Pagan swastika. Swastika of the Slavs and its meaning

There is one graphic sign that has the oldest history and the deepest meaning, but which was very unlucky with fans, as a result of which it was discredited for many decades, if not forever. In this case, we are talking about the swastika, which occurred and separated from the image of the symbol of the cross in deep antiquity, when it was interpreted as an exclusively solar, magical sign.

Solar symbols.

Sun sign

The word "swastika" itself is translated from Sanskrit as "prosperity", "prosperity" (the Thai greeting "Savatdiya" comes from the Sanskrit "su" and "asti" "). This ancient solar sign is one of the most archaic, and therefore one of the most effective, since it is imprinted in the deep memory of mankind. Swastika - is an indicator of the apparent movement of the Sun around the Earth and dividing the year into 4 seasons. In addition, it includes the idea of ​​the four cardinal points.

This sign was associated with the cult of the Sun among many peoples and is found already in the Upper Paleolithic era and even more often in the Neolithic era, first of all in Asia. Already from the 7th - 6th centuries BC. NS. it is included in Buddhist symbolism, where it means the secret doctrine of the Buddha.

Even before our era, the swastika is actively used in symbolism in India and Iran and ends up in China. This sign was also used in Central America by the Maya, where it symbolized the circulation of the Sun. Around the time of the Bronze Age, the swastika entered Europe, where it became especially popular in Scandinavia. Here she is used as one of the attributes of the supreme god Odin. Almost everywhere, in all corners of the Earth, in all cultures and traditions swastika used as a sun sign and a symbol of well-being. And only when it came to Ancient Greece from Asia Minor, it was changed so that its meaning also changed. Turning a swastika that was alien to them counterclockwise, the Greeks turned it into a sign of evil and death (in their opinion).

Swastika in the symbols of Russia and other countries

In the Middle Ages, the swastika was somehow forgotten and remembered already closer to the beginning of the twentieth century. And not only in Germany, as one might expect. For some, this may be surprising, but the swastika was used in official symbols in Russia. In 1917, in April, new banknotes in denominations of 250 and 1000 rubles were issued, on which there was an image of a swastika. The swastika was also present on Soviet banknotes of 5 and 10 thousand rubles, which were in use until 1922. And in some parts of the Red Army, for example, among the Kalmyk formations, the swastika was an integral part of the design of the sleeve insignia.

During the First World War, the swastika was applied to the fuselages of the famous American squadron Lafayette. Her images were also featured in the P-12 Briefings, which were in service with the US Air Force from 1929 to 1941. In addition, this symbol was depicted on the chevron of the 45th Infantry Division of the United States Army from 1923 to 1939.

It is especially worth talking about Finland. This country is currently the only one in the world in which the swastika is present in the official symbols. It is included in the presidential standard and is also included in the country's military and naval flags.

The modern flag of the Finnish Air Force Academy in Kuahava.

According to the explanation given on the website of the Finnish Defense Forces, the swastika as an ancient symbol of the happiness of the Finno-Ugric peoples was adopted as a symbol of the Finnish Air Force back in 1918, that is, before it was used as a fascist sign. And although according to the terms of the peace treaty after the end of World War II, the Finns had to abandon its use, this was not done. In addition, the explanation on the website of the Finnish Defense Forces emphasized that, unlike the Nazi, the Finnish swastika is strictly vertical.

In modern India, the swastika is ubiquitous.

Note that there is one country in the modern world where images of the swastika can be seen almost at every step. This is India. In it, this symbol has been used in Hinduism for more than one millennium and no government can prohibit it.

Fascist swastika

It is worth mentioning the common myth that the Nazis used an inverted swastika. Where he came from is completely incomprehensible, since german swastika the most common is in the direction of the sun. Another thing is that they depicted her at an angle of 45 degrees, and not vertically. As for the inverted swastika, it is used in the Bon religion, which many Tibetans still follow today. Note that the use of an inverted swastika is not such a rare occurrence: its image is found in ancient Greek culture, in pre-Christian Roman mosaics, medieval coats of arms, and even in the Rudyard Kipling logo.

An inverted swastika in a Bon monastery.

As for the Nazi swastika, it became the official emblem of the Nazi fascist party in 1923, on the eve of the "beer coup" in Munich. Since September 1935, she becomes the main state emblem Hitlerite Germany, included in its coat of arms and flag. And for ten years the swastika was directly associated with fascism, turning from a symbol of goodness and well-being into a symbol of evil and inhumanity. It is not surprising that after 1945, all states, with the exception of Finland and Spain, in which the swastika was in symbolism until November 1975, refused to use this symbol as compromised by fascism.

It so happened that we arrived in the small, relatively secluded town of Rewalsar in the Himalayas already quite late, so late that it was hard for small, sleepy and lazy provincial hotels to bother with our settlement. The innkeepers shrugged their shoulders, shook their heads and waving their hands somewhere in the direction of the night, slamming the doors in front of our noses. But we were willingly, though not free of charge, accepted into a guest house on the territory of a Tibetan Buddhist monastery on the shore of the lake.

As is often the case for Tibetan places, a Hindu was engaged in our meeting and accommodation, since it is not appropriate for Tibetan monks to deal with money and worldly matters. In addition, the monastery had been immersed in the darkness for several hours, and the monks should have slept so that early tomorrow morning they had to go to meditation with a cheerful and full of piety face. A Hindu who gave us the keys to a hotel room told us about this and other sorrows in the world, and in order to somehow console himself, he insistently recommended that we attend this event at seven in the morning.

The main topics below are: buses and trains, airline tickets and visas, health and hygiene, safety, itinerary, hotels, food, budget requirements. The relevance of this text is spring 2017.

Hotels

"Where will I live there?" - this question is for some reason very strong, just terribly annoying for those who have not traveled to India yet. There is no such problem. There are a dime a dozen hotels. The main thing is to choose. Further it comes about inexpensive, budget hotels.

In my experience, there are three main ways to find a hotel.

Spiral

Usually you will arrive at new town by bus or train. So there is almost always a great mass of hotels around them. Therefore, it is enough to move a little away from the place of arrival and start walking in a circle with an increasing radius to come across many hotels. Lettering "Hotel" in a large territory of India, it marks a place where you can eat, so the main landmarks are signs "Guest house" and Lounge.

In the zones of mass idleness (Goa, the resorts of Kerala, the Himalayas), the private sector is developed, well, like we have on the Black Sea coast. There you can ask the local population about housing and be guided by the signs " Rent"In Buddhist places one can live in monasteries, in Hindu places in ashrams.

The further you go from the bus station or railway station, the lower the prices, but hotels are less and less common. So you inspect several hotels that are acceptable in terms of price and quality and return to the chosen one.

If you are traveling in a group, then one or two people can be sent light to find a hotel, while the rest are waiting at the station with their belongings.

If the hotel is refused and they say that the hotel is only for Hindus, then insisting on check-in is practically useless.

Ask a taxi driver

For those who have a lot of luggage or just look lazy. Or you want to settle near a landmark, for example, the Taj Mahal, and not at the station. Also in large cities there are places of traditional gathering of tourists: in Delhi it is Main Bazaar, in Calcutta it is Sader Street, in Bombay it is also called something, but I forgot, that is, in any case, you have to go there.

In this case, find a rickshaw or taxi driver and set the task of where you want to live, in what conditions and for what about the money. In this case, you can sometimes be taken to the desired hotel for free, even shown several places to choose from. It is clear that the price immediately rises, bargaining is pointless, since the price already includes the taxi driver's commission. But sometimes, when you are lazy or in the middle of the night, it can be very convenient to use this method.

Book online

This is for those who like certainty and guarantees, more comfort and less adventure.

Well, if you book in advance, then book hotels of better quality and not too cheap (at least $ 30-40 per room), because otherwise there is no guarantee that in reality everything will be as beautiful as in the photographs. They also complained to me that sometimes they came to the booked hotel, and the rooms, despite the reservation, were already occupied. The owners of the hotel were not embarrassed, they said that a client had come with money, and the client with cash did not have enough willpower to refuse. The money was returned, of course, but it's still a shame.

Finding, checking in and staying in inexpensive Indian hotels can be an adventure in itself, a source of fun and sometimes not so fun memories. But then there will be something to tell at home.

Settlement technology

• Free yourself from the presence of "Hindu helpers" and barkers, their presence automatically increases the cost of settling.
• You go to a hotel that seems worthy of you and ask how much it costs and decide whether it is worth living there, at the same time you manage to appreciate the interior and helpfulness.
• Be sure to ask to be shown the number before check-in, show your dissatisfaction and indignation with your whole appearance, ask to show another number, most likely it will be better. This can be done several times, achieving all the best conditions for placement.

Those who are interested in the energy of Osho and Buddha, meditation and India, we invite you all to travel to the places where you were born, lived the first years of life and found enlightenment greatest mystic 20th century Osho! In one trip we will combine the exoticism of India, meditation, absorb the energy of Osho places!
Also, the tour plan includes a visit to Varanasi, Bodhgaya and possibly Khajuraho (upon availability of tickets)

Key travel destinations

Kuchwada

A small village in central India, where Osho was born and lived for the first seven years, surrounded and caring by his loving grandparents. There is still a house in Kuchwad, which remained exactly the same as it was during Osho's lifetime. Also next to the house is a pond, on the banks of which Osho liked to sit for hours and watch the endless movement of reeds in the wind, funny Games and the flights of herons over the surface of the water. You can visit Osho's home, spend time on the shore of the pond, stroll through the village, and soak up the serene spirit of rural India, which undoubtedly had an initial influence on the formation of Osho.

In Kuchwada there is a fairly large and comfortable ashram under the patronage of sannyasins from Japan, where we will live and meditate.

A short video "emotional experience" from visiting Kuchwada and Osho's house.

Gadarwara

At the age of 7, Osho moved with his grandmother to live with his parents in small town Gadarwara where it passes school years... By the way, the school class where Osho studied still exists, and there is even a desk at which Osho was sitting. You can enter this class, sit at the desk, where our beloved master spent so much time in childhood. Unfortunately, getting into this class is a matter of chance and luck, depending on which teacher conducts classes in the class. But in any case, you can walk along the streets of Gadarvara, visit the initial and high school, the house where Osho lived, Osho's beloved river ...

And most importantly, on the outskirts of the city there is a quiet, small and cozy ashram, where there is a place where, at the age of 14, Osho experienced a deep experience of death.

Video from Osho Ashram in Gadarwar

Jabalpur

A large city with over a million inhabitants. In Jabalpur, Osho studied at the university, then worked as a teacher and became a professor, but the main thing is that at the age of 21 he gained enlightenment, which happened to him in one of the parks of Jabalpur, and the tree under which it happened is still growing on old place.

In Jabalpur we will live in a quiet and cozy ashram with a magnificent park.

From the ashram it is easy to get to the Marble Rocks - a natural wonder, where Osho loved to spend his time during his stay in Jabalpur.

Varanasi

Varanasi is famous for its cremation fires that burn day and night. But there is also a surprisingly nice promenade, the famous Kashi Vishwanath temple, boat trips on the Ganges. Near Varanasi there is a small village of Sarnath, famous for the fact that Buddha read his first sermon there, and ordinary deer were the first listeners.

Bodhgaya

Place of Buddha's enlightenment. In the main temple of the city, which is surrounded by a beautiful and vast park, a tree still grows in the shade of which the Buddha found enlightenment.

In addition, in Bodhgaya there are many different Buddhist temples erected by followers of the Buddha from many countries: China, Japan, Tibet, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma ... Each temple has its own unique architecture, decoration, performed by ceremonies.

Khajuraho

Khajuraho itself is not directly related to Osho, except that Osho often mentioned tantric temples Khajuraho, and his grandmother was directly related to Khajuraho.

Swastika(Skt. स्वस्तिक from Skt. स्वस्ति, svasti, greeting, wish of good luck) - a cross with curved ends ("rotating"), directed either clockwise (this is the movement of the earth around the sun) or counterclockwise.

(Old Ind. svastika, from su, literally "associated with the good"), one of the most archaic symbols, found already in the images of the Upper Paleolithic, in the ornament of many peoples in different parts of the world.

The swastika is one of the most ancient and widespread graphic symbols. "The swastika symbol crystallizes from the rhombo-meander ornament, which first appeared in the Upper Paleolithic, and then inherited by almost all peoples of the world." The oldest archaeological finds depicting a swastika date back to about 25-23 millennia BC (Mezin, Kostenki, Russia).

The swastika was used by many peoples of the world - it was present on weapons, objects everyday life, clothing, banners and coats of arms, was used in the design of churches and houses.
The swastika as a symbol has many meanings, for most peoples they are positive. For most ancient peoples, the swastika was a symbol of the movement of life, the Sun, light, prosperity.

Celtic Kermaria Stone, 4th century BC

The swastika reflects the main type of movement in the Universe - rotational with its derivative - translational and is able to symbolize philosophical categories.

In the 20th century, the swastika (German: Hakenkreuz) gained fame as a symbol of Nazism and Hitlerite Germany, and in Western culture it is steadily associated with the Hitlerite regime and ideology.

History and meaning

The word “swastika” is a composite of two Sanskrit roots: सु, su, “good, good” and अस्ति, asti, “life, existence”, that is, “prosperity” or “well-being”. There is another name for the swastika - "gammadion" (Greek γαμμάδιον), consisting of four Greek letters "gamma". The swastika is seen not only as a solar symbol, but also as a symbol of the fertility of the earth. This is one of the ancient and archaic solar signs - an indicator of the apparent movement of the Sun around the Earth and dividing the year into four parts - four seasons. The sign fixes two solstices: summer and winter - and the annual movement of the Sun. Has the idea of ​​four cardinal points centered around an axis. The swastika also implies the idea of ​​movement in two directions: clockwise and counterclockwise. Like "Yin" and "Yang", a dual sign: rotating clockwise symbolizes masculine energy, counterclockwise - feminine. In ancient Indian scriptures, male and female swastikas are distinguished, which depicts both female and also two male deities.

White glazed mesh-patterned orshok, Yi Dynasty

The swastika personifies the moral characteristic: movement along the sun is good, against the sun - evil. , keeping the flow of physical forces in order to control the lower forces. The right-sided swastika is perceived as a sign of domination over matter and energy control (as in yoga: keeping the body motionless, "screwing" the lower energies makes it possible for the higher forces of energies to manifest themselves). The left-sided swastika, on the other hand, means the unscrewing of physical and instinctive forces and the creation of an obstacle to the passage of higher forces; the direction of movement gives preference to the mechanical, earthly side, the exclusive striving for power in matter. The counterclockwise swastika is also represented as a symbol of black magic and negative energies... As a solar sign, the swastika serves as an emblem of life and light. It is perceived as an incomplete zodiacal circle or as a wheel of life. Sometimes the swastika is identified with another sun sign - a cross in a circle, where the cross is a sign of the diurnal movement of the Sun. The archaic spiral swastika with the ram symbol is known as a symbol of the Sun. The symbol of rotation, continuous movement, expressing the invariability of the solar cycle, or the rotation of the Earth around its axis. A rotating cross, the blades at the ends of which represent the movement of light. The swastika contains the idea of ​​eternal overcoming of the inertia of a square with a wheel of rotation.

The swastika is found in the culture of the peoples of many countries of the world: in the symbolism of Ancient Egypt, in Iran, in Russia, in the ornaments of various communities. One of the oldest forms of the swastika is Asia Minor and is an ideogram of the four cardinal points in the form of a figure with four cruciform curls. Back in the 7th century BC, in Asia Minor, images similar to the swastika were known, consisting of four cross-shaped curls - the rounded ends are signs of cyclic movement. There are interesting coincidences in the image of Indian and Asia Minor swastikas (points between the branches of the swastika, jagged bulges at the ends). Other early forms swastikas - a square with four plant-like curves at the edges are a sign of the earth, also of Asia Minor origin. The swastika was understood as a symbol of the four main forces, the four cardinal points, the elements, the seasons and the alchemical idea of ​​the transformation of the elements.

In the cultures of the countries

The swastika is one of the most archaic sacred symbols, found already in the Upper Paleolithic among many peoples of the world. India, ancient Russia, China, Ancient Egypt, the Mayan state in central America - this is the incomplete geography of this symbol. Swastika symbols were used to designate calendar signs in the days of the Scythian kingdom. The swastika can be seen on old Orthodox icons... Swastika is a symbol of the Sun, good luck, happiness, creation ("correct" swastika). And, accordingly, the swastika of the opposite direction symbolizes darkness, destruction, the "night sun" among the ancient Russians. As can be seen from ancient ornaments, in particular on jugs found in the vicinity of Arkaim, both swastikas were used. This makes a lot of sense. Day replaces night, light replaces darkness, new birth replaces death - and this is the natural order of things in the Universe. Therefore, in ancient times there were no "bad" and "good" swastikas - they were perceived in unity.

The first swastika drawings appeared at an early stage in the formation of the symbolism of the Near Asian Neolithic cultures. Swastika-like figure of the 7th millennium BC from Asia Minor consists of four cruciform curls, i.e. signs of vegetation, and, obviously, represents one of the variants of the ideogram of the concept "four cardinal directions". The memory that the swastika once symbolized the four cardinal points is recorded in medieval Muslim manuscripts, and has also survived to our time among the American Indians. Another swastika-like figure, belonging to the early stage of the Asia Minor Neolithic, consists of the sign of the Earth (a square with a dot) and four plant-like appendages adjacent to it. In such compositions, one should, it seems, see the origin of the swastika - in particular, its version with rounded ends. The latter is confirmed, for example, by the ancient Cretan swastika, combined with four plant elements.

This symbol was found on earthenware vessels from Samarra (the territory of modern Iraq), which date back to the 5th millennium BC. The swastika in levorotatory and dextrorotatory forms is found in the pre-Aryan culture of Mohenjo-Daro (the Indus River basin) and ancient China around 2000 BC. In northeastern Africa, archaeologists have found a funerary stele of the kingdom of Meros, which existed in the 2nd-3rd centuries AD. The mural on the stele depicts a woman entering afterworld, the clothes of the deceased also have a swastika on them. The rotating cross adorns the golden weights for the scales that belonged to the inhabitants of Ashanta (Ghana), and the clay utensils of the ancient Indians, and the carpets of the Persians. The swastika was on almost all amulets among the Slavs, Germans, Pomors, Skalvians, Curonians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Mordovians, Udmurts, Bashkirs, Chuvashes and many other peoples. In many religions, the swastika is an important cult symbol.

Ancient Greek Burial Vessel, circa 750 BC BC.

Details of an Ancient Greek Burial Vessel

The swastika in India has traditionally been viewed as a solar sign - a symbol of life, light, generosity and abundance. Was closely associated with the cult of the god Agni. She is mentioned in the Ramayana. In the form of a swastika, a wooden instrument was made for obtaining the sacred fire. They laid him flat on the ground; a recess in the middle served for a rod, which was rotated until a fire appeared on the altar of the deity. It was carved in many temples, on rocks, on ancient monuments of India. Also a symbol of esoteric Buddhism. In this aspect, it is called the "Seal of the Heart" and, according to legend, was imprinted on the heart of the Buddha. Her image is placed on the hearts of initiates after their death. Known as the Buddhist cross (it resembles a Maltese cross in shape). The swastika is found wherever there are traces of Buddhist culture - on rocks, in temples, stupas and on Buddha statues. Together with Buddhism, it penetrated from India to China, Tibet, Siam and Japan.

The torso of a female sculpture, 6th century BC

In China, the swastika is used as a sign of all the deities worshiped in the Lotus School, as well as in Tibet and Siam. In ancient Chinese manuscripts, it included concepts such as "area", "country". Known in the form of a swastika are two curved mutually truncated fragments of a double spiral, expressing the symbolism of the relationship "Yin" and "Yang". In marine civilizations, the double helix motif was an expression of the relationship between opposites, the sign of the Upper and Lower Waters, and also meant the process of the formation of life. It is widely used by Jains and followers of Vishnu. In Jainism, the four arms of the swastika represent the four levels of existence.

Swastika in India

On one of the Buddhist swastikas, each blade of the cross ends in a triangle indicating the direction of movement and surmounted by an arch of the defective moon, in which the sun is placed, like in a boat. This sign represents the sign of the mystical cart, the creative quaterner, also called the hammer of Thor. A similar cross was found by Schliemann during excavations in Troy. V Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, Central Asia and in the Caucasus occurs from the II-I millennium BC. V Western Europe was known to the Celts. It was depicted in pre-Christian Roman mosaics and on coins of Cyprus and Crete. Known ancient Cretan rounded swastika of plant elements. The Maltese cross in the form of a swastika of four triangles converging in the center is of Phoenician origin. It was also known to the Etruscans. In early Christianity, the swastika was known as the gummed cross. According to Guénon, until the end of the Middle Ages it was one of the emblems of Christ. According to Ossendowski, Genghis Khan wore a ring with a swastika on his right hand, into which was set a magnificent ruby ​​- a sun stone. Ossendovsky saw this ring on the hand of the Mongol governor. Currently this magic symbol known mainly in India and Central and East Asia.

Swastika on the territory of Russia

In Russia, swastika symbols have been known since ancient times.

The rhombo-meander swastika ornament in the Kostenkovo ​​and Mezin cultures (25 - 20 thousand years BC) was studied by V.A.Gorodtsov.

How special kind swastika, symbolizing the rising Sun-Yarilu, the victory of Light over Darkness, Eternal life over death, was called Kolovrat (literally, "rotation of the wheel", the Old Slavonic form Kolovrat was also used in the Old Russian language).

In Russian folk ornamentation, the swastika was one of the usual figures before late XIX v.

The swastika was used in rituals and construction, in homespun production: in embroidery on clothes, on carpets. Household utensils were decorated with a swastika. She was present at the icons
In the St. Petersburg Necropolis, Glinka's grave is crowned with a swastika.

In post-war children's legends, the belief was widespread that the swastika consists of 4 letters "G", symbolizing the first letters of the names of the leaders of the Third Reich - Hitler, Goebbels, Himmler, Goering.

Swastika in India

In pre-Buddhist ancient Indian and some other cultures, the swastika is usually interpreted as a sign of auspicious designs, a symbol of the sun. This symbol is still widely used in India and South Korea, and most weddings, holidays and festivities are not complete without it.

Swastika in India

Buddhist symbol of perfection (also known as manji, "whirlwind" (Japanese ま ん じ, "ornament, cross, swastika")). The vertical bar indicates the relationship between heaven and earth, and the horizontal bar indicates the yin-yang relationship. The direction of the short lines to the left personifies movement, softness, love, compassion, and their aspiration to the right is associated with constancy, firmness, reason and strength. Thus, any one-sidedness is a violation of world harmony and cannot lead to universal happiness. Love and compassion without strength and firmness are helpless, and strength and reason without mercy and love lead to the multiplication of evil.

Swastika in European culture

The swastika became popular in European culture in the 19th century - in the wake of the fashion of Aryan theory. English astrologer Richard Morrison organized the Swastika Order in Europe in 1869. She is found in the pages of books by Rudyard Kipling. The swastika was also used by the founder of the Boy Scout movement, Robert Baden-Powell. In 1915, the swastika, which has been very common in Latvian culture since ancient times, was depicted on the banners of battalions (later regiments) of Latvian riflemen Russian army.

Altars with swastika v Europe:

From Aquitaine

Then, since 1918, it became an element of the official symbols of the Republic of Latvia - the emblem of military aviation, regimental insignia, insignia of societies and various organizations, state awards, is still used today. The Latvian military order of Lachplesis had the form of a swastika. Since 1918, the swastika has been part of the state symbols of Finland (now it is depicted on the presidential standard, as well as on the banners of the armed forces). Later it became a symbol of the German Nazis, after they came to power - state symbol Germany (depicted on the coat of arms and flag); after World War II, its image was banned in a number of countries.

Swastika in Nazism
The National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), which appeared in the 1920s, chose the swastika as its party symbol. Since 1920, the swastika has become associated with Nazism and racism.

There is a very common misconception that the Nazis chose the right-hand swastika as their emblem, thereby perverting the precepts of the ancient sages and desecrating the sign itself, which is more than five thousand years old. In reality, this is not the case. In the cultures of different peoples, both left-sided and right-sided swastikas are found.

Only a four-pointed swastika, standing on an edge at 45 °, with the ends directed to the right, can fit the definition of "Nazi" symbolism. It was this sign that was on the state banner of National Socialist Germany from 1933 to 1945, as well as on the emblems of the civil and military services of this country. The Nazis themselves used the term Hakenkreuz (literally "crooked (hooked) cross"), which is synonymous with the word swastika (German Swastika), also in use in German.

In Russia, the stylized swastika is used as an emblem by the All-Russian social movement Russian National Unity (RNE). Russian nationalists claim that the Russian swastika - Kolovrat - is an ancient Slavic symbol and cannot be recognized as Nazi symbols.

Swastika in the cultures of other countries

Slavic swastika, its significance for us should be the subject of special attention. Confuse fascist swastika and Slavic is possible only with complete ignorance of history and culture. A thoughtful and attentive person knows that the swastika is not originally a "brand" of Germany during the times of fascism. Today, not all people remember the true history of this sign. And all this thanks to the great world tragedy Patriotic War that thundered across the Earth under the standard of a subordinate swastika (enclosed in an indissoluble circle). We need to figure out what this symbol of the swastika was in Slavic culture, why it is still revered, and how today we can apply it in practice. Remember that the Nazi swastika is prohibited in Russia.

Archaeological excavations on the territory of modern Russia and in neighboring countries confirm that the swastika is a much more ancient symbol than the emergence of fascism. So, there are finds with images of the solar symbol, dating back to 10,000-15,000 years before the advent of our era. Slavic culture is replete with numerous facts, confirmed precisely by archaeologists, that the swastika was used by our people everywhere.

vessel found in the Caucasus

The Slavs still retained the memory of this sign, because embroidery schemes are still being transmitted, as well as ready-made towels, or homespun belts and other products. In the photo - belts of Slavs from different regions and dating.

By raising vintage photos, drawings, you can make sure that the Russians also used the swastika symbol on a massive scale. For example, the image of the swastikas in laurel wreath on money, weapons, banners, sleeve chevrons of Red Army soldiers (1917-1923). The honor of the uniform and the solar symbol in the center of the symbolism were one.

But even today one can find both a direct and a stylized swastika in the architecture preserved in Russia. For example, let's take only one city of St. Petersburg. Take a closer look at the mosaic on the floor St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg, or the Hermitage, to vignettes from forging, modeling on buildings along many streets and embankments of this city.

Paul in St. Isaac's Cathedral.

Floor in the Small Hermitage, room 241, "History of Ancient Painting".

Fragment of the ceiling in the Small Hermitage, room 214, "Italian Art of the Late 15th — 16th Centuries".

House in St. Petersburg at 24, English Embankment (the building was built in 1866).

Slavic swastika - meaning and meaning

The Slavic swastika is an equilateral cross, the ends of which are equally bent in one direction (sometimes according to the movement of the clock hands, sometimes against). At the bend, the ends on the four sides of the figure form a right angle (straight swastika), and sometimes sharp or obtuse (oblique swastika). They depicted a symbol with pointed and rounded bends at the ends.

These symbols may mistakenly include a double, triple ("triskelion" with three rays, the symbol of Zervan - the god of space and time, fate and time among the Iranians), eight-pointed ("Kolovrat" or "brace") figure. It is wrong to call these variations swastikas. Our ancestors, the Slavs, perceived each symbol, albeit something similar to another, as a force that had its own separate purpose and function in Nature.

Our native ancestors gave the meaning to the swastika as follows - the movement of forces and bodies in a spiral. If this is the sun, then the sign showed vortex currents in the heavenly body. If this is a Galaxy, the Universe, then the movement of celestial bodies in a spiral within a system around a certain center was understood. The center is, as a rule, "self-glowing" light (white light with no source).

Slavic swastika in other traditions and peoples

Our ancestors of Slavic clans in ancient times, along with other peoples, revered swastika symbols not only as amulets, but also as signs that have sacred meaning. They helped people get in touch with the gods. So, in Georgia they still believe that the roundness of the corners in the swastika means nothing more than the infinity of movement in the entire Universe.

The Indian swastika is now inscribed not only on the temples of various Aryan gods, but is also used as a protective symbolism in household use. They draw this sign in front of the entrance to the dwelling, draw on dishes, use it in embroidery. Modern Indian fabrics are still produced with designs of rounded swastika symbols, similar to a blossoming flower.

Near India, in Tibet, Buddhists are no less respectful of the swastika, drawing it on Buddha statues. In this tradition, the swastika means that the cycle in the universe is endless. In many respects, on the basis of this, even the whole law of Buddha is complex, as recorded in the dictionary "Buddhism", Moscow, ed. "Respublika", 1992 Even during the time of tsarist Russia, the emperor met with Buddhist lamas, finding much in common in the wisdom and philosophy of the two cultures. Today, lamas use the swastika as a protective sign that protects against evil spirits and demons.

The Slavic swastika and the fascist one are distinguished by the fact that the first is not included in a square, circle or any other contour, while on the Nazi flags we observe that the figure is most often located in the center of a white circle-disk located on a red field. The Slavs never had the desire or purpose to place the sign of any God, Lord or power in a confined space.

We are talking about the so-called "submission" of the swastika so that it "works" for those who use it at will. There is an opinion that after A. Hitler drew attention to this symbol, a special witchcraft ceremony was performed. The motive of the ceremony was as follows - to begin to rule the whole world with the help of heavenly forces, subjugating all nations. As far as this is true, the sources are silent, but many generations of people were able to see what can be done with the symbol and how to blacken it and use it to their advantage.

Swastika in Slavic culture - where it is applied

The swastika among the Slavic peoples is found in different signs, which have their own names. In total, there are 144 species of such names today. Among them, the following variations are popular: Kolovrat, Charovrat, Posolon, Inglia, Agni, Svaor, Ognevik, Suasti, Yarovrat, Svarga, Rasich, Svyatoch and others.

In the Christian tradition, swastikas are still used, depicting various saints on Orthodox icons. An attentive person will see such signs on mosaics, paintings, icons, or the attire of a priest.

Small swastikas and double swastikas depicted on the robe of Christ Pantocrator the Almighty - a Christian fresco in the St. Sophia Cathedral of the Novgorod Kremlin.

Today, Swastika symbols are used by those Slavs who continue to honor the horses of their ancestors and remember their Native Gods. So, to celebrate the day of Perun the Thunderer, there are round dances around the swastika signs laid out on the ground (or inscribed) - "Fash" or "Agni". There is also a well-known dance "Kolovrat". The magical meaning of the sign has been passed down from generation to generation. Therefore, understanding Slavs today can freely wear amulets with swastika signs, use them as talismans.

The swastika in Slavic culture in different places of Russia was perceived differently. For example, on the Pechora River, residents called this sign "hare", perceiving it as a sunbeam, a ray of sunlight. But in Ryazan - "feather grass", seeing in the sign the embodiment of the element of wind. But the people also felt the fiery power in the sign. So, there are the names "solar wind", "firestorms", "mushroom" (Nizhny Novgorod region).

The concept of "swastika" was transformed into a semantic meaning - "that which came from Heaven." It contains: "Sva" - Heaven, Svarga Heavenly, Svarog, rune "s" - direction, "tika" - run, movement, the arrival of something. Understanding the origin of the word "Suasti" ("Svasti") helps to determine the strength of the sign. "Su" - good or beautiful, "asti" - to be, to be. In general, the meaning of the swastika can be summarized - "Be kind!".

After the First World War, Europe was in a state of economic and cultural crisis. Hundreds of thousands of young people went to war, naively dreaming of heroic deeds on the battlefield for the sake of honor and glory, and returned disabled in all respects. From the spirit of optimism that marked the first years of the 20th century, only memories remain.

It was during these years that a new political movement entered the political arena. Fascists in different European countries were united by the fact that they were all ultranationalists. The fascist parties, organized according to a strictly hierarchical principle, were joined by people of different social classes, eager for active action. They all argued that their own country or ethnic group was in danger and saw themselves as the only political alternative that could counter that threat. Dangerous were declared, for example, democracy, foreign capitalism, communism or, as it was in Germany, Romania and Bulgaria, other nations and races. The purpose of creating such an imaginary threat was to organize a mass movement capable of uniting the country and forcibly crushing competing ideas and external forces, supposedly seeking to destroy the nation. The state had to completely take control of every member of society, and the industry had to be organized in such a way as to achieve maximum labor productivity.

Within the general framework of such a strategy, naturally, there were different variants of ideologies - depending on the historical, cultural and political background of each country. In countries with strong catholic church fascism was often combined with elements of Catholicism. In some European countries the fascist movement degenerated into small marginal groups. In others, the fascists managed to come to power, and then the development was distinguished by the cult of the fascist leader, disregard for human rights, control over the press, glorification of militarism and the suppression of the labor movement.

Italy and "a bunch of rods", or "a bunch of brushwood"

The word "fascism" was originally used to refer to the ideology of the Partito Nazionale Fascista party in Italy. The leader of the Italian fascists was former journalist Benito Mussolini. For many years Mussolini was fond of the socialist movement, but during the First World War he became a nationalist.

After World War I, Italy's economy collapsed, unemployment reached record highs and democratic traditions fell into decay. The war cost the lives of more than 600,000 Italians, and although Italy was on the winning side, the country was in crisis. Many believed that Italy had lost as a result of the Treaty of Versailles.

On May 23, 1919, the first fascist group, Fasci di Combattimenti, was formed. Skillfully using the social unrest in the country, Mussolini turned his group into a mass organization. When in the fall of 1921 it was transformed into a political party, it already had 300,000 members. Six months later, the movement had 700 thousand members. In the 1921 elections, the fascist party received 6.5% of the vote and entered parliament.

However, the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista) was not an ordinary political party. The fascist movement attracted, first of all, young men. Many of them were war veterans, knew how to obey discipline and handle weapons. In the movement appeared battle groups, where the right of the strong was extolled, and gradually violence became an important part of the entire party ideology. With their bloody attacks on communists and other members of the labor movement, the Nazis sided with employers during the strikes, and the Conservative government used them to suppress the socialist opposition.

In 1922, the Nazis took power in Italy. Mussolini threatened to march with his militants to Rome. Following this threat, on October 31, he was invited to an audience with King Victor Emmanuel III, who offered Mussolini the post of prime minister in the Conservative coalition government. It was a peaceful seizure of power, but in the mythology of fascism, the event was called "the march on Rome" and was described as a revolution.

Mussolini was in power for 22 years, until July 25, 1943, when the Allied troops entered Italy and the king removed the dictator. Mussolini was arrested, but released by a German parachute assault, giving him the opportunity to flee to northern Italy, where on September 23, the Duce proclaimed the notorious "Republic of Salo" - a German protectorate. The "Republic of Salo" existed until April 25, 1945, when the Allied troops occupied this last bastion of Italian fascism. On April 28, 1945, Benito Mussolini was captured by the partisans and was executed.

Totalitarian state

Mussolini, like many of his associates, went to the front as a soldier during the First World War. Life in the trenches seemed to him an ideal society in miniature, where everyone, regardless of age or social origin, worked in the name common goal: defense of the country from an external enemy. Having come to power, Mussolini planned to change Italy to the ground, to create a country where the whole society would be involved in a gigantic production machine and where the fascists would have total control. Expression " totalitarian state"Arose in the early years of the fascist regime in the ranks of its political opponents to describe just such a method of government. Then Mussolini began to use this term to describe his own ambitious plans. In October 1925, he formulated the slogan: "Everything is in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."

All political power in society had to come personally from Mussolini, who was called "Duce", that is, "leader" or "leader". To motivate this concentration of power in the hands of one man, the Italian press began to praise Mussolini. He was described as the personification of the ideal of a man, such myths and such a cult of his personality were created around him, which seems ridiculous in the eyes of a modern person. For example, he was described as a "superman" who is able to work 24 hours a day, has fantastic physical strength and once allegedly stopped his gaze at the beginning of the eruption of Mount Etna.

The heirs of the Roman state

The Italian state was relatively young and socially and even linguistically heterogeneous. However, even before the Nazis came to power, nationalists sought to unite citizens around a single historical heritage - the history of Ancient Rome. Ancient Roman history was an important part schooling from the end of the 19th century. Even before the outbreak of the First World War, historical colossus films were made.

Naturally, in this atmosphere, Mussolini tried to present the fascists as the heirs of the Romans, fulfilling the historical task predetermined by fate - the return of the former power and splendor of the collapsed empire. During the reign of the Duce, the main attention was paid to the period of the emergence of the Roman Empire, its military superiority, and the social structure of that time was depicted as similar to that which Mussolini sought to build. It is from Roman history that many of the symbols used by the fascists are borrowed.

"A bunch of brushwood" - "fascia"

The very word "fascism" has a common root with the party symbol of Mussolini and his henchmen. Fascio littorio, lictor fascia
- this was the name of a bundle of brushwood or rods with a bronze hatchet in the center. Such "bundles", or "sheaves", were carried by Roman lictors - low-ranking officials, clearing them in the crowd, even for important persons.

In ancient Rome, such a "bundle of brushwood" was a symbol of the right to hit, beat and, in general, punish. She later became a symbol political power generally. In the 18th century, during the Age of Enlightenment, the fascia personified republican rule as opposed to monarchy. In the 19th century, it began to mean strength through unity, since the rods tied together are much stronger than the sum of each twig or whip. In the second half of the century, the words "fascina", "fascia", "bundle" began to mean small leftist groups in politics. And after the trade unions held several strikes in the mid-1890s in Sicily, the term took on a connotation of radicalism.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the word "fascists" was quite common. This was the name given to radical Italian political groups, both right and left. However, with the spread of the Fasci di Combattimenti party throughout the country, Mussolini monopolized the term. Gradually, the word "fascia" became associated with the ideology of the Italian fascists, and not with political authority in general, as before.

"A bundle of brushwood" or "bunch of roses" was not only a symbol of the fascists' perception of themselves as the heirs of Rome. Symbolism also meant the spiritual and physical "rebirth" of the Italian people, based on authority and discipline. The branches tied in one bunch became the personification of a unified Italy under the leadership of the Duce. In his manifesto "The Doctrine of Fascism" (Dottrina del fascismo, 1932) Mussolini wrote: "[Fascism] wants to transform not only the external forms of human life, but also its very content, man, characters, faith. This requires discipline and authority that impresses souls and conquers them completely. Therefore, they are marked by the lictor fascia, a symbol of unity, strength and justice. "

After Mussolini came to power, fascia filled the daily life of Italians. They were found on coins, banners, official documents, manhole covers, and postage stamps. They were used by private associations, organizations and clubs. Two enormous "sheaves" stood on the sides of Mussolini when he delivered speeches to the people in Rome.

Since 1926, members of the fascist party were obliged to wear this sign - the party emblem - and on civilian clothes. In December of the same year, a decree was issued giving the symbol state significance... Three months later, the "sheaf" was included in the image. state emblem Italy, taking the place to the left of the coat of arms of the Italian royal house. In April 1929, the fascia replaced two lions on the shield. royal dynasty... So the state and the fascist party merged into one. And the fascia became the visible symbol of the “new order.

Fascist "style"

Mussolini not only wanted to change society, but he also strove to transform the Italian people in accordance with the fascist ideal. Duce began with party members who were the first to dress and behave in accordance with the fascist model, which they later began to associate with right-wing extremist movements around the world. For the Nazis, the word "style" was not only a matter of taste in the choice of clothing. It was about closeness to the fascist ideal in everything: in habits, behavior, actions and attitude towards life.

Fascism was the ideology of war, and its supporters dressed like soldiers. They marched, sang fighting songs, took oaths of allegiance, took the oath and wore uniforms. The uniform included boots, trousers, a special headdress, and a black shirt.

Initially, black shirts were worn by members of fascist militant groups who fought in the streets with communists and other political opponents. They looked like the elite troops of the First World War and were called "arditi". When Mussolini came to power in 1922, he disbanded the militants and organized a national militia in their place. But the black shirts remained and over time acquired such a status that a person who donned it at an inappropriate time could be arrested and prosecuted.

In 1925, Mussolini said at a party congress: “The black shirt is not everyday clothes or uniforms. This is a military uniform that can only be worn by people who are pure in soul and heart. "

The "ten commandments" of fascism, which were formulated in October 1931, said: "Anyone who is not ready to sacrifice his body and soul for Italy and for Mussolini's service without the slightest hesitation is not worthy to wear a black shirt - a symbol of fascism." ... After coming to power, civil servants of all departments began to wear black shirts. In 1931, all professors, and a few years later, teachers at all levels were obliged to wear black shirts at ceremonies. From 1932 to 1934, detailed rules were developed for wearing shirts (wearing starch collars was "absolutely forbidden") in combination with accessories - boots, belt and tie.

Roman greeting

The fascist style of behavior also included the so-called Roman salute. Greeting with an outstretched right hand palm down has been associated with Ancient Rome since the second half of the 18th century. It is not known if it was actually used, but there are images depicting similar gestures.

French artist Jacques-Louis David depicted the oath or oath of the Horatii on a canvas of 1784, where the twins, three brothers, stretching out their arms, vow to sacrifice their lives for the sake of the Roman Republic. After the Great French revolution David painted another picture, where a new, revolutionary government swears allegiance to the new constitution with the same gesture, throwing its right hands forward and upward. Inspired by David's canvas, artists depicted a similar greeting in paintings on ancient Roman themes for a whole century.

In the middle of the 19th century, the outstretched right hand increasingly assumed the character of a military greeting, widespread both among various political groupings and at the level of the whole country. In the United States, for example, since the 1890s, schoolchildren have saluted with their right hand when the American flag is raised. This continued until 1942, when America entered the war against Italy and Germany and it became politically impossible to use the same gesture for greeting as the Nazis.

The Italian fascists considered this gesture a symbol of the legacy of ancient Rome, and propaganda described it as a salute to masculinity, as opposed to the usual handshake, which began to be considered a weak, feminine and bourgeois greeting.

Export style

The Italian fascists were considered the founders of a style that was adopted by all other groups of a similar ideological trend in Europe in the 20s and 30s. The habit of marching in dark-colored shirts has spread among the Nazis.

The Italians were blindly copied by members of the British Union of Fascists, the Dutch party Mussertpartiet and the Bulgarian National for the Fascist, all of whom were "black shirts." The Spanish phalangists in 1934 refused to introduce black shirts to distinguish them from the Italian fascists, and switched to blue uniforms. Also did the Portuguese national syndicalists, the Swedish supporters of Lindholm, the Irish in the Army Comrades Association and several French groups: Faisceau, Solidarité Française and Le Francisme. In Germany, members of the storm troopers of the National Socialist Party (NSDAP) wore brown shirts. Green shirts were worn by members of the Hungarian Arrow Cross Party (Nyilaskeresztes part) - the Nilashists, Croatian Ustashis and the Romanian Iron Guard. Gray shirts were worn by members of the Swiss National Front and Icelandic National Socialists. There was a small group in the United States who called themselves the "silver shirts."

The Roman greeting with a raised hand was used by various nationalist groups in Europe even before Mussolini came to power in Italy. With the victorious march of the Italian fascists, this gesture began to spread more and more widely. The fascia symbol was adopted by other fascist associations inspired by Mussolini's successes, for example, the British Union of Fascists, the Bulgarian National for the Fascists, the Swiss Fascismus and the Swedish Svenska fascistiska kampförbundet.

In the nature of fascism, however, lies the glorification of its own culture. Therefore, most groups in other countries instead of the lictor fascia began to use local National symbols or signs that better reflected the local version of fascist ideology.

Fascist groups and symbols in other countries

Belgium

In the period between the world wars, two parallel movements of the fascist direction arose in Belgium. The first of these attracted the Walloons for the most part, the Francophone Belgians. The leader of the movement was lawyer Leon Degrell, editor-in-chief of the Catholic and conservative magazine Christus Rex. The organization he created became the basis for the Rexistpartiet party formed in 1930. Rexism, as the ideology of this party began to be called, combined the theses of Catholicism with purely fascist elements, for example, corporatism and the abolition of democracy. Gradually, the Rexists became closer to German National Socialism, which led to the loss of the party's support for the church, and with it many of its supporters. During World War II, the Rexists supported the German occupation of Belgium, and Degrell volunteered for the SS.

In the emblem of the Rexist party, the letters "REX" were combined with a cross and a crown as symbols of Christ's kingdom on earth.

The second notable fascist movement in Belgium found supporters in the Flemish part of the population. Already in the 1920s, groups of Flemish nationalists became active in the country, and in October 1933 a significant part of them united into the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond (VNV) party under the leadership of Staf de Klerk. This party adopted many of the ideas of the Italian fascists. De Klerk was called "den Leiter", "leader." In 1940, his party collaborated with the occupation regime. It was banned immediately after the war.

The colors of the VNV party's emblem are borrowed from the coat of arms of the Dutch national hero, William of Orange. Triangle - christian symbol Trinity. In Christian symbolism, the triangle can also represent equality and unity. The circle in the emblem is also a Christian symbol of unity.

Finland

In Finland, fascism has spread more widely than in the rest of the Nordic countries. Nationalist currents were strong throughout the period between the two world wars. The country gained independence from Russia in 1917. After the Civil War of 1918, when the Whites defeated the Reds supported by Soviet Russia, fear of the communist revolution was strong. In 1932, the Isänmaallinen kansanliike (IKL) party was formed, which became a continuation of the anti-communist nationalist Lapua movement of the 1920s.

The IKL was a purely fascist party with the addition of its own extremely nationalist dream of an ethnically homogeneous Greater Finland, which was to include the territories of today's Russia and Estonia, as well as the requirements of a corporate structure of society. All this was presented against the background of the ideology of the "superman", in which the Finns were presented as biologically superior to neighboring peoples. The party existed until 1944. She managed to run for office in three elections and received just over 8% of the vote in the 1936 elections, and three years later the number of votes cast for her dropped to 7%.

Members of the IKL party wore uniforms: a black shirt and a blue tie. The party banner was also of blue color with the emblem: inside the circle - a man with a club, sitting on a bear.

Greece

After the 1936 elections, Greece was in difficult situation... Fearing a growing trade union movement, the king appointed Defense Minister Ioannis Metaxas as prime minister. Metaxas used a series of strikes to declare a state of emergency and immediately overturn the country's democratic institutions. On August 4, 1936, he proclaimed the regime he called the "August 4th regime" and began to create an authoritarian dictatorship with elements of fascism, taking as a model the actions of the National Union, which was in power in Portugal. Troops were repeatedly sent to Greece, and in 1941 a government loyal to Hitler came to power in the country. The regime collapsed when Greece, despite Metaxa's pro-German sympathies, sided with the Allies in World War II.

Metaxa chose a stylized double-edged ax to symbolize the August 4th regime, as he considered it the oldest symbol of Hellenic civilization. Indeed, double axes, real and in images, in Greek culture for thousands of years, they are often found among the archaeological finds of the Minoan civilization in Crete.

Ireland

In 1932, the fascist Army Comrades Association (ACA) was formed in Ireland, originally created to guard the gatherings of the nationalist Cumann nan Gaedhael party. Soon, under the leadership of former General and Police Chief Owen O'Duffy, the ACA became independent and changed its name to National Guard.

Inspired by the Italian fascists, members of the organization in April 1933 began to wear "party" shirts of sky blue color, for which they were nicknamed "Blue Shirts". They also adopted the Roman salute and threatened to march to Dublin in imitation of Mussolini's march to Rome. In the same year, 1933, the party was banned and O'Duffy relaxed the fascist rhetoric. Later, he was among the founders of the nationalist party Finne Gal.

The ACA banner, which later became the flag of the National Guard, was a version of the Irish Order of St. Patrick's banner introduced in 1783: a red St. Andrew's cross on a white background. The sky blue color goes back to the legend of how white cross appeared in the sky in honor of St. Andrew (this motif also exists on the flag of Scotland).

Norway

Vidkun Quisling formed the nationalist National Accord Party (Nasjonal Samling) in 1933. The party soon adopted an orientation towards fascism and Nazism. Before World War II, National Accord was the fastest growing party in Norway, and after the German occupation of the country, Quisling became the country's minister-president. By 1943, the party had about 44,000 members. On May 8, 1945, the party was disbanded, and the name of Quisling became synonymous throughout the world with a traitor to the motherland.

The National Accord Party used the Scandinavian traditional flag, that is, a yellow cross on a red background, as a symbol. Local branches of the party designated themselves as "Olaf's cross" - a variant of the "solstice". This sign has been a symbol of Norway since the time of the Christianization of the country by St. Olaf in the 11th century.

Portugal

After the First World War, Portugal lay in ruins. After the military coup of 1926, already in 1930, the party was formally created National Union... In 1932, former finance minister Antonio Salazar, who soon became prime minister, took over the leadership of the party. Salazar, who remained in power in Portugal until his death in 1970, introduced a complete dictatorship and an ultra-reactionary political system, some elements of which could be regarded as fascist. The party remained in power until 1974, when the regime was overthrown and democracy was introduced in the country.

The National Union used the so-called Mantuan cross in its symbolism. This cross, like the Fascist Iron Cross, is a black and white cross patté, but with narrower crossbeams. It was used, among others, by the Nazis in France.

Another group in Portugal in the 1930s was fascist in its purest form. It was formed in 1932 and was called the Movement of National Syndicalists (MNS). The leader of the movement was Roland Preto, who in the early 1920s admired Mussolini and saw the similarities between his fascism and his national syndicalism. Inspired by Italians, members of the movement wore blue shirts, for which they were nicknamed "blue shirts".

The MNS was more radical than the incumbent National Union and criticized the Salazar regime for being too timid in transforming Portuguese society. In 1934, the MNS was disbanded on the orders of Salazar, but continued its activities underground until its leadership was expelled from the country after an unsuccessful coup attempt in 1935. Preto settled in Spain, where he took part in the civil war on the side of Franco.

The MNS movement was heavily influenced by Catholicism. Therefore, the cross of the Portuguese Christ of the Order of the Knights-Crusaders of the XIV century was chosen as its symbol.

Romania

After the First World War, Romania, like other European countries, was overtaken by a depression. And just like in Germany and Italy, economic problems and fear of the communist revolution have led here to the emergence of extreme nationalist movements. In 1927, the charismatic leader Corneliu Codreanu created the Legion of Archangel Michael, or the Iron Guard. The Iron Guard combined religious mysticism with bestial anti-Semitism in their ideology. The members of the "guard" were recruited most often from among students. Codreanu's goal was the "Christian and racial cleansing" of the nation. Soon, from a tiny sect, the Legion of Archangel Michael turned into a party that received 15.5% of the vote in the 1937 parliamentary elections, thus becoming the third largest party in the country.

The Iron Guard was perceived as a threat by the regime of King Carol II. When the king introduced the dictatorship in 1938, Codreanu was arrested and then killed, allegedly while trying to escape. As a result, Codreanu became known as a "martyr of fascism" and is still revered by modern Nazis all over the world.

During the Second World War, members of the Iron Guard, who were called "legionnaires", collaborated with the German occupation forces and became famous for their brutality.

The legionnaires greeted each other with a Roman or salute and wore green shirts, so they were called "green shirts" ( green color was supposed to symbolize renewal).

The symbol of the organization is a stylized version of a three-part intertwined Christian cross, reminiscent of a prison bars. This sign was intended to symbolize martyrdom. The symbol was sometimes called the "Cross of Michael the Archangel" - the guardian angel of the "Iron Guard".

Switzerland

In the 1920s, small fascist groups began to form in Switzerland, following the example of neighboring Italy. In 1933, two such groups merged into a party called the National Front. This party was heavily influenced by the German Nazis; following their example, she founded a youth and women's organization, and in the mid-30s - and her own armed militia, which was called Harst or Auszug.

In the 1933 local elections, the Swiss National Front gained electoral support on a wave of nationalism inspired by the rise to power of the Nazis in Germany. The party reached its maximum number of more than 9 thousand members in 1935, receiving 1.6% of the vote and one seat in the Swiss parliament. The party was led by Ernst Biederman, Rolf Henie and Robert Tobler. In 1940, the Front was banned by the government, but continued its activities until 1943.

The National Front has created its own version of the Italian fascist style - with gray shirts. The members of the organization also adopted the Roman greeting. The Front's symbol was a variant of the Swiss flag, in which the white cross extended to the borders of the red background.

Spain

The Spanish Phalanx was created in 1933. At first, like the Italian fascists and German Nazis, the Phalangists tried to come to power through elections, but they failed to win over enough voters to vote for the conservative parties supported by the Catholic Church.

The next chance came after the victory of the Socialist Popular Front Party in the 1936 elections. The Spanish military, under the leadership of General Francisco Franco, refused to recognize the election results and began an armed uprising, which resulted in the civil war of 1936-1939. Initially Franco, however, he allowed Phalanx, whose membership had increased significantly after the elections, to become the most important part of the political apparatus, and accepted the political program of the party. With the help of Italy and Germany, Franco and the Phalangists won the civil war. However, despite the support, during the Second World War, the Phalangists did not take the side of Hitler, and thanks to this they managed to maintain power in the future.

After the war, Spain, like neighboring Portugal, became an authoritarian dictatorship. Franco's regime lasted until 1975. The phalanx was formally disbanded in 1977.

The Phalanx symbol is borrowed from the coat of arms during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, the unifiers of Spain in the 15th century. In 1931, the yoke and arrows were taken by the symbols of the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista), which later merged with Phalanx. Since ancient times, the yoke has symbolized work for a common goal, and arrows - power. The red and black background is the colors of the Spanish syndicalists.

United Kingdom

The British Union of Fascists (BUF) was formed in 1932 by former Conservative MP and Labor minister, Sir Oswald Mosley. Mosley built his organization in the image and likeness of the Italian fascists and introduced the black uniform, for which the members of the Union were called "black shirts". The number of BUF reached 50 thousand people. In the mid-1930s, as its members were involved in numerous violent incidents, the party's popularity declined. In 1940, the organization was banned, and Mosley spent most of the Second World War in prison.

Oswald Mosley believed that the British colonial empire was the modern heir to the Roman Empire, and therefore initially used a variant of the Roman fascia as a party symbol. In 1936, the party adopted new symbol: zipper inside the circle.

The colors were borrowed from the British flag. The circle is an ancient Christian symbol of unity. Lightning is a symbol of action, activity. In the post-war period, the same symbols were used by the American fascist group, the Party national revival... It is still found among right-wing extremists today - for example, the British terrorist organization Combat 18, used lightning and a circle in the logo of The Order in the early 90s of the XX century.

Sweden

In Sweden, the Swedish Fascist Struggle Organization (Sveriges Fascistiska Kamporganisation, SFKO) was created in the year. The "bunch of rods" symbol was used both as a sign of the party and as the name of its main organ, Spöknippet.

After party leader Konrad Halgren and Sven Olaf Lindholm visited Germany, the party became close to National Socialism and in the fall of 1929 changed its name to the Swedish National Socialist People's Party.

In 1930, she merged with other Nazi parties: the National Socialist Peasant-Workers' Association of Birger Furugord and the "New Swedish Party". The new organization was initially called the New Swedish National Socialist Party, and soon became the Swedish National Socialist Party (SNSP). In the 1932 elections to the second chamber of the Riksdag, the party nominated itself in nine constituencies and gained 15,188 votes.

Over time, ideological differences between Furugord and Lindholm escalated to such an extent that on January 13, 1933, Lindholm and his supporters were expelled from the party. The next day, Lindholm formed the National Socialist Labor Party (NSAP). The parties began to be called "Lindholm" and "Furugord".

In October 1938, NSAP changed its name again to the Swedish Socialist Association (SSS). Lindholm attributed the lack of success in recruiting new members to the fact that the party was too close to German National Socialism and used the German swastika as a symbol. His party called its ideology "popular socialism" (folksocialism), and instead of the swastika took the "sheaf of the Vasa dynasty" (vasakärven) as the party symbol.

This heraldic symbol of the unifier of Sweden, King Gustav Vasa, has an important national significance... The word vase in Old Swedish means a sheaf of ears. In the Middle Ages, different versions of such "sheaves" or "bundles" were used in the construction of significant buildings and the laying of roads. The "sheaf" depicted on the coat of arms of the Vasa dynasty served, in particular, to fill the ditches during the storming of fortresses. When Gustav Vasa ascended the Swedish throne in 1523, this symbol appeared on the coat of arms of the Swedish state. The king's slogan "Varer svensk" (roughly "be a Swede") was often quoted in Nazi and fascist circles.

Germany

The National Socialist Workers' Party (NSDAP) of Germany was formed in 1919. In the 1920s, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, the party turned into a mass movement, and by the time it came to power, its ranks numbered almost 900 thousand members.

German National Socialism was in many ways reminiscent of Italian fascism, but there were differences on several points. Both ideologies are marked by a pronounced cult of the leader's personality. Both of them sought to unite society into a single national movement... Both National Socialism and Fascism are clearly anti-democratic and both are anti-communist. But if the fascists considered the state the most important part society, the Nazis instead spoke of the purity of the race. In the eyes of the Nazis, the total power of the state was not a goal, but a means to achieve another goal: the benefit for the Aryan race and the German people. Where the fascists interpreted history as a constant process of struggle between different forms of state, the Nazis saw an eternal struggle between races.

This was reflected in the Nazi symbol of the swastika, an ancient sign that in the 19th century was combined with the myth of the Aryan race as the crown of creation. The Nazis adopted many of the outward signs of fascism. They created their own version of the fascist "style" and introduced the Roman greeting. For more information, see chapters 2 and 3.

Hungary

As in other European countries, fascist groups of various inclinations arose in Hungary during the interwar period. Some of these groups united in 1935 to form the Party of National Will. The party was banned two years later, but re-emerged in 1939 under the name Arrows Crossed. Hungarian Movement ". In May of the same year, it became the second largest party in the country and won 31 seats in parliament. With the outbreak of World War II, it was again banned, but in October 1944, the German occupation authorities put the so-called government of national unity in power, headed by the chairman of Arrow Cross, Ferenc Salasi. This regime lasted only a few months, until February 1945, but in a short time sent about 80 thousand Jews to concentration camps.

Supporters of the "Salashists" (named after the leader of the party) took their name from the Christian pointed cross, a symbol used by the Hungarians in the 10th century. In the ideology of the Salashists, the Hungarians were the dominant nation, and the Jews were considered the main enemies. Therefore, the sign of crossed arrows is in second place after the swastika, among the most anti-Semitic symbols of fascism. The crossed arrows, like the custom of marching in green shirts, were borrowed from the early 1933 fascist group HNSALWP, which later became part of the National Will Party.

During the reign of the Salasi government in Hungary, a flag arose with a white circle in the center on a red background, and in it - black crossed arrows. Thus, the color scheme and structure of the German flag with a swastika was completely repeated. The SS troops, formed from Hungarian volunteers, also used this symbol for the Hungarian divisions No. 2 and No. 3. Today this symbol is banned in Hungary.

In addition, the "Salashists" used the red-white-striped flag from the coat of arms of the Arpad dynasty of Hungarian princes, which ruled the country from the end of the 9th century to 1301.

Austria

In 1933, Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dolphuss abolished parliamentary rule and introduced a one-party, party-led system Domestic Front... The party combined in its program Italian fascism and elements of Catholicism, in other words, it professed clerical fascism. The Fatherland Front was in opposition to German National Socialism, and in 1934, during a coup attempt, Dollfuss was killed. Clerical fascism dominated the country until 1938, when Austria was annexed to Nazi Germany.

The flag of the Patriotic Front party is a so-called crutch cross on a red and white background. The cross has the same ancient roots as the crosses of the knights-crusaders, and in the Christian tradition it is called cross potent. Its use in the 1930s in Austria was an attempt to compete with the Nazi swastika.