped Zavegan. Bulgars are returned to the steppe. main reason - Izvestia about the appearance east of the Don Unknown Military Horde. These were Avara Khan Bayan.

Byzantine diplomats immediately use Avar to fight against Bulgar. New Allies are offered money and land for settlements. Although the Avarian army is only about 20 thousand riders, it carries all the same invincible spirit of the Vedic monasteries and, of course, it turns out to be stronger than numerous boulars. It also contributes to the fact that after them is moving another horde, now Turks. The first are attacked by the wombura, then Avars crossed the Don and invade the land of Critian. Khan Pokagegan becomes Bayana's vassal. The further fate of Krogirov is closely connected with Avara.
In 566, the advanced Türkov detachments reach the Black Sea coast in the area of \u200b\u200bKuban's mouth. The pasters recognize the power of the Turkic kagan of Exemi on themselves.
By combining the army, they capture the most ancient capital of the ancient world of Bosporus on the shore of the Kerch Strait, and in 581 appear under the walls of Chersonese.

Revival

After the care of the Avar troops in Pannonia and the start of civil servants in the Turkic kaganate, the Bulgarian tribes again united under the rule of Khan Kubrat. The Kurbatovo station in the Voronezh region is an ancient rate of the legendary Khan. This ruler, who headed the Frogurov tribe, was brought up in the imperial courtyard in Konstantinople and was baptized in 12 years. In 632, he proclaimed independence from Avar and stood at the head of the association, who received the name of the Great Bulgaria in Byzantine sources.
She occupied south modern Ukraine And Russia from Dnipro to Kuban. In 634-641, Christian Khan Kubrat entered into an alliance with the Byzantine emperor Irakli.

The emergence of Bulgaria and the resettlement of the Bulgar in the world

However, after the death of Kubrat (665), his empire broke up because it was divided between his sons. The eldest son Batboyan began to live in a public in the status of Danistan Khazar. Another son - Kotrag - moved to the right bank of Don and also fell under the power of Jews from Khazaria. The third son - Asparuh - under the Khazar pressure went to the Danube, where, subordinating the Slavic population, marked the beginning of modern Bulgaria.
In 865, Bulgarian Khan Boris accepted Christianity. Mixing the Bulgarians with Slavs led to the emergence of modern Bulgarians.
Two more sons of Kubrata - Kutuuta (Cuber) and Alzek (Alzek) - went to Pannonia to Avaras. During the formation of the Danube Bulgaria, Kutouut raised the rebellion and moved to the side of Byzantium, settling in Macedonia. Subsequently, this group was part of the Danube Bulgarian. Another group led by Alzek intervened in the struggle for the throne in the Avar Kaganate, after which it was forced to escape and ask for refuge among the Frankish king Dagobert (629-639) in Bavaria, and then settle in Italy near Ravenna.

The big group of Bulgars returned to his historic homeland - in the Volga region and Kama, where their ancestors were in due time the whirlwind of the passionary gust of the Huns was taken. However, the population, which they met here, was not very different from them themselves.
At the end of the VIII century. Bulgarian tribes on the medium Volga created the state Volzhskaya Bulgaria. Based on these tribes in these places, Kazan Khanate originated.
In 922, the ruler of the Volga Bulgar Almas adopted Islam. By that time, life in the Vedic monasteries, sometime located in these places, was almost faded. The descendants of the Volga Bulgarians, in the formation of which a number of other Turkic and threat-Finnish tribes took part, are Chuvashi and Kazan Tatars. Islam from the very beginning strengthened only in cities. The son of King Almus went to pilgrimage to Mecca and drove in Baghdad. After that there was a union between Bulgaria with Bagdat. The subjects of Bulgaria paid the king to sue horses, leishes, etc. existed customs. A duty (tenth of goods) from merchant vessels came to the royal treasury. From the kings of Bulgaria, Arabic writers mention only the Silka and Almus; Franu's coins managed to read another three named: Ahmed, Taleb and Muman. The most ancient of them, named Tsar Taleba, refers to 338
In addition, the Byzantine-Russian agreements of the XX century. We mention the Horde of the Black Bulgarians who lived near the Crimea.

Volga Bulgaria

Bulgaria Volzhsko-Kamskaya, the state of Volzhsko-Kamsky, Finno-Ugric peoples in the XX-XV centuries. Capital: Bulgar City, and from the XII century. Bilar city. By the XX century Sarmatia (blue Russia) was divided into two kaganates - Northern Bulgaria and South Khazaria.
Self big cities - Bulgaria and Biil - in Square and population exceeded London, Paris, Kiev, Novgorod, Vladimir of that time.
Bulgaria played an important role in the process of ethnogenesis of modern Kazan Tatars, Chuvash, Mordvoy, Udmurts, Marie and Komi, Finns and Estonians.
Bulgaria by the time of the formation of the Bulgarian state (beginning of the 20th century), the center of which was the city of Bulgar (now with. Bulgarians of the Tataria), depending on the Khazar kaganant managed by Jews.
The Bulgarian king Almatas addressed support for the Arab Caliphat, as a result of which the Bulgaria adopted Islam as a state religion. The disintegration of the Khazar Kaganat after his defeat of the Russian prince Svyatoslav I Igorevich in 965 was consolidated by the actual independence of Bulgaria.
Bulgaria becomes the strongest state in blue Russia. The intersection of trade routes, the abundance of chernozem in the absence of wars made this edge quickly prosperous. Bulgaria has become a production center. From here, wheat, fur, cattle, fish, honey, craft products (caps, boots, famous in the East as "Bulgari", leather) were exported. But the main income brought trade transit between East and West. Here from the XX century. The own coin was minted - Dirham.
In addition to Bulgar, other cities, such as Suvav, Bilar, Oshl, and others, were also known.
Cities were powerful fortresses. There were many fortified estates of the Bulgarian nobility.

Literacy among the population was widespread. Lawyers, theologians, doctors, historians, astronomers live in Bulgaria. The poet Kul-Gali created the poem "Kuss and Jusuf", widely known in the Turkic literature of his time. After the adoption of Islam in 986, some Bulgarian preachers visited Kiev and Ladoga, offered the Great Russian Prince Vladimir I Svyatoslavich to accept Islam. The Russian chronicles from the X century distinguish the Bulgars of Volzhsky, Silver or Nukratsky (for chamber), Timtizhei, Cheremshansk and Hvhvais.
Naturally, a continuous struggle for leadership in Russia was carried out. Clashes with princes from white Russia and Kiev was commonplace. In 969, they were attacked by the Russian prince Svyatoslav, who ruined their land, on tating Araba Ibn Haukal, in resentment for the fact that in 913 helped Khazars destroy the squad of Russians who made a trip to the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. In 985, Prince Vladimir also made a campaign on Bulgaria. In the XII century, with the elevation of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, which undertook to spread his influence in the Volga region, the struggle between the two parts of Russia aggravated. Military threat forced the Bulgar to transfer his capital to the depths of the country - Bilar (now with. Bilyask Tataria). But the Bulgarian princes did not remain in debt. Bulgaram managed to capture in 1219 and plunder Ustyug in Northern Dvina. It was a fundamental victory, since here from the most primitive times were the ancient libraries of Vedica and the ancient monasteries by patronage
MY, as they considered the ancient, God Hermes. It was in these monasteries who were hidden knowledge of ancient history World. Most likely, it was in them a military-religious estate of the Huns arose and a set of laws of the Knight's honor was developed. However, the princes of Belaya Russia soon revenged for the defeat. In 1220, Oshl and others were taken by Russian dibs. Only rich sputter prevented the ruin of the capital. After that, the world was established, confirmed in 1229 by the exchange of prisoners of war. Military collisions between white rules and bulgaria happened at 985, 1088, 1120, 1164, 1172, 1184, 1186, 1218, 1220, 1229 and 1236. Bulgars during the invasion reached Murom (1088 and 1184) and Ustyug (1218). At the same time, in all three parts of Russia, a single people lived, often talking on the naschas of one language and originating from common ancestors. This could not not impose a fingerprint on the nature of the relationship between fraternal peoples. So, the Russian chronicler retained under 1024 the news that
of that year in Suzdal fired hunger and that the Bulgars provided Russian large quantity of bread.

Loss independence

In 1223, Genghis Khan's Ordans, who came from the depths of Eurasia, defeated in the south of Red Rus (Kiev-Polovkoy army) in the battle on Kalka, but on the way back were very bullied by bulgaria. It is known that Genghis Khan, when was still an ordinary shepherd, he met Bulgarian Buyan, a stray philosopher from Blue Rus, who predicted his great fate. It seems that he handed Genghis Khan the same philosophy and religion, which at one time gave rise to Huns. Now there has been a new horde. This phenomenon arises in Eurasia with enviable regularity as a response to the degradation of public hide. And every time through destruction, it generates a new life of Russia and Europe.

In 1229 and 1232, Bulgaram managed to re-reflect the raids of the Ordans. In 1236, the grandson of Genghishan Bati begins a new campaign to the West. In the spring of 1236, the Ordini Khan Subutai took the capital of Bulgar. In the fall of the same year, Bilar and other cities of Blue Rus were ruined. Bulgaria was forced to submit; But barely, the Ordane army left, the Bulgars came out of the Union. Then Khan Subayta in 1240 was forced to immediately invade, accompanying the campaign of blood and ruin.
In 1243, the Bate founded the state of the Golden Horde, one of whose provinces was Bulgaria. She enjoyed some autonomy, her princes became vassals of the Goldenordinian Khan, paid him tribute and delivered warriors to the Order of the Orda. The high culture of Bulgaria has become the most important part of the culture of the Golden Horde.
Termination of war helped to revive the economy. It reached the highest flourishing in this region of Russia in the first half of the XIV century. By this time, Islam was established as a state religion of the Golden Horde. The city of Bulgar becomes a Khan residence. The city attracted many palaces, mosques, caravan sheds. It had public baths, cobbled streets, an underground water supply. Here the first in Europe was mastered wing cast iron. Decorations, ceramics from these seats were sold in medieval Europe and Asia.

The death of the Volga Bulgaria and the birth of the people of Tatarstan

From the middle of the XIV century. The struggle for the Khan throne begins, separatist trends are strengthened. In 1361, Prince Bulat-Temir is spinning from the Golden Horde extensive territory in the Volga region, including Bulgaria. Khanam Golden Horde only for a short time manages to reiterate the state, where the process of crushing and separation is underway everywhere. Bulgaria disintegrates into two actually independent principalities - Bulgarian and Zhukotinskoe - with center in Zhukotin. After the start of civil workers in the Golden Horde in 1359, the army of the Novgorod residents took possession of Zhukotin. Russian princes Dmitry Ioannovich and Vasily Dmitrievich seized other cities of Bulgaria and put their "customs officers" in them.
In the second half of the XIV-early XV century, the Bulgaria is experiencing a constant military pressure of White Rus. Finally, the Bulgaria lost its independence in 1431, when the Moscow army of Prince Fedor was motley conquered the southern lands. Independence retained only the northern territories, the center of which was Kazan. It was on the basis of these lands that the formation of the Kazan Khanate and the rebirth of the ethnos of the ancient residents of Blue Russia began (and earlier the Aryans of the country of seven lights and lunar cults) in the Kazan Tatars. At this time, the Bulgaria had finally fallen under the authority of the Russian kings, but when it was - to say it is impossible; In all likelihood, this happened under John Grozny, simultaneously with the fall of Kazan in 1552. However, the title of "sovereign Bulgaria" was still his grandfather, John Sh. Since that time, it can be considered, the formation of the ethnos of modern Tatars begins, which happens already in the united Rus. Tatar princes form many outstanding kinds of Russian states, becoming
By the famous commanders, government officials, scientists, cultural figures. Actually, the history of Tatars, Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians is the history of one Russian people, whose horses go to the most antiquity. Recent studies have shown that all European peoples somehow or other people from the Volga-Occan-Don Area. Part of the once of the unified people settled in the world, but some nations always remained in the original lands. Tatars are just from such.

Gennady Klimov

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Tata'ry, Turkic-speaking people; The main population of the Republic of Tatarstan (according to the 2002 census is 2.019 thousand people); The second number of the indigenous people of the Russian Federation (in 2002 - 5669.9 thousand people).

Name history (ethnonym). For the first time, the ethnonym of the Tatars appeared from the ancient Turkic tribes of Altai, Transbaikalia and Mongolia in the VI - VIII centuries in the forms of "Ouz-Tatars" ("Thirty Tatars") and "Tax-Tatars" ("Nine Tatars"). In the XIII century in Mongol Empire The term "Tatars" indicated the aristocracy and was socially prestigious. In the Middle Ages, the term was used in Russia, in Western Europe and the Muslim East to denote the population of Ulus Juchi. As a result of the accession of the Tatar khanate to the Volga-Ural region and Western Siberia (XVI - the beginning of the XVII centuries), their ethnopolitical system was destroyed to the Russian state, the territorial division of their unified culture, the declaration of the civil serving of naval and Christianization of the population, which contributed to the introduction of terms "Tatars" and "Muslims" on Wednesday of the Folk Mass. In the 2nd half of the XIX - early XX centuries during the bourgeois transformations and the rise of the national social and political movement, the concept of "Tatars" was common to a number of Turkic-speaking groups of the Volga-Ural region and Western Siberia. Local self-espongations were gradually lost: the Volga-Vura Liang Tatars - Mesaleman, Kazanla, Mishar; Astrakhan - Nugai, Karagash; from Siberian - Towllyk, Tural, Baraba; Polish-Lithuanian X - Mesalim, Tatarlar's head. In the 1st quarter of the XX century, the ethnonym "Tatars" became common to a significant part of the Turkic-speaking population of the Volga-Ural region and Western Siberia. According to the 1926 census, most Turkic-speaking Muslims of the Volga region, the Viuraly (with the exception of Bashkir) and Western Siberia adopted this name.

Requirement. The kernel of the Tatar people was formed on the territory of the Volga region and the Survival. Permanent migration, especially the Volga-Vura Liang Tatars, led to an increase in their accommodation in Russia and the world. Mass migration began after the Russian state conquering Tatar Khunni, which was associated with a sharp strengthening of the national, social and religious negle. IN late XIX. There are over 1 million Tatars in the Ural region. In the XIX - early XX centuries, the Volga-Vura Liang Tatars have become a noticeable ethnososta part of the Tatar population of the Astrakhan Territory and Western Siberia.

In 1920-30s most of Tatars lived in the RSFSR (95.2% in 1937). By 1959, their number outside the RSFSR has sharply increased, especially in Kazakhstan and Central Asia (In 1959 - 780 thousand people, including forcibly deported in 1944, Crimean Tatars). The increase in the number of Tatar people in this region, including the development of the virgin lands of Kazakhstan affected. By 1989, the Tatar diaspora Tatar diaspora (1179.5 thousand) was formed in the Republics of Central Asia (1179.5 thousand). According to the 2002 census, Tatars compactly live in the Volga-Ural region and Western Siberia, fragmented - almost in all regions of the Russian Federation. Tatars also live in the countries of near and far abroad.

Urbanization. Tatars are one of the most urban peoples of the Russian Federation. The beginning of urbanization refers to the periods of the Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde, in which there was a fairly developed network of settlements cities. In the 2nd half of the XVI - the beginning of the XVII centuries, after the joining of Tatar Khanate to the Russian state, the urban layer among the Tatars declined sharply. After the reforms of the 1860s, the urbanization of the Tatar population intensified. At the beginning of the 20th century, the urbanization of the Volga-Vura Liang Tatars was 5%, most lived in Kazan, Ufa, Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov, Nizhny Novgorod, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Astrakhan. In the 1930s, due to the rapid development of the industry and the growth of cities, more than half of the Tatars in the USSR became citizens (according to the 1989 census, 69% of the Tatars).

Basic ethno-territorial groups: Miscellaneous Vura Liang, Siberian Tatars, Astrakhan Tatars. The most numerous are the Volga-Vura Liang Tatars, including Kazan, Kasimov, Misham, the community of baptized Tatars and Nagaybakov. Among the Siberian Tatars, the ethnographic groups of Tobolsk, Tyumen, Barabinsk, Tomsk Tatars and the ethnophile Bukhara group are distinguished. Astrakhan Tatars are divided into Yurtovsky, Kundrovsky and Karagasha Nogai origin. An independent group is the Polish-Lithuanian E Tatars, formed as the commonality of the military-serving Tatars, resettled in the XIV-XVII centuries from the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanate to the Grand Principality of Lithuania.

Anthropology. The anthropological typology of the Tatars belongs mainly to the Ural group, which is a transitional between the European and mongoloid races. Ethnically, they were formed by mixing the European-wide population with the mongoloid components.

Colloquial. The People's Talk of the Tatar, which was formed during the centuries, belongs to Bulgaro-Kypchaksk, by the group of Turkic languages. Includes Mishar, medium and oriental dialects. Inside them allocate a number of loving. The People's Talk of Tatars, who formed along with the modern Tatar ethnic group, has a number of features that combine the dialects of the Volga-Vura Liang and Siberian Tatars and distinguish them from other Turkic languages. The language has actively interacted with the languages \u200b\u200bof neighboring peoples. During the formation and development, the Tatars language experienced a significant impact on the part of the Arab and Persian languages, which were in the period of the Golden Horde by the literary languages \u200b\u200bof this state along with the Volga Türku. The modern Tatar literary language was formed at the turn of the XIX-XX century on the basis of the People's talk of Kazan Tatars with the noticeable participation of the Mishar dialect. Tested the ethnocultural influence of Russian, Nogai, Chuvash, Bashkir, Mordovsky, Mari and Udmurt peoples.

Writing. The origins of Tatar written traditions refer to the ancient-Turkic Runic monuments of the VII-XI centuries, the basis of which is the ORCHON-Yeniseiso e letter used in the Volga Bulgaria. With the adoption of Islam in 922 in the official office work of the Bulgar, the Arab letter began to play a prominent role. The earliest of the preserved monuments of Bulgarian literature - the poem Kul Gali "Tale of Jusufe" (1233). Since the beginning of the XIV century, an Arab letter has been applied during the preparation of official documents. Until the 1st third of the 20th century, Arabic graphics were used. In 1928-29, the Arabic alphabet was replaced by Latin, in 1939-40 - a Russian letter created on the basis of Russified Cyrillic. In 2000, GC RT adopted a law on the transition to Latin schedule, but his practical implementation was stopped due to the amendment to the Federal Law "On the Languages \u200b\u200bof the Peoples of the Russian Federation" (2002) on the inadmissibility of the terr. RF use in the state. The languages \u200b\u200bof the peoples of Russia are non-crosslinic alphabets.

Religion. Believers Tatars are mostly followers of Sunni Islam. Religious centers are muftiats in Moscow, Kazan, Ufa, Saratov, Astrakhan, Tyumen, whose leaders are combined into the Council of Muftis of Russia and to Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Russia and european countries CIS. In the Russian Federation there are about 2.6 thousand Tatar-Musulm of nic parishes (Mahalles). In Russia, there are also small (about 35 thousand people in 2002) subconfestional groups of Tatars (baptism, Nagaibaki), the ancestors of which in the XVI-XVIII century were subjected to Christianization.

Basic concepts of origin. Naib Early of them - bulgaro-Tatarska I am theory, K-paradium is based on the state that Ethnic. The basis of T. was the Bulgar. The community that has developed in the CP. Volga region and a Ural of 8 c. (For other versions, in 8-7 centuries. BC. E. and earlier). According to this concept, the OSN. Ethnoculta. Traditions and ethnic. Features of the owr. Tatars. (Bulgaro-Tatars.) The people were formed in Volzhskoy Bulgaria (10-13 centuries). In periods of the Golden Horde, Tatars. Khunni, Russian State (16-19 centuries) they have undergone only small changes. Bulgar. Principalities (Emirates), while in the Golden Horde, used it means. Polit. and cult. autonomy. Influence of the Ordane ethnopolitis. The power systems, as well as cultures (in particular, lit-ry, the case and architecture) was considered purely external. Impact on the booleans. About and was not particularly noticeable. The most important consequence of Mong. Conquests 13 V. It was the fragmentation of the Bulgaria to a number of Emirates and the Sultanates, as well as the disintegration of a single boular. Nathodics at 2 ethnoterr. Groups (Bulgaro-Burtasa Ulus Mukhsha and Bulgars of Emirates Volga-Kamya). As supporters of this theory believes, during the period of the Kazan Khanate Bulgar. Ethnos strengthened early Domong. Ethnoculta. Features and ethnically persisted (including self-domestic. "Bulgars") up to the 1920s, when Tatars. Bourges. Nationalists and owls. The authorities were imposed by the ethnonym "T.". In their opinion, all other groups of T. (Sib., Astrakhan and Polish-Lithuania.) Food fell on the fellowship. Ethnoculta. The basis is actually off. Ethnic groups and ethnic. The history of Bulgaro-Tatars of the Volga-Ural region do not have a direct relationship. Concept in the Osn. The features were developed in con. 19 - Nach. 20 centuries. (Trudy H.-G. Gabyashi, Aahmarova, R. Fahrettina, etc.). In the 1920s, with the advent of the theory of the stagnation of the development of the language and autochthonic origin of the peoples (the teaching of Marre's language), it was further developed in the works of scientists. Period (N.N. Firsova, M.G.Hudyakova et al.). In the 1920-30s, as the introduction of "Leninsky-Stalin," ideology in owls. East. and linguistic science, Bulgaro Tatars. The concept has become decisive in sweepage. historiography (works by A.P.Smirnova, H.G.G.Gimadi, N.I.Vorobieva, N.F. Kalinin, L. Zalya, etc.). After accepting the post. Central Committee VKP (b) " On the status and measures to improve mass-political essay and ideological work in the Tatar party organization"From 9 Aug. 1944 and holding Scientific session of the USSR Academy of Sciences 25-26 Apr. 1946 on the origin of Kazan. T. This concept that received an officer. The support of the authorities began to play a primary role in the Tatars. and owls. historiography. The most important stage of ethnogenesis of Tatars. The people recognized Bulgar. The period was approved about the cult of the cult. - Evolutionary continuity of the Bulgar and T. up to con. 1980s. Bulgaro Tatars. The concept was actively developed by historians, archaeologists and literals G.V. Yusupov, A.Kh. Khalikov, M.Z. Zakiev, A.G. Karimullin, S.Kh.alishev, R.Kh. Bariev, F.Shusin, F.T.-A.Valeev, N.A.Tomilov, etc.

Mongol-Tatarska I am theory Based on the hypothesis of relocation to Europe of nomadic Türco Tatars and Mong. (Center.-Asian.) Ethnic. Groups (by one assumptions, in Domong, in others - in the goldside time), to-ry, mixed with the Cleps and accepting Islam during the Golden Horde period, created the basis of the SOC. Tatars. Culture. Supporters of this theory deny or understood the role of the Volga Bulgaria and its culture in the history and culture of Kazan. T., arguing that it was a weak state-in with a relatively Muslim (semi-public) population. They believe that during the Golden Horde b. h. Bulgar. Ethnos has undergone ethnocult. assimilation from the proper Muslim Cipchax population with high mountains. Culture, and the other part (in the Osn. Bulgarians-pagans) moved to the outskirts of the Bulgaria and later became the basis of the Chuvash people. Some authors put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "tatarization" of the population of the East. Europe and the Volga region, including the Volga Bulgaria, still in Domong. time. The concept emerged in the beginning. 20 V. In the works of Ros. Scientists (N.I. Ashmararina, V.F.Smolina, etc.), some of its aspects were further developed in the works of Tatars. Historians-Emigra NTU (A.-Z. Rakhimi, R. Rakhmati, etc.). Since the 1960s The theory of Mong.-Tatars. The origin of the Tatars. The people began to actively develop Chuvash. (V.F.Kovsky, V.D.Dimitriev, N.I.Gorov, M.R. Fedotov, etc.), Bashk. (N.A. Majitov, etc.) and Tatars. (R.G. Fakhrutdinov, M.I.Akhmetyzyanov, etc.) scientists.

Turkic Tatar theory The origin of T. indicates a wider than the Ural-Volga region, ethnocult. The area of \u200b\u200bthe settlement of the Tatars. The nation is based on a new ethnological theory (constructivism, structuralism, new social. History). Her supporters emphasize Turko Tatars. The origins of the Sovr. T., while noting an important role in their ethnogenesis of the Volga Bulgaria and Kipchak-Kimax Kih Ethnic. Steppes of Eurasia. In the quality of the key moment ethnic. Tatars history. The ethnos considers the period of the Golden Horde, when on the basis of Mong.-Tatars. and local boulars. And the Kipchak traditions received further development of the states of the state, culture, lit. Language, new East. Tradition and ethnopolit. Self-consciousness in the form of ethnonym "T.". During the Tatars period. Hansels arising after the collapse of the Golden Horde, there was a deployment. Ethnoerr. Groups (Astrakhan, Kazan., Crimean, Sib. and others. Group T.). A big role during this period, especially after the conquest of the Tatars. Hangey, began to play a relig. (Musulm.) Self-awareness. In the 2nd floor. 19th century, in the process of active penetration of Bourges. Social-eco. relationships in the Tatar. OB-WITH, WATCH NAC. Culture and strengthening cult. - integrate ties between different terr. Tatar groups. Ethnic Sheets were updated by the ideas about the cult.-East. Unity of Tatars. Ethnic Sheet and recreated. East. Tradition in the form of Tatars. ideology (S. Mordzhani, I. Gasprinsky, X.ATlasov, etc.), the formation of the Council. "Ethnopolitical" Nation of T. and the approval of the general self-based. "T.". In the beginning. 20 V. This theory was developed by G. Bubaidullin; During the repression of the 1930s. Her supporters were physically eliminated; To some extent, this line was trying to continue the writer N. Isanbet. In the 1940-90s. The concept was actively developed in the writings of the Cub. Tatars. historians (Battal, A.N.Kurat, B. Hisbardin, A.-A.Rorilich, N. Davlet, Yu.Shamiloglu) and foreign. Tatarovyov (A.Kappeler, A. J. Frank, M. Kemper). In the USSR in the 1960-80s. Some aspects of this theory developed Tatars. Historians M.G.Safargaliyev, Sh.F.Muhamedyarov, H.H.H.Hasanov, M.A. Sumanov, R.A. Ma'irkhanov, Ethnologist R.G.Kuseev and Philologists E.N. Nadzhip, N.A. Baskakov , F.S. Fasyev.

In 1990-2000. The concept has found further development in the works of A.G.Mukhamadiev, I.R. Tagirova, D.M. Ishakova, I.L.Ismailova, F.A. Surattova, etc. Her supporters directly associate ethnogenesis T. with Turko-Tatar. (Dr. Turkic Tatars, Bulgarians, Khazara, Kipchak, Kimakov, Oguzami, etc.) and Finno-Ugric ethnic. Groups of Miscellaneous Vura Liang and West Siberianis about the regions. According to MN. Of these, the basis of ethnocult. processes that led to the formation of the SDU. Tatars. The nation was society. - Polit. and relig.-cult. Factors refracted in the identity of the people in the form of East.-genetic and cult. Language unity (general mythological ancestors, a religion. Representations, East. Fate, etc.), that there was a concentrated expression in the ethnonym "T.".

Traditions of statesman I. U T. have more than a thousand-year history. The first news of ethnopolitis. Associations by Vost. Turkestan and Mongolia refer to 6-8 centuries. In vet Europe, starting from the 7th century, the Turko-Bulgarians arose consistently. GOS-VA (Great Bulgaria, Khazar Kaganat, Volga Bulgaria). In 1208 as part of the Great Mongolian State-Va (Ek Mongol Ulus), Genghishana begins to develop Ulus Juchi, which included in 1227-43 in its composition Kipchak, Bulgar., Rus. and a number of other state-in and ethnopolitis. associations. Ulus Juchi in the Osn. The features continued Turko Mong. Traditions of state. Devices, and from the 2nd floor. 13 V. He began to acquire the features of Islamic Turk. Gos-Ba with his writing, mountains. Culture, state. Device and single ethnopolit. The system (TURKO-MONG. The tribal system, the ruling aristocratic Clans, military.-served aristocracy, Kurultai), the ruling dynasty (Juchis), etc. After the collapse of the Golden Horde on its terr. There were new Turkic Tatars. GOS-BA, who continued its traditions: Kazan, Tyumen (Siberian), Crimean, Astrakhan and Kasimovskoye Khanate, a big horde, Nogai Horde, etc. in the period of 16-18 centuries. All Tatars. Khanate was conquered by the Russian state, but the old state. Traditions served as one of the important incentives to preserve the unity of the people.

In the beginning. 20 V. T. has intensified the struggle for the restoration of its state ownership and, first in the form of NC.-cult. Autonomy. In 1918. Millet Mejlisi. decided to create Ural Volga State. An attempt to its implementation on March 1, 1918 (see " 3Abural Republic") Was stopped by owls. pr-in. In 1918, the People's Commissariat of Nationalities of the RSFSR published the Regulation on Tatar-Bashkirs Koi Soviet Socialist Republic (remained unrealized). In 1920, the Tatar ASSR was formed as part of the RSFSR. Declaration of the Sun of the Republic of 30 Aug. 1990 The TASSR was transformed into RT, after the March referendum of 1992, declared the sovereign state-in, the subject of the international. The rights associated with the Russian Federation by the constitutions of both republics and contractual relations on the delimitation of powers between the Russian Federation and RT (1994, 2007).

Ethnopolitical story. Ancestors Sovr. T., like other Turk. Peoples are associated with their origin with Prototurn. Population Center. Asia (Altai, Transbaikalia, Mongolia), where they entered various ethnopolitis. Association. At 6 - beginning. 13 centuries. Dr. Tatars. Ethnic. Groups created to the center. Asia row in your tribe. associations and state-in. Ethnopolitis. The community "OUZ-TATAR" was formed in the steppes of Mongolia; In the 8th century As a result of the military. - Polit. Pressure of the Chinese and the Tuchius she broke into several. Top. associations. Naib Izv. And the strong of them was the Association of Tokuz-Tatars. On the language and culture of Dr.-Tatars. Tribes (6-8 centuries) there are no fairly reliable information; Non-ry linguists consider their Turk. People (Franz. Orientalist P. Pellyo), others (M.TS. Munkuev, J. Zhele) - Mong. Top. Association "Tokuz-Tatars" in the military. - Polit. Events Center. Asia often became an ally of Kyrgyz, speaking on their side against the Turkic Kaganata (War 723-24). After the collapse of this kaganata, Dr.-Tatars. The tribes created their ethnopolitis. Association to Vost. Turkestan, which in the Union with Oguzami led the war against Uigur Kaganata. As a result of the defeat from Uigur, some of them were part of the Uygur Kaganat, Depth. Groups moved to the south. Siberia, where, together with Kimako-Kipchak, kimaki kaganat formed. As noted in the work of Zapin al-Akhbar ("News ornament", 11th century) Gardisi, the ruler of this kaganate, according to the Kimakian tradition, belonged to the tribe of T. 842 Uygur Kaganat was defeated by Kirgiz, the lands of Dr.-Tatars. Tribes are included in their possession (this is evidenced by the inscription in the R. TES valley). After the expulsion of Kyrgyz in the 2nd floor. 11 V. Dr. Tatars. The tribes became part of the Uygur Principles (Ganzhou, Turfansky, etc.), later created their semi-independent principalities at the East border. Turkestan and Kit. Gansu Province. In vet Turkestan between the states of Karakanids and Tangutov (SIA) was formed several. Princess Zap. Dr. Tatars. tribes. They led active external. Policy in the center. Asia (Embassies to China in 958, 996, 1039, 1084, in Wed. Asia in 965, 981, etc.), fought for control over the led. Shelkovoy, concluded military. - Polit. Unions with Ganzhou and Turfan Principles. Rulers of these Tatars. The principalities wore the title "APA-Tekin" ("Tags"). In 11-12 centuries. Dr. Tatars. Ethnopolitis. Top. The associations occupy means. Terr. South. and east. Mongolia, North. China, Vost. Turkestan. In the beginning. 13 V. These associations were part of Mongol Empire (According to China. Sources, it means. Part of the DR Tatars. Tribal was destroyed GengizhanomThe remaining participated in its conquest campaigns). All this terr., Populated by Dr. Tatars. People, in Musulm. The historiography of the countries of the East received the name. "Chet-and Tatars" ("Tatar steppe"), and the term "T." He consolidated for a part of the population of the steppes center. Asia. In the dictionary "Sofan Lugat AT-Turk" ("Assembly of the Turkic Instant"), compiled in 1072-74 Mahmud. Kashgari, Language dr.-Tatars. Tribes Vost. Turkestan is fixed as Turkic. Presumably, land. Their part was confessed by Buddhism, others - Manichaean and Islam.

In the Volga-Ural region Ethnic. The substrate T. was half-bore Turk. and UGORS ( hungary, majary and others) tribes, which are in 7-9 centuries. Actively interacted with the peoples of the Turk. Gos-to the Center. Asia, south. Siberia and North. Caucasus ( Turkic kaganat, Great Bulgaria, Khazar Kaganat, Kimaki kaganat and etc.). As a result of close interethnich. Relationships in Ethnic. The substrate T. penetrated the Bulgarian socially developed. Tribes: bulgars, barcily, baranjara, saviry et al. in con. 9 - beginning 10 centuries. In the process of education of the State Naja. Strong turned out to be ethnopolitis. The community of Bulgarians created in the CP. Volga region in the 910-70s. Bulgarian and Suvarian Principalities (Emirates). Presumably, in 980 on the basis of these emirates, etc. Lands were formed by state-in Volga Bulgaria. As the Bulgarian state and expansion of its terr is strengthened. Bulgars actively assimilated off. OGUZO-BEKHEKSKY X ( oguzov, pechenegov) and kipchak tribes (see Kipchak), as well as other neighboring ethnic. Groups ( burtasov, Majar, etc.). Huge importance in the consolidation of the Bulgar. The ethnos played the adoption in the 922 Islam in the quality of the state. religion. This contributed to the establishment of a regulatory lit. Language, ethnic. History ("History of Bulgaria" Yakuba ibn Nugman et al.) And, ultimately, the formation of a single supervision culture and ethnopolit. Self-consciousness Bulgarians, expansion polit., ECON. and cult. connections with external. Musulm. The world, primarily with the countries of the East. In 10-13 centuries. In the steppes of Eurasia, DR.-Tatars have developed., Kipchako-Kimakski E, Bulgar. and others. Turk. State Education. Inside them there was a consolidation of the Turk. Tribes, the influence of Muslim increased. Consciousness.

In the 1220-40s. All state and tribes North. Eurasia were conquered by Mong. Khana and entered the composition of Ulus Juci. Seduced state (Rus. Principal, dissected by the Emirates Bulgarian state-in, Khorezm) became vassal possessions, and b. Terr. Volga Bulgaria turned into a part of the Khan domain, and the breeding unions of Kimako-Kypchakov turned out to be fragmented, their tribal to know the part was exterminated, part of the Juchid Aristocracy, the population of Laja and Kipchak (steppes of Eurasia) was included in the military.-Adm. and clan system of ulus juchi. It is characteristic that in gray. 13 V. They began to disappear Domong. Tribal named. And they began to replace them with Turko-Mong. (Kyat, Nayman, Kungrat, Keeit, Katata, Mangyt, Burkut, Jalair, Uyhun, etc.), repeated in different combinations A number of terr. Groups of CP.ran. T., there were also 4 ruling kinds (shirin, ladies, Argyn, Kypchak). The influence of these Tatars. (Turko-Mong.) Clans turned out to be NaB. Strong in the bottom. Volga region, Ural and Zap. Siberia, where they included in their structure and in the OSN. Assimilated the Ugric and Kipchak-Kimax kiwa. It is since this time in the environment of various groups of T. (incl. Astrakhan, Sib., Crimean) and Nogai Vedas. The situation was taken by Tatars. (Turko-Mong.) Clans: Tabin, Katay, Taz, Naiman, Kungrat / Kurdak, Kerit, Karagay, Elan, Tokuz and others. Turkicized ugric groupsincluded in their composition, got the name. IISTEK / USTEC / OST Yak, and Dr. called. ugric origin - b. Top. Etnonyms of the Survival (Exterior, Bikatin, Jurma, Gaina, Uvat, Supra, etc.) - preserved in the Osn. Only in toponymy.

Simultane Within the framework of the Unified State-Wa, the formation of a special Turkic Tatar. Ethnic. Identity. An important element of the integration of the Goldenordinian population was distributed in Ulus Juchi Islam, which became from the beginning. 14th century, during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-41), state. religion, as well as the creation of a regulatory lit. Language (Volga. Turks), development of writing and lit-ry. The core of these cult.-East. The processes were the formation among the military. - a servant for the imperial supporting culture, which included mythologies and symbols of the Juche tradition, partly Musulm. worldview. All this led to sociocult. Consolidation of the Goldenordopian aristocracy and to the appearance of 14 V. The new ethnosocial community "T.", Kraya consisted of ch. arr. from Musulm. Nature that came into a clan-tribe. Ulus juchi ulus system. This aristocracy received to possession of land and uluses in the Volga-Ural region, to know the local peoples became its component. This is also evidenced by the language, toponymic, etc. Materials, in particular, the appearance in the Wednesday. Halzh. - Ural, T. called. Generic clans (sometimes in toponymics, nodes, etc.), such as Kungrat, Burkut, Ming, Tokuz, Toxoba, Keeit, Katay, Tabin, Kipchak, Alat, Badrak. Sel. And, partly, the mountains. Applied population ( kara Halyk.) Used for self-dome. Tahlisy, formed most often from toponyms (al-Bulgari, AS-soras, Mün-Bilar, etc.).

After the collapse of the Golden Horde in Ser. 15 V. As part of the Latezolotoords of the Naxian political. Educations began the formation of new ethnopolitis. Communities that had their local self-confidence., And the term "T." It becomes general designation and self-based. For the estate of their military. - a servant nobility united in the clan system and a marked sentence "serviced Tatars". The final design of these ethnoerr. Groups occurred in 15-16 centuries. In the framework of the Türco Tatars based on the Golden Horde. State-in (Big Orda, Nogai Orda, Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan and Kasimovskoye Khanate), sometimes beyond their limits (in the Grand Duch of Lithuanian, in the Budzhak steppe of the Ottoman Empire). However, the general states. and ethnocult. Traditions still remained one of the important reasons for preserving the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of the people. After joining the 2nd floor. 16th century Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Hangey to the Russian State intensified the processes of migration and interaction between different ethnoterr. T. in the Volga-Ural region and Siberia, as a result of resettlement, it means. Group servile TatarsConsistent with the OWN From the target and cauldron. T., there was a linguistic and cult. Rapid of various ethnic. Tatar groups. population. Naib Intensive nature, this process acquired in the Volga-Ural region, in K-Rom to Con. 17th century Group Volga. - Uralskky T. The overall formation of this group was facilitated by General East., Relig., Language and cult. - Household traditions that have arisen during periods of Golden Horde and Tatars. Khunni, as well as the objective need to confront the policy of Christianization, rusification and others. Forms of nat. Net. One of the features of ethnoculta. The development of various groups of T., condition and consequence of their rapprochement became awareness of belonging to a single faith, the approval of the general confessionism "Muslims".

Stormy Development Bourges. Relations in Russia in the 2nd floor. 19 - Nach. 20 centuries. led to the activation of T. in society. - Polit. and cult.-lumen. Life grew. about During this period during the Bourges. The transformations gradually happened to form a new, nat. Type ethnic. Self-consciousness based on the ethnonym "T.", as well as consolidation of various Europe intensified. and Sib. subectoic. and ethnogr. T. TSN. Condition for the formation of Tatars. Bourges. The ideology of the reformation of the patriarchal bases of the Tatars was the ideology. OB-VA (see Jadidism), leading to the emergence of the general basis. period. Print, Novometer Tatar System. confessional education about education, Sovr. Lit. Language, secular lit-ry, nat. typography.

One of the evidence of the completion of the consolidation process of the Tatar. nation to start. 20 V. It was the assimilation of all the land. Ethnoerr. Turgo-Tatars groups of a single Tatar. Self-consciousness and approval of the ethnonym "T.". According to the census of the USSR 1926, 88% of the Tatars. European population. Parts of the country recorded themselves T. and only a small part of it in the frame of ethnonym used the deployment. Local names: Volzh.-Urstska Ye T. - Mishar, Kryashen (some of them - Nagaibak), Tsellar; Astrakhan - Nougay, Karagash; Sib. - Buchalky, Temanlik, Baraba, Tingyllyc. This testified to the preservation of the Depth. Forms of patriarchal and ethnoterr. Traditions among part T.

Simultane This happened to form a new Tatar. ideology. OSN. Her provisions formulated S. Mordzhani. The key element in the process of becoming the Tatars. The ethnos, in his opinion, became the goldside traditions, preserved in Tatars. Hunters. The ideas of Martzhani were developed in the works of I. Golpinsky, R. Fakhrettina, X.ATLASov, Ibrahimov, Ishaki, etc. This ideology was widespread in the Muslim environment. Turkic Tatars. Russian population. In places of compact residence of T. Everywhere various Muslims were established. charity. Org set, ch. The purpose of which was the development of a single ethnocult. and ethnopolit. Self-consciousness. Higher. Form of the implementation of generalization. Ideologies began to create in 1906 political. Party " Yttifak al-muslim"And the post. The presence of its leaders in the state. Russia's Duma of all convisions (S. Alkin, A. Akhtyamov, Ibn. Ahtyamov, S. Maxudov, etc.). The program of this party advanced ch. Tatar requirements. Population: provision of broad NC.-cult. autonomy, incl. in educational and relig. regions.

During Revolutions 1905-07 He received the development of the idea of \u200b\u200b"Tatar statesstosst and", original. in the form of nat.-cult. Autonomy, Local Bureau "Yetifak Al-Muslimin" served prototypes of K-Roy. After the overthrow of the king and coming to the power of the temporary pr-va (1917) it is political. Movement consistently achieved the creation of a wide NC.-cult. Autonomy T. in 1918 Nats. Muslim Internal Assembly. Russia and Siberia (Millet Medezhlisi) decided to form the Ural Volga state. However, the attempt of the Tatars. NC.-Democr. Forces to implement it on March 1, 1918 was stopped by owls. PR-VOM (see " Forced republic"). In 1918, the drug addict on the affairs of the RSFSR in the quality of the Ural Volga state under pressure from the National-Bolshevskaya Ikov (M. Vakhitov, M.Sultan-Galiev A, Ibrahimova, etc.) was proposed a project to create the Tatar-Bashkir Soviet Republic (remained unrealized). In 1920, the Tatar ASSR was formed as part of the RSFSR, this process was associated with the broad support of the Tatars. Movement by the population and his readiness is polit. Methods to protect their nat. Interests. In the author. The republic was included a little more than half of the Tatars. Population owls. Russia (1459.6 thousand of 3.3 million people). As a result of arbitrary establishment of the boundaries of the Tassr and Arts. Dismemberment of Tatars. The people in its composition did not even entered those counties with compact accommodation by T., Terr. They were directly adjacent to the newly formed Republic: Belebean y. with a population of 671 thousand people. (62% of Tatars and 4.5% Bashkir) and Birsky y. - 626 thousand people. (55% of Tatars and 4.4% Bashkir). In the Tatar Republic only approx. 50% of the population was T.

With the creation of the Tasser means. Part T. got the opportunity to develop nat. The education system and culture on native language. For the first time after the fall of Kazan Khanate in 1552 Tatars. Language, along with Rus., became state. In the republic was created. Academic Center For org management. Issh. in the field of humanitarian sciences. The rapid development of nat. Cultures and mass education of the population contributed policies cONENERIZ State Apparatus and wide introduction to Delivery-in Tatars. Language. In the republic, work was carried out on the preparation of NAC. personnel and replacing positions in state, party., Prof., Court. and other authorities, on the implementation of the Tatars Implementation Program. Language in state bodies. and societies. Management, cultural institutions. Mask work.

In the 1920-30s. She walked the active process of forming a new generation of Tatars. Intelligentsia, new industries were created. Cultures (Fine lawsuits, opera, ballet, etc.), humanitarian science, also conducted a policy to strengthen the position of the Tatars. Language in the Tassr and other regions of the country. In 1926-29, the Tatars translation was carried out. Alphabet for lat. graphics. According to the census 1939, the literacy of the Tatars. The USSR population was quite high: in the age group of 50 years and older, the share of literate was 48.3%, 20-49 years - 78%, 9-19 years - 96%. All R. 1930s. Of the 3339 schools of the Tasse schools 1738 (St. 50%) were Tatar. By 1939, of all the schools of the republic of the republic, 48.7% were trained in Tatars. Language. Among the students of universities, the share of T. by 1939-40 reached 17.2%, among the student of the SR. -EHN. Uch. Vehicles - 49.5% (data on the TASSR).

At the same time, after the formation of the USSR (1922) of the National Committee. The policy of the country's leadership began to shift towards the restriction of ethnopolit., NC.-original development T. and began to have a focused impact on the National-Scientific spheres of the self-consciousness of peoples. Owls. Functioners based on traditional presen. Imposure of imperial politics and determined. The features of traditional nat. T. and manipulating rites, they began to create new forms of ethnoculture other than the Tatars. Ethnic. mentality and socio-family obstacles (see Cultural revolution).

The "Big Terror" 1937-38 became a new tragic period in the life of the T: on falsified cases of belonging to Bourge.-Nationalisale, Sultagalievskaya, Trotskyist, Bukharinskaya and other org organizations, for indentation charges, etc. Persecution and arrests were subjected to thousands of prest. Polit., scientific and creative intelligentsia T. Mass repression led to the fact that the entire capal part of the Tatars. Polit. And the intellectual elite was physically destroyed or found itself in prisons and concentration camps (on Jan. 1942 in the system of Gulag was 29.1 thousand prisoners-t.). Simultane With the introduction of Rus. Alphabet (1939) to it. The degree was violated by the East.-cult. continuity in the cult. Life of the people.

In the years led. Ovech Wars, during the period of deportation of Musulm. Population Santa. Caucasus and Crimea, intensified ideological-polit. and ethnocult. Pressure on T. Huge damage Development of Tatars. nat. Cultures and science caused a post. CCP Central Committee (b) "On the status and measures to improve mass-political and ideological work in the Tatar party organization" (1944). One of the specials. Events of this kind have become the session of the relevance of the history and philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, organized by the joint venture. With the In-Tom of the Language, Lithing and History of CFAN USSR in Moscow (25-26 Apr. 1946), in fact, canonizing the tendency study of ethnogenesis T. in the framework of the Bulgarians alone. Theories (see Scientific session of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR). A further step towards the restrictions on the interests of this was the division in 1952-53 of the TASSR to Bugulminskaya, Kazan and Chistopolian regions (after the death of I.V. Stalin in April 1953, they were eliminated).

During the years "Khrushchev thaw" Naib. Active prest. Creative and scientific Tatarstan's intelligentsia began a ideological struggle for nat. Revival. In 1954, a letter was sent to the Central Committee of the CPSU, in K-Rom indicated to the arts. Coherent development of NAC. Culture, reducing the number of Tatars. Schools, distortion of the history of Tatars.-Rus. Relationship, bringing the role of Tatars. The people in the history of the Russian state, and the problems of NAC were raised. Toponymics, the question of providing the status of the Federal Republic of the Federal Republic of Tatarstan. In the 2nd floor. 1950s. Activity nat. Intelligentsia was noticeably intensified by owls. The leadership was forced to go to a number of measures that contributed to the discharge of the situation in the Tatar. Oh-ve. As a result, in 1957, spelling and the work of the Commission on improving Yu Tatar resumed the work. Language, in 1958 Plenum Tatars. Commander CPSU adopted post. "On the state and measures to improve the work of Tatar general education schools", in October 1958 the 1st Congress of Culture Workers was held, on May 24 - June 2, 1957 in Moscow Decade of tatar art and literature etc.

In the 1950-80s. There was a noticeable rise in the field of Tatars. Culture and Nar. Education has increased significantly. Tatars. scient., tehn. and creative intelligentsia. In the 1970 Ud. in. T. in the USSR among specialists with high. and cf.-specials. Education reached 1.5% (the figure was higher than the same indicator on Azerbaijanis, Kazakhs and Lithuanians). In 1956-57, among the students of universities, the USSR was 25.3 thousand, in 1974-75 - 99.8 thousand. T. to 1965/66 Uch. G. Their share among the stude

A feature of Tatar nationality is the absence of pronounced features of appearance, which would allow to unmistakably distinguish its representatives from other peoples. Their appearance is different, depending on ethnic groupto which they belong. However, anthropology still highlights signs, what the Tatars look like, taking into account the characteristic features.

How to identify Tatarina: Typical features of nationality

Tatars (Samupport "Tatarslar") refer to the Turkic group, the White race. Since the most ancient times, a crowded ethnos has affected the development of Eurasia. The history of the middle ages tells how the nation kept the extensive territory from Pacific Ocean until the Atlantic coast.

The variety of types of appearance of the people is due to its origin, since among the ancestors of Tatars were representatives of both the Mongoloid and European race. The same explains the prevalence and crowded nation.

The mixture of race, which the Tatars belong to, allows you to see among its representatives of dark-haired and bright, red, carbonous, with gray eyes and so on.

Depending on where, there are many types of given nationality from where they live.

These include:

• kazan;
• casimovsky;
• siberian;
• astrakhan;
• perm;
• crimean Tatars;
• mishari;
• childari;
• quicken;
• nagaibaki and others.

The number of nations in Russia for 2010, according to Wikipedia, 5.3 million people. In percentage ratio, the indicator how many Tatars from total The population is 3.87%. According to prevalence in the Russian Federation, nationality is recognized as the second after the Russians. There are about a million Tatars in the world, they constitute more than half of the population of the Republic of Tatarstan (53%), and in the United States, according to statistics, live only 2-7 thousand people.

Representatives of the nation speak in Tatar, which includes Western and Kazan dialects. In the religion of the people there are Muslims, Orthodox Christians (grated) or atheists (no faith in God). Mostly in his religion, the Tatars belong to the Sunnites, and not to shiites.

Helps to determine the nationality according to the features of the person's characteristics of anthropological types.

In the Tatars, they allocate 4:

For each of them, features presented in the photo.

Shape of the head

For the Tatars characteristic of the mesocophia or sub-abachephalia (cranial pointer 76-80), that is, the middlewinding, moderately long and wide skull and sowed faces are predominantly encountered.

The Mongoloid type is characterized by Brachikefalia, that is, short-headed. In this case, the face is wide and flattened.

The photo shows the TV presenter of Garayev and actor and TV presenter Timur Batrutdinov.

Diamond Garayev

Timur Batrutdinov

Eyes

It is believed that the Tatar is characterized by a Mongolian eye cut, their narrow form. However, this is not necessary, predominantly epicatus occurs at the Mongoloid type, is weakly developed at the sublaponoid.

The remaining anthropological types such signs are unusual.

Color varies: Tatars are blue-eyed, with brown eyes. But the most common is greens.

The photo presents the singer, actor and director Dmitry Bikbaev.

It is difficult for its appearance to identify Tatar.

A more characteristic type is presented below - singer, actor, composer, producer, film director Renat Ibrahimov.

Nose

The form of the sense of smell of the Tatars is diverse. Usually the nose is wide, with a straight back or unfinished hill. For Pontic Type, an omitted tip is characterized, for the mongoloid and sublaponoid - low transfer.

The photo shows a singer, actor, entrepreneur, composer, producer Timati (Timur Yunusov) and a successful tennis player Marat Safin.

Marat Safin

Hair

Mostly for the Tatars is characterized by black hair color. But unlike Uzbeks, Mongols, Tajiks, there are also fair-haired representatives of nationality. The Tatars is possible blond and red color.

Photographs depicts Russian football player Ruslan Nigmatullin and actor Marat Basharov.

Ruslan Nigmatullin

Marat Basharov

Tatar appearance

The generalized image, what are the Tatars, represents a man of medium height with mixed eye and hair pigmentation, moderately wide face, a straight nose, or with a porridge. Men stand out tightly folded body, choreness, women, on the contrary, fragility.

The appearance of the Tatars is sometimes significantly different, depending on the belonging to a specific ethnic.

Kazan

Among the Tatars of this ethnic group, European features of appearance are often observed: blond hair, sometimes red, blonde eyes, a narrow nose, straight or with a porridge. Such a type is similar to the Slavs.

From the Mongols there may be a wide face of faces and narrowed eyes.

For men, medium height is characterized, a strong physique, a short neck. This is due to blood mixing with Finnish peoples.

The picture shows the Kazan Tatars celebrities.

Crimean

Tatars of this group appeared in the XV century. Representatives live in the south of Ukraine, in Russia, Romania, Turkey, Uzbekistan (where are deported from the Crimea in the middle of the 20th century).

The purebred Crimean Tatars inherent appearance close to Slavic. Real representatives of the nation had high growth, blonde or red hair, blonde eyes and skin.

However, the neighborhood with Asians made specific traits in the image of nationality. Many Tatars have acquired the appropriate type of face, dark hair and eyes, darkness.

After returning to Crimea, people revive lost original customs and traditions.

The photo presents the Crimean and Kazan Tatars, where the features are traced than ethnic groups are distinguished.

Urals

The history of the Tatars in the Southern Urals has little studied, today the Chelyabinsk region has a huge number of communities.

The anthropological type of the representative of the nationality is presented in the figure.

Often there are dark hair and eyes, possibly narrowed, a wide oval of faces and nose, distinguished cheekbones, big ears.

Volga

For the Tatars of this group, the signs of the Mongoloid race are characteristic. This is manifested by dark hair, gray or brown eyes with a fold in the upper eyelid, a wide nose, sometimes with a hubble, usually bright skin.

Men are distinguished by a strong physique, growing above average.

Siberian

Characterized oriental appearance, which is visually easily distinguished from Russian. The mixture of European and mongoloid types is characteristic. Sometimes the appearance of the Siberian Tatars is comparable to Uzbek.

Representatives of nationality are celebrated dark hair and eyes, highlighting cheekbones, wide nose eastern type. The physique is correct, men are characteristic of the fortress and endurance.

Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod)

Speakers subethnosoma Tatar-Mishary. Their characteristic sign is the Casting Nizhny Novgorod talk. Live in Nizhny Novgorod, Dzerzhinsk and Tatar villages.

Pontane anthropological type of appearance prevails, manifested by dark or mixed eye and hair and hair pigmentation, nose with a hubber and lowered tip, average growth. Considered European sies, differing from previous bright hair and eyes. The mongoloid type of appearance is not a little.

Astrakhan

A group of Tatars formed in the territory of the modern Astrakhan region. They are considered the descendants of the Turkic-speaking population of the Golden Horde, have their own dialect.

In the course of historical development, nationality experienced the influence of the Nogaites.

For the appearance of Astrakhan Tatars, the mongoloid features are more peculiar than the European one. There is dark color of hair and eye, some of their narrowness, wide sulfur face and nose.

What the Tatarka look like

The features of the appearance of a representative of the weak floor of Tatar nationality are similar to those in men. Most of them have a European ethnic, however, the Mongoloid type is common.

The photo presents various types of Tatar appearance: a well-known journalist and TV presenter Lily Guildeev and Beauty Miss "Youth Tatarstan-2012" Albina Zamaleyev.

Lilia Guilldeeva

Albina Zamaleeva

Face

For girls of Tatars, a rounded oval of faces are characteristic of the face, unbearable nursing eyes, perhaps the presence of Epicatus. Their color varies from blue to black. More often there are green eyes.

The photo shows the singer Asyljar (Alsu Zainutdinova).

In her biography, it was noted that she was the first in history who performed a song in Tatar language at the Eurovision International Competition.

Hair color is also diverse, among the tatars there are blondes, brunettes, browns, redheads.

The photo presents the Olympic champion, Europe, Russia rhythmic gymnastics, Deputy State Duma Alina Kabaeva and model Diana Farhullina.

Alina Kabaeva

Diana Farhullina

Depending on the type of appearance, the skin is dark or bright. Often she is whiter than representatives of Slavic nationality.

Figure

Most Tatar women are characteristic slender figures, fragility and grace. An example of this is the actress of the theater and the cinema Chulpan Hamatov.

The growth of the tatar is medium, about 165 centimeters, long legs are uncharacteristic. Some representatives of the nation are inherent in the square of the figure: wide shoulders along with the same hips. He emphasizes the beauty of Tatar women is a narrow waist.

The photo shows the famous fashion model Irina Shayk (Shaychlislamova), Tatarka on the father's line.

Features of character and mentality

To understand who are the Tatars, it is important to know from whom they occurred. The origin imposed a print on their appearance and lifestyle.

Brief theory, where Tatars came from, calls the foundation of the nation's roots ancient state Volga Bulgaria. Bulgarians protrude their ancestors. The Turkic-Bulgarian ethnos came from Asian steppes and donkey on the Middle Volga region. IN X-XIII centuries Nature has created its own statehood. Predominantly this is speech About the Volga-Ural Group, other varieties are considered as separate communities. For example, the theory of Tatar-Mongolian origin reduces or even denies the participation of the Volga Bulgaria in the history of Kazan Tatars.

Often there is a dispute about the fact that Tatars are still asians or Europeans. It is caused by racial mixing. Genetics argue that the nation is in most European winds, in the minority - Mongoloids.

In the photo shows guys and girls Tatars in national costumes.

His religion affects the mentality and culture of the people - they are confessing Islam, who accepted on May 21, 922.

The character of a man of Tatarin is distinguished by stubbornness, indifference. However, at the same time he hardworking, the hospital fee, he has a sense of self-esteem, which is sometimes perceived as a pride and arrogance. Crimean Tatars highlights calm, enterprise in stressful situations. They are careerists, strive for knowledge and new features.

What men Tatars in relations are due to their character: they are reliable, reasonable, law-abiding, purposeful. Religion admits polygamy, but it is extremely rare. Usually, the second wife, younger, lead to a house for help in everyday life, when the first was the first.

Tatar's wife is obedient and submissive to her husband, is predicted in love, with childhood girls set up for a durable and only marriage. Women are inquisitive, clean, hospitable, carefully for people, love to cook and educate children. Among the dishes that the Tatars eat are distinguished by Kasyke (dried horse), Gubady (puff pastry), Talcisch Kalev (dessert), Chuck Chuck. The basis of culinary masterpieces make up the dough and thick layer of fat.

Tatar women follow the fashion, are interested in novelties and love beautiful clothes: despite the humility of her husband, loyalty to customs and traditions, not to meet her in black lamp.

The photo shows the singer Alsu (Safina / Abramova).

It is believed that Tatars are passionate in bed, and men skillful lovers.

Religion does not prohibit marriages with inners, so there are Tatarka's wife, Russian husband and vice versa. Such families are quite happy, each of the members adheres to their religious beliefs. Mesences are born from a mixture of Russians and Tatars. Children of mixed blood often externally cute, connecting the features of 2 nationalities.

An interesting fact is the appearance of a sign of belonging to the Mongoloid race - a specific stain (Mongolian) in some infants. Such Tatar note in the child is a bluish area of \u200b\u200bthe skin on the buttocks, the sacrum, hips.

Sometimes it is taken for the bruise, although this is considered a sign of Eastern blood. With age, stain disappears.

Tatars highlights worship and respect for the elders.

Interesting marriage rite. After the wedding, the guy and the girl do not live together another year. It is believed correctly that at this time the young remains with their parents, and the husband (in Tatar the word sounds "IR") comes as a guest.

Differences from other nations

Comparing the appearance of the Tatars and similar peoples among themselves, identify identical and distinctive features.

For example, Bashkirs also belong to the Turkic family, have a similar language and adhere to the same religion. However, in appearance differences are present. Tatars are predominantly characteristic of the European-like features, Bashkirs - Mongoloid.

Bashkarka

There is a theory that the Jews are inherent in the similarity with the Tatars. This is caused by a similar structure of DNA. Adherents of hypothesis believe that most Ashkenazic Jews did not apply to Israel and are Turks.

General is present between the Tatars and Turks. These are their belonging to the Turkic peoples.

Also close link Tatars have with Kazakhs. Previously, they ranked one people connected by Turkic community. However, the appearance of nationality is easy to distinguish.

For visual comparison, the picture shows the anthropological types of various nations.

Stereotypes

A lot of stereotypes, the right and incorrect, who have been outlined or to this day, are folded about the Tatar people, which are self-aged or to this day.

• Uninvited guest worse than Tatarina!- phraseologism refers to the time when the Russians were under the yoke yoke. Tatars were cruel invaders, showed violence, ferocity. Russians respectively considered them with the opposite people and hated with all their hearts. Therefore, the uninvited guest in the proverb acts as an unexpected invader as Tatarva, as they were negligiously called Rus.
• Tatars cunning and stingy. People are characterized by thrift, they do not like to pass the means. Tatarin is rapid and wealthy, creates himself comfortable conditions Life, with the mind of managing finances.
• Protead and arrogance. Sometimes the Tatars call themselves special, justifying the fact that their roots are inherent in great people. This is the reason why representatives of the nation do not like. However, overlook their people and consider others better than others and other nationalities.
• Tea lovers. Without a drink, no event or meeting passes.
• Hospitality. Tatars are friendly and inquisitive. They are glad to take guests in the guest house. The owners will put the refined Tatar dearities on the table and will support a pleasant conversation.

The overall characteristics of the Tatar people and the population

The people of Tatars are no wonder consider the most mobile of all the famous peoples. Escaped from faithful in native lands and in search of opportunities to establish trade, they quickly moved to the central regions of Russia, Siberia, to the Far Eastern regions, in the Caucasus, Central Asia And to the Donbas Steppes. In Soviet times, this migration was especially active. Today, Tatars live in Poland and Romania, China and Finland, USA and Australia, as well as in Latin America and Arab countries. Despite this territorial prevalence, Tatars in each country are trying to unite into communities, gently keeping their cultural values, language and traditions. To date, the total number of Tatar population is 6 million 790 thousand people, of which almost 5.5 million live in the territory Russian Federation.

The main language of the ethnic group is Tatar. It highlights three main dialectical directions - East (Siberian-Tatar), West (Mishar) and Medium (Kazan-Tatar). The following subethnos are also distinguished:, Astrakhan, Siberian, Tatars-Mishari, Ksimovsky, grated, Perm, Polish-Lithuanian, Chepetsky, Tselri. Initially, the writtenness of the Tatar people lay the Arabic graphics. Over time, Latin began to be used, and later - Cyrillic. The overwhelming majority of the Tatars adhere to Muslim religion, they are called Muslim Sunnites. There is a small number of Orthodox, which are called cracking.

Features and traditions of Tatar culture

In the Tatar people, as in any other, there are special traditions. So, for example, the wedding rite assumes that the wedding of the young man and the girls have the right to negotiate their parents, and young just put in fame. Before the wedding, the sizes of Calma, which groom pays the bride's family. Walking and feast in honor of newlyweds, as a rule, occurs without them. To this day it is customary that the fiance is unacceptable to enter parental house Bridesmaid for permanent residence.

Cultural traditions and especially in the education plan of the younger generation from the early childhood at the Tatars are very strong. The decisive word and the power in the family belongs to the Father - the head of the family. That is why girls are taught to be submissive to their husbands, and boys - to be able to dominate, but at the same time very carefully and carefully treat the spouse. Patriarchal traditions in families are stable to this day. Women, in turn, love to cook and honor Tatar cuisine, sweets and all kinds of pastries. A richly covered table for guests is considered a sign of honor and respect. Tatars are known for their worship and immense respect for the ancestors, as well as people, older in age.

Famous representatives of the Tatar people

IN modern life There is a lot of immigrants of this glorious people. For example, Rinat Akhmetov is the famous businessman of Ukraine, the richest Ukrainian citizen. In the world of show business, the legendary producer Bary Alibasov became famous, russian actors Renata Litvinova, Chulpan Hamatova and Marat Basharov, Singer Alsu. The famous poetess Bella Ahmadulin and artistic gymnast of Alina Kabaeva also have Tatar roots on the Father and are well-deserved figures of the Russian Federation. It is impossible not to remember the first racket of the world - Marat Safina.

The Tatar people are a nation with their traditions, national language and cultural values \u200b\u200bthat are closely related to the history of others and not only. This nation S. special character and tolerance, which has never become the initiator of conflicts either on ethnic, nor on religious, nor on political soil.

Tatars, Tatarlar(self-taking), people in Russia (the second in numbers after the Russians), the main population of the Republic of Tatarstan .

According to the 2002 census, russia lives 5 million 558 thousand Tatars. Live in the Republic of Tatarstan (2 million people), Bashkiria (991 thousand people), Udmurtia, Mordovia, Mari Republic, Chuvashia, as well as in the regions of the Volga-Ural region, Western and Eastern Siberia and the Far East. Resize in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. According to the 2010 census, 5310649 Tatars live in Russia.

History ethnonym

For the first time ethnonym "Tatars" Appeared among the Mongolian and Turkic tribes in the 6-9 centuries, but he entrenched as a common ethnonym only in the second half of the 19th and early 20th century.

In the 13th century as part of the Mongols created Golden HordeThey were conquered by the tribes, including the Turks called the Tatars. In the 13-14th centuries, the Kipchak's numerically prevailed in the Golden Horde assimilated all other Turkic-Mongolian tribes, but learned the ethnonym "Tatars". Also called the population of this state European peoples, Russians and some Central Asian peoples.

In the Khanaters formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatars were called noble layers of Kipchak-Nogai origin. It was they who played a major role in the spread of ethnonym. However, among the Tatars in the 16th century, he was perceived as a derogatory, and even the second half of the 19th century, other self-discharges were told: Meselman, Kazanla, Bulgarian, Misher, Tyter, Nagaibek and others -volgo-Ural and nougay, Karagash, Yurt, Tatarla and others - At the Astrakhan Tatars. In addition to Mesenman, they were all local self-discharges. The process of national consolidation led to the choice of unifying all self-supplying. By the time of the census of 1926, most Tatars called themselves by Tatars. IN last years a small amount of In Tatarstan and other regions, the Volga region refer to themselves Bulgarians or Volga Bulgars.

Language

Tatar language refers to the Kypchak-Bulgarian subgroup of the Kypchak Group of the Turkic Branch of Altai language family And has three main dialects: Western (Mishar), medium (Kazan-Tatar) and East (Siberian-Tatar). Literary norm Formed on the basis of the Kazan-Tatar dialect with the participation of Mishar. Writing based on Cyrillic graphics.

Religion

Most believers Tatars - Muslim Sunni Khanafi Mazhab. The population of the former Volga Bulgaria was Muslim from the 10th century and remained those as part of the Horde, by virtue of this standing out among the neighboring peoples. Then, after the occurrence of Tatars, the Moscow state entering the Moscow state, their ethnic self-consciousness was even stronger with religious. Part of the Tatars even defined its nationality as "Mesaleman", i.e. Muslim. At the same time they have persisted (and partly persist to this day) elements of an ancient associate calendar ritual.

Traditional classes

The traditional economy of the Volga-Ural Tatars in the 19th - early 20th century was arable farming. They grown ozimous rye, oats, barley, lentil, millet, shell, flax, cannabis. Also engaged in gloomy, messengers. Pasture-stall animal husbandry with some features resembled nomadic. For example, horses in separate areas whole year Passed at the foot of the stern. Only Misharians were seriously engaged in hunting. High level Development achieved handicraft and manufactory production (jewelry, valral-felt, rapid, weaving and gold), leather and clouded plants worked, and trade was developed.

the National costume

Men and women consisted of a sharovar with a wide step and a shirt, which was put on a sleeveless, often embroidered. Women's costume Tatar The abundance of silver decorations, Kauri's shells, glass flaring. Casakin served the upper clothes, and in the winter - quilted Besht or fur coat. On the head of the man we wore a tubeette, and on top of her a fur hat or hat from felt. Women wore embanked velvet hat and handkerchief. Traditional Tatars shoes are leather Ichigi on a soft sole, on top of which Galosh was put on top.

Sources: Peoples of Russia: Atlas of Cultures and Religions / Answer. V.A. Tishkov, A.V. Zhuravsky, O.E. Kazhmin. - M.: IPTS "Design. Information. Cartography", 2008.

Peoples and religions of the world: Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. V.A. Tishkov. Roll.: O. Yu.Artemova, S.A. Aarutyunov, A.N. Kozhanovsky, V.M. Makarevich (Deputy Ch. Red.), V.A. Popov, P.I. Schkov (Deputy Chick . Ed.), G.Y. Sitonyansky. - M.: Large Russian Encyclopedia, 1998, - 928 p.: Il. - ISBN 5-85270-155-6