The origins and values ​​of industrial civilization.

Most sustainable in modern sociology considered a typology based on the allocation of traditional, industrial and post-industrial societies.

A traditional society (also called simple and agrarian) is a society with an agrarian way of life, sedentary structures and a method of socio-cultural regulation based on traditions (traditional society). The behavior of individuals in it is strictly controlled, regulated by customs and norms of traditional behavior, well-established social institutions, among which the most important will be the family and the community. Attempts of any social transformations and innovations are rejected. It is characterized by low rates of development and production. Important for this type of society is the well-established social solidarity, which was established by Durkheim, studying the society of Australian aborigines.

Traditional society is characterized by a natural division and specialization of labor (mainly by gender and age), personalization of interpersonal communication (directly by individuals, and not by officials or status officials), informal regulation of interactions (by the norms of the unwritten laws of religion and morality), connectedness of members by kinship relations (family type of organization community), a primitive system of community management (hereditary power, the rule of elders).

Modern societies are distinguished by the following features: role-based nature of interaction (expectations and behavior of people are determined by social status and social functions individuals); developing deep division of labor (on a professional and qualification basis related to education and work experience); a formal system for regulating relations (based on written law: laws, regulations, contracts, etc.); complex system social management(allocation of the institution of management, special management bodies: political, economic, territorial and self-government); secularization of religion (separating it from the system of government); the allocation of a multitude of social institutions (self-reproducing systems of special relations, allowing to ensure public control, inequality, protection of its members, distribution of benefits, production, communication).

These include industrial and post-industrial societies.

Industrial society is a type of organization social life that combines the freedom and interests of the individual with the general principles that govern them joint activities... It is flexible. social structures, social mobility, developed communication system.

In the 1960s. the concepts of postindustrial (informational) society appear (D. Bell, A. Touraine, J. Habermas), caused by abrupt changes in the economy and culture of the most developed countries. The leading role in society is recognized as the role of knowledge and information, computer and automatic devices. An individual who has received the necessary education, who has access to the latest information, gets an advantageous chance of moving up the ladder of the social hierarchy. Creative work becomes the main goal of a person in society.

The negative side of the post-industrial society is the danger of strengthening social control on the part of the state, the ruling elite through access to information and electronic media and communication over people and society as a whole.

The life world of human society is increasingly subject to the logic of efficiency and instrumentalism.

Culture, including traditional values, is destroyed under the influence of administrative control, which tends to standardize and unify social relations and social behavior. Society is increasingly subject to the logic of economic life and bureaucratic thinking.

Distinctive features of a post-industrial society:

• · The transition from the production of goods to the economy of services;
• · The rise and domination of highly educated professional and technical specialists;
• · The main role of theoretical knowledge as a source of discoveries and political decisions in society;
• · Control over technology and the ability to assess the consequences of scientific and technical innovations;
• · Decision-making based on the creation of intelligent technology, as well as using the so-called information technology.

The latter is brought into being by the needs of the information society that has begun to form. The emergence of such a phenomenon is by no means accidental. The basis of social dynamics in the information society is not made up of traditional material resources, which, moreover, are largely exhausted, but informational (intellectual): knowledge, scientific, organizational factors, intellectual abilities people, their initiative, creativity.

The concept of post-industrialism has been developed in detail today, has a lot of supporters and an increasing number of opponents. There are two main directions for assessing the future development of human society in the world: eco-pessimism and techno-optimism. Eco-pessimism predicts an all-out global catastrophe in 2030 due to increasing pollution the environment; destruction of the Earth's biosphere. Techno-optimism paints a more rosy picture, assuming that scientific and technological progress will cope with all the difficulties on the path of society's development.

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"The origins and values ​​of industrial civilization"

Industrial Society- this is the dominance of machine production. Its basic structure is economics, and its industry is based on machines. The main direction of society is the competition between man and transformed nature.

An industrial society is characterized by:

In the economic sphere:

Independence from natural and climatic conditions

Industrial nature of the economy

Developed industrial machinery and technology

Private ownership of objects and means of labor

In the political sphere:

The form of the state system is a unitary state

Form of government - monarchy or republic

Democratic or anti-democratic regime

IN social sphere:

The class-class nature of relations to the means of production, to the position of a person in a social group

Dependence of the position of the individual on his own merit, social mobility

In the spiritual realm:

Rationalism, pragmatism of consciousness, belief in the unlimited possibilities of the individual

The ideals are freedom, equality, justice

Technology has always evolved unevenly: once discoveries followed each other, but it also happened that for many decades there were no discoveries. The end of the Middle Ages is characterized by the entry of man into new era scientific and technical development, it was a time of great discoveries.

The 15th century was a turning point in the history of mankind: it was then that the dictatorship of Europe began to establish itself, namely, the Portuguese founded the first colonies in Africa at this time, then other European countries joined the colonial wars - this is how the capitalist era of production begins.

The word "capital", having appeared around the XII-XIII centuries, originally meant values. A stock of goods is a lot of money or interest-bearing money. However, after some time, the owner of the money comes to the realization that borrowing money or selling goods produced by someone brings less income than if they themselves produce the same goods. Having understood this, the owners of money understood another thing that for the penetration of capital into the sphere of production, certain relations in society are needed and in connection with this, such a concept appears as work force. As a result, the relationship between the worker and the owner of the means of production finally acquired an economic character, which could not affect all other aspects of society.

One of important points history was the Renaissance. It coincided with the discovery of the New World and with the rediscovery the ancient world... Particularly noticeable changes took place in cities, where the capital of urban residents was growing very quickly and that immediately changed the social status of these residents. In the cities, economic and political life, new ideas were formed about the representation of a person's personality. In this era, a person began to be viewed not as a bearer of vices, but as a free person, claiming what she wants. It is thanks to the constant and organic interaction of new ideals and values ​​that the Renaissance was able to bring forth the titans of thought and create enduring spiritual values. However, less in any literature it is mentioned that an integral part of the life of people of this time was belief in astrology and any magical actions. Also in this era, humanism often coexisted with the rampant passions and deaths, such famous people like Lorenzo Medici, Caesar Borgia or Leonardo Da Vinci, conspiracies and sometimes murders were not neglected. We also associate this era with such a word as the Inquisition, it is estimated that at this time, due to the Inquisition, 30 thousand were burned. of people. But also in the Middle Ages, belief in man, in his extraordinary features, was unusual. In man, Alberti Batista believed, there is something immortal from God. Activity for which man is born, is potentially limitless. The formation of new values ​​is associated with a broad, complex in the composition of participants, socio-political and ideological movement against the Catholic Church, and in a number of reforms in some countries. Catholic Church lost its monopoly position or ended up in b O more dependence on the state - the spiritual dictatorship was broken. The moral ideals of the Renaissance developed, changed and were characterized by traits of prudence, industriousness, worship of wealth and contempt for the poor.

At the end of the Middle Ages, there were also changes in the socio-political structure, and the most striking trends were manifested in parliamentarism.

Parliamentarism- is a system of government, which is characterized by the presence of a representative body - parliament, exercising legislature and determining the main directions of internal and foreign policy government. Parliamentarianism presupposes the principle of government responsibility to parliamentarians who have the right to pass a vote of no confidence in the government.

An important milestone on the road to modern civilization became the 18th century, it was then that the process of separation of economic and political power began on the basis of the formation of a rule of law. Significant changes occurred in the nature of the interaction between man and nature. Rapid growth of manufacturing industry and dramatic expansion economic activity adversely affected the condition natural environment... In the development of society, such factors as a change in technical achievements and technologies, economic competition, alienation of a person from the results of labor, and the struggle of workers for economic rights were increasingly manifested.

In the second third of the century, the formation of large-scale machine production begins. Industrial civilization comes and brings with it a sense of the enormous possibilities of man, faith in his ability to transform the world, to make truly revolutionary changes in all spheres of public life.

Industrial society - type social development based on the accelerating change in the natural environment, forms public relations and the person himself. The rapid development of industrial society is due not only to the expansion of the sphere of human life, the emergence industrial production, but also a restructuring of its very foundations, a radical change in traditionalist values ​​and life meanings. If in traditional society any innovations were disguised as tradition, then the industrial society proclaims the value of the new, not constrained by the regulatory tradition. This contributed to the development of social productive forces unprecedented in history.
Industrial society is characterized by the rapid development of technology based on the introduction scientific ideas into social production. If traditional society made do with relatively simple tools of labor, arranged according to the principle of a composite object with a geometric fit of separate parts (block, lever, cart), then industrial society is characterized by technical devices based on force interactions (steam engines, machine tools, internal combustion engines, etc. etc.). The emergence of large industrial enterprises, equipped with sophisticated equipment, formed a social demand for a competent worker, and therefore contributed to the development mass system education. Network development railways not only significantly increased the economic and cultural exchange, but also demanded the introduction of a unified maternity time. The impact of technology on all aspects of the life of an industrial society is so great that it is often called technogenic civilization.
The development of technology not only expands the sphere of human domination over nature, but also changes the place of man in the system of social production. Living labor gradually loses power and motor functions and increases control and information functions. In the second half of the XX century. such technical systems(automated enterprises, spacecraft control systems, nuclear power plants), the operation of which requires not only virtuoso production skills, but also fundamental vocational training based on the latest scientific achievements. Science becomes not only critical area spiritual culture, but also an immediate productive force.
Technical progress contributed to the rise of the productive forces of society and an unprecedented increase in quality human life... Development commodity production not only led to the saturation of the market with essential products, but also formed new needs unknown to traditional society (synthetic drugs, computers, modern facilities communication and transport, etc.). The quality of housing, food and medical care has noticeably improved, and the average life expectancy has increased. The powerful development of technology has noticeably changed not only subject environment human habitation, but also all of it daily life... If the patriarchal-stagnant turn of life in the traditionalist consciousness was symbolized by the "wheel of times", that is, the idea of ​​eternal return to square one, then the dynamism of technogenic civilization gave rise to the image of axial historical time, about which the German philosopher K. Jaspers wrote. "Time is an arrow" is becoming a symbol of not only technical, but also social progress, that is, the idea of ​​the progressive development of society from barbarism and savagery to civilization and the further build-up of civilizational achievements.
Technological progress gave rise to profound changes in the cultural meanings of nature, society and man himself, introduced new values ​​and life meanings... The traditionalist idea of ​​life-giving nature in the public consciousness of an industrial society is replaced by the idea of ​​an ordered "system of nature" governed by natural laws. Such ideas are reflected in the metaphor of the world as a clockwork, the individual parts of which are linked by a rigid causal interaction. Cognition of the world was identified with its reproduction in the forms of human activity. The religious "disenchantment" of the world (M. Weber) was accompanied by a large-scale secularization of public consciousness, that is, the replacement of a religious worldview and education with a secular one. K. Marx's definition of nature as a "inorganic human body" illustrates the destruction of traditionalist ideas about the organic unity of man and nature: the perception of nature as a deified source of life is replaced by the concept of the habitat as a storehouse of an inexhaustible supply of industrial raw materials. The pathos of the Promethean will of the new European man, the assertion of his strength and power meant the assertion of limitless transformative possibilities in relation to nature. Conquest, submission, transformation are becoming key metaphors for the new industrial culture. “We cannot wait for favors from nature” - this is the motto of not only a process engineer, but also a botanist-selectionist.
Unlike traditional society in an industrial society, the dominant type of social connection is based not on non-economic, but on economic coercion to work. Capitalist wage labor is characterized by social partnership two legally equal parties: an entrepreneur who owns the means of production (premises, equipment, raw materials), and an employee who has only his own labor force(physical ability to work, production skills, education). Unlike the owner of the means of production, the hired worker, yesterday's peasant, driven from the land by need, does not have the means to live. Therefore, the formal (legal) equality of the parties in practice turns out to be actual inequality, economic compulsion to work on the terms of the employer. But in a civilizational sense, the abolition of personal dependence and the transition to social contract on the basis of a legal agreement is a noticeable step forward in the establishment of human rights and the formation of civil society. The break in the relationship of personal dependence and clan-clan affiliation creates conditions for social mobility, that is, the ability of a person to move from one social group (class) to another. Industrial society grants a person one of the highest civilizational values ​​- personal freedom. A free person becomes the master of his own destiny.
Social relations, invisible threads of the social fabric, in an industrial society take the form of commodity-money exchange (activities, products of labor, services, etc.). This gives rise to the illusion that it is not people who dominate each other, connected by a historically specific type of social relations, but "money rules the world." Only a deep study of society can dispel this illusion and show that historically, this or that form of labor exploitation is based on certain type social production and the corresponding relations of ownership and distribution.
If social relations in a traditional society are called directly social, then industrial modernity is characterized by social ties mediated (by money, goods, institutions) of people who do not personally know each other - social partners. Describing medieval cities, M. Weber noted that urban dwellings are located much closer than in countryside However, unlike their fellow villagers, urban neighbors do not necessarily know each other. Social institutions, and above all the state, represented by law enforcement agencies, courts, prosecutors, as well as institutions of socialization (schools, universities, etc.) and employment of an individual (state enterprises), become intermediaries in relations between people in an industrial society. Institutionally-mediated social ties give rise to people's attitudes towards each other as carriers social role(judge, boss, teacher, doctor, salesman, bus driver, etc.). And each person plays not one, but many social roles, acting as both an actor and an author own life.
The period of industrialization is characterized by massive migration of the rural population to cities that can provide more high level life. Character traits Western European medieval cities were formed in the XVI-XVII centuries. The city is distinguished from rural settlements by a fortified territory ("burg"), as well as elected bodies of city self-government. Unlike the rural population with a strict division into masters and subjects, the townspeople are formally equal in rights, regardless of their social origin, personal merit and wealth. Industrial corporations defended the rights of their members in the city court, including in the face of the former owner. In many countries, the city court's verdict was final and not subject to appeal by the royal court. The saying “City air makes free” has reached our days. However, with the strengthening of centralized states, the administration of justice is increasingly concentrated in the hands of the supreme power. Monopolization and regulation of violence by the state helps to reduce the overall level of unauthorized violence in society. The development of legal consciousness and legal institutions that equalize the strong and the weak, the noble and the rootless, the rich and the poor in the face of the law, that is, the formation the rule of law, not only an inalienable condition for the development of industrial capitalism, but also the most important civilizational achievement of mankind.

INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY CULTURE.

1. Industrial society: basic characteristics.
2. Dominant features of industrial culture.
3. Cultural stratification in an industrial society.

1. INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY is the final product of modernization. It acquires a systemic certainty when new institutions are fixed in the models of human behavior corresponding to their nature and functions. In this case, an industrial society is capable of reproduction in time and space.

   Consider the institutional components of an industrial society.

   • Industrial Society, as can be seen even from its name, relies on machine production... This means that the products of the industry are most gross domestic product of the country, the main economic unit is a factory working for the market, with a rational organization of labor and appropriate discipline of all personnel. The main economic institution is the firm.
   • An industrial society is market-based in terms of its economic content., which presupposes not only an expanded monetary economy, but also the institutionalization of entrepreneurial activity.
   • Industrial society - economic society... The economy becomes the main subsystem of society, which determines the activities of all other institutions. The economic principle (the amount and nature of income) determines social differences between people, builds a new social hierarchy, in which the measure of a person's social position (status in society) is money. Other social parameters of a person (occupation, education, even origin) have an economic equivalent.
   • Industrial society is supralocal... Industrial, economic, political ties unite the population, regardless of where they live. The market system assumes a constant exchange of information, people, products between territories. The same institutions function according to a single rational scheme in any part of the country. The political form of industrial society is nation state liberal type.
   • The industrial society is urbanized. The main type of settlement is the city - not only because the majority of the inhabitants live in it, but also because the urban way of life dominates the whole society, incl. and in its rural part (K. Marx).
   • The industrial society is differentiated. Each of its subsystems: economic, political, develops autonomously in accordance with its own rhythms and norms. In an industrial society, there is a clear dividing line between the public and private (private) spheres of human activity.
   • An industrial society is a conflict-dynamic society. The nature of conflicts is mainly economic. It concerns income redistribution, changes social status separate social groups. Conflict includes resistance to the system; domination and discipline, both in the factory and in society as a whole.

   The rational settlement of the conflict leads to the evolution of society (R. Darendorf). So, the reproduction of an industrial society, thanks to conflicts, is realized in the form of development, i.e. possesses internal dynamics.

   The industrial society is relatively young. It took shape in Europe 2-3 (thirty) generations ago. At the same time, in a number of countries, it develops into a society POST-INDUSTRIAL, in which the university is to become the main social institution; defining technologies - intelligent; the central subsystem of society is cultural (D.Bell, A.Turen).

   Naturally, the proposed characteristics of an industrial society describe its theoretical model, which does not coincide with specific historical realities. different nations since they must contain traces of the traditionalist and even archaic past, the functioning of pre-industrial institutions.

   We need a theoretical model in order to understand the dominant features of industrial culture.

2. Industrial society, being a truly "economic formation of society" (K. Marx), has a corresponding culture. Its main features: rationalism, individualism and polystylism, are dressed in an economic shell.

   Rationalism manifests itself in what imposes all behaviors are the same essentially economic criteria for reasonable: thrift, cost-benefit ratio, monetary effect.

   Individualism, by its cultural nature, focused on the self-worth of the individual, the recognition of the inalienability of his fundamental rights and freedoms, manifests itself in an unchanged form economic selfishness, in mutual alienation of people from each other.

   Finally, polystylism is diversity cultural forms in clothing, demeanor, finally, in architecture, painting, literature and music, - acts as a continuation of the economic differentiation of society, prompting each of the social groups to choose a particular model of culture, in accordance with its economic roles and, most importantly, income.

   Economismculture is reflected in the system adopted by society life values, in its fundamental square: labor, money, freedom, family.

   Moreover, work - instrumental value, interpreted as a means of conquering and preserving social status as a necessary role function in the economic institutions of society.

   Money perceived as a kind of visible and sensual equivalent of social position, also instrumental value. They are the source of freedom.

   freedom - fundamental value. It expresses a person's need for individual self-determination and self-realization in a regulated, rationally organized and therefore dehumanized society. Practical freedom implies the ability to choose an occupation, independently decide on the acceptability of a particular workplace and payment. To unite with other people to protect their interests, to oppose the state machine on an equal footing.

   Family - this is the value of personal interhuman relations, compensating for the rationality and impersonality of the human economic world; it is the value of the private sphere, impervious to public institutions: firms, the state, etc.

   This set of values ​​in various combinations determines the actual patterns of behavior of various sociocultural groups in everyday life.

3. Having mentioned sociocultural groups in industrial society, I touched upon the problem of the impact of culture on social stratification. It has already been said that economic institutions are of decisive importance for stratification: property, inheritance, sources and amounts of income. In accordance with them, separate strata (groups) in society are distinguished. At first glance, the same mechanism operates in it as in traditional society. The new generation borrows its social position from its own parents. It is another matter that the strata differ from the estates in greater openness, in the absence of special privileges, fixed in the law, but not in custom, etc. After all, a person's social career is determined by his starting economic situation.

   However, the matter is more complicated. Status positions in an industrial market society are a subject of competition. In order to achieve them, preserve and use them effectively, positive knowledge is needed. gleaned from different sciences, including economic and social. Gradually, a directly proportional the relationship between education level and social status... How better education, the higher the status.

   Thus, education becomes the most important social institution through which the elite is selected in society.

   Culture acquires a level dimension that coincides with the length of education. Thus, along with the economic factors of stratification, the actual cultural factor... There is a systemic relationship between them. The higher the family income. The more accessible is education, which is also differentiated by economic principles: private (expensive and highly efficient) and public schools that provide the worst education at the expense of the state or society. The principle of economism prevails in this area too. In turn, a good education is capital efficient long-term investment, opening the way for its owner to key economic positions in society. The result of the merging of these two factors is the formation in an industrial society of socio-cultural groups that differ in economic and cultural characteristics.

   Thus,

   • industrial society is economic in nature, which is reflected in its cultural subsystem.
   • The new quality of industrial culture is realized in rationalism, individualism and polystylism, existing in the economic form.
   • The main values ​​of the culture of an industrial society: labor, money, freedom, family, - determine the behavior patterns of its citizens.
   • The level of culture acquired through education becomes a factor in fundamental social differences between social groups.

What can you read.

Bell D. Post-industrial society// American model: with the future in conflict. - M., 1984.
Berdyaev N. Philosophy of inequality. - M., 1990.
Braudel F. Dynamics of capitalism. - Smolensk, 1993.
Mills C. The Ruling Elite. - M., 1959.

The industrial revolution (mid-19th century) resulted in the emergence of an industrial society. The ideals of such a society are labor, production, science, education, democracy. Saint-Simon dreams of a society organized like a huge factory, headed by industrialists and scientists. Factory at that time changed the manufactory leading to unseen before increased productivity social labor. Introduction of technical innovations accompanied by the enlargement of enterprises, the transition to the production of mass, standardized products. Mass production led to urbanization(city growth). The United States demonstrated the prospect of the accelerated development of capitalism. The process has become more inclusive and more homogeneous, there was a process of turning history into world history... Formation of culture as unity, diversity national cultures and art schools. Traditional countries such as Japan are also included in this process. The problem of cultural dialogue is acquiring a special flavor. A new system of values ​​is taking shape. At the heart of sensitivity - benefit, wealth, comfort.Progress is equated with economic progress. Wherein the principle of benefit transforms the concept of truth.The bottom line is what is convenient and useful. Etiquette takes on a utilitarian character. Regulation of relationships between free partners in the means of purchase and sale. The seller should be polite and courteous, but the buyer shouldn't. Only those who are helpful are given attention. Relationships are being formalized.

Core value industrial civilization becametechnical progress... According to Sorokin's calculations, The 19th century brought more discoveries than all previous centuries combined(8527). Rapid technical growth proceeded from two premises of Western European culture. Belief in the active role of the human mind. In addition, in the 19th century, the attitude towards the function of science changed, previously the cognitive and educational function prevailed. Now - applied... Europe is proud of its achievements. 1851 London Exhibition. As a result, the technical domination of man over process and matter has grown completely. Have appeared new types of overcoming space.19th century - "railways". Everyday life includes telephone, telegraph... In December 1839, Louis Daguerre and Nicefort announced the creation photos... Appears cinema(Lumiere). First stories up to 3 minutes. (Arrival of the train, lunch for children, watered and watered).

Cognition made it possible to bring parts of the world closer to each other. The changing role of religion... The process of disenchanting the world is over. Gone is the belief in the supernatural... Debate between Ulilbrfors and Huxley. 1860 at Oxford. The victory of Darwinism.Science has achieved independence from religion. Darwinism responded to the needs of society. Freud proves that God's idea is the fruit of human weakness, dreaming of powerful power. A person's desire for protection and patronage.

Marx - religion - the sigh of the oppressed creature... Connected it with the interests of the class struggle. A critical study of the biblical texts refuted their God-given. Introduced compulsory secular education.Clergy It was disenfranchised... In the 19th century - the crisis of Christian cosmology and morality. F. Nietzsche: God is dead.We killed him.In morality is growing individualism... You don't owe me anything, I don't owe you anything. The family is changing. Decreased, appeared family units.Less children... The quality of life is improving. Steam heating appears. In the external appearance of ancient things, the discovery of Tonet was opened. Made Viennese chairs. The children's world is being formed. Rich houses appear children's rooms, clothes, books, toys. The role of elite art is being overestimated. Persistently claims to be a spiritual guide. Art is expression moral ideals... Among the coexisting regimes. Most matched realism... The study of the evolution of species was consistent the idea of ​​art about social types."The Human Comedy" by Honore Balzac. 95 works. The foreword is a manifesto of realistic art. The quintessence in Balzac's dictum is that the outer form is the basis.

The industrial society has spread image of a business person.Balzac recreatesentrepreneurial class.Opposite type to Byronic hero... Obsessed with power, wealth. Interest in the layman... In 1864, the Garkou brothers' novel "Germini" was published. The prefaces write: “in the conditions of democracy, we asked ourselves the question, do the lower classes really have no right to a novel. Really, the people should remain under the literary ban. Take advantage of the author's contempt. Philistines... 1830 changes from German to other European languages. It was in student jargon. Philistine is one who often skips lectures. In the 19th century - vulgar, hypocritical, mediocre, self-righteous man in the street. Flaubert is a "lexicon of common truths" (a collection of philistine morality of 700 postulates).

Painting representatives: Courbet, Millet.Representativescritical realism focused on depicting the life of the disadvantaged strata of society, which were opposed to the life of the rich. The life of a field worker is Millet's main theme. The figures of the peasants are characteristic. Milletpoeticizes work... By portraying labor, you can convey humanity. Gustave Courbet became an active fighter for critical realism. The artist depicts backbreaking work and poverty(painting "Stone Crushers", "Funeral at Ornans"). Everything was new in the last picture. The funeral of an inhabitant of a small town. Petty bourgeois and prosperous peasants, whom the artist depicts without any beauty. It conveys life with all the merciless truth. Some paintings are a glorification of the ugly.

The basics realistic landscape laid down Camille Caro.