Public Worker of Culture of the 19th century Russian Empire. Culture of Russia XIX century

XIX century In the history of the culture of Russia occupies a special place. In the global Fund of Culture, Russia made wonderful works of literature, painting, music. The rise of Russian culture was so great, which allows you to call this era with the golden age of Russian culture.

The speech of the Decembrists in 1825 led to the emergence of the spirit of revolutionary transformations. The literature ranked first in the degree of influence on russian Society, reflecting different sides of public life, promoted development public consciousness. A huge impact on the public life provided magazines reflecting literary trends different styles. Sentimentalism N. Karamzin and V. Zhukovsky changed the classicism of Derzhavin and advocated a rapprochement literary language with conversational. After the war, 1812, romanticism came, who answered the sentiments in society and its expression found in the ballad. The poem performed the second form romantic literature. In it, reality appeared on a split form ("demon" M. Lermontov). Lyrics Pushkin, Baratynsky, Lermontov, Tyutchev became the highest achievement of Russian romanticism in the literature. After the war, 1812 The ideas of patriotism, ministry of the homeland, a sense of national self-consciousness, which were reflected in the art of the first halves XIX. in. Of particular popularity acquired historical genreThe landscape painting has become much emotionally, acquired a living color: sunny, full of living warm work S. Shchedrin, sea landscapes I. Aivazovsky, small heartfelt landscapes, in which the virgin Russian nature is glorified, I. Shishkin. In the second half of the XIX century. In painting, realism is manifested, representatives of which were trying to overcome the canons of academic classicism, which led to the emergence of a new direction - "Bounce of thirteen". The sculpture still remained faithful classicism, remaining related to architectural creativity, gradually give preference to realistic areas: P. Klodt (sculpture of equestrian groups on Anichkovo Bridge). Late classicism, prevailing in architecture, gradually gave his rights to eclectics. The era of urban planning began. Based on the monuments of the Old Russian architecture, the building of the Historical Museum in Moscow (O. Sherwood) was built, the Church of the Resurrection "On Blood" in St. Petersburg (A. Parland). TO eND XIX. in. Benefit began to appear Modern style.

Cultural process turn XIX-XX explosive Received the name "Decadence". The Italian writer F. Marineti founded in 1909. Futurism, later there is a new society of expressionists "Blue Rider", Dadaism, Audism, Cubism. Styles and methods in the culture of XX in .. depart from classic techniques artistic creativityThe diversity of their diversity is called modernism, which combined various creative understanding of the characteristics of the decades time. Realism, existing in parallel with modernism, showed itself in different ways, but brighter everything is like neorealism, especially in cinema (L. Visconti, M. Antonioni, R. Rossellini, Art. Kramer, A. Kurosava, A. Waida). Names A. Rambo, P. Vellen, O. Wilde associate with symbolism, which represented decaded literature of the stroke of the ages. One of the leading literary directions Mid XX century is existentialism. As a literary direction, he arose in France (J. P. Sardr, A. Kama) and argued the "pure" unmotivated action, individualism, reflected the loneliness of a person in his hostile absurd world. As a challenge to society, as a consistent destruction of a real image, which reflects the world with habitual means, there was a so-called abstractionism - extreme form Modernism. His origlists stand in V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Clee, and others. To replace it in the 60s. Avangardism came, pop art and postmodernism.

The development of the economy and culture took place in Russia throughout the XIX century. In the conservation of autocracy (unlimited monarchy). The emperor belonged all the completeness of the legislative and executive power. At the beginning of the century, the State Council and Ministries were created. The government of Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825) implemented 1812 to the Patriotic War. Some liberal reforms. Among them - measures to develop the education system. This was last period Politicians "Enlightened Absolutism". The essence of it in an attempt to adapt the autocratic-fastened system to the requirements of modernity. The ideology of "enlightened absolutism" made emphasis on the "education of the minds" and "improvement of morals", mitigating laws and violence. However, the limits of the reforms were narrow. Development of the education system, promoting industry, "patronage of sciences and arts" - but all this is under strict supervision of bureaucracy and police.

In 1811-1815 There was a turn to the reaction and mysticism. Militarism and protective trends were made to the fore. The carrier of them was the All-powerful Team of Araksheev. Military settlements arise, designed to strengthen the military power of the empire without special costs. Russia enters the "Holy Union" - a kind of "international" monarchs, helping each other in the fight against the revolutionary movement. Such a policy aroused discontent with the advanced part of the nobility that created underground revolutionary organizations. The noble revolutionaries dreamed of turning Russia either into the constitutional monarchy or to the republic, to cancel serfdom. The movement ended with an unsuccessful uprising on December 14, 1825. The Decembrists were defeated and Nikolai I joined the throne (1825-1855).

The policy of the new Emperor, who did not trust the nobles and navigating the bureaucracy and the police was reactive. He suppressed the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. And he helped defend the revolution in Hungary (Intervention of 1849). Separate reforms (financial, publishing the laws of laws, improving government peasants) were combined with merciless suppression of the opposition. Militarism, bribery, Volokita in the courts, displacement and arbitrariness - these are the features of the Nikolaev system, who led the country to military defeat.

With accession to the throne Alexander II (1855-1881) began the so-called. "thaw". In society discussed the urgent transformations, the Decembrists were amnestied, expanded the rights of the press. In 1861, serfdom was canceled, and soon new reforms followed - the cancellation of corporal punishment, the introduction of the jury, the establishment of the electoral local governments (Zemstvo). However, the "muscles of the building" of reforms, as the Liberals called the introduction of the Constitution and Parliament in Russia did not follow. Since 1866 (unsuccessful attempt on the emperor), the government turned to the reaction.

Meanwhile, in the educated youth of different estates (so-called, the ideas of militarian (Socialism N.G. Chernyshevsky et al.) Were becoming increasingly distribution. Underground organizations arose and arose discontent. In 1874, the so-called began. "Walking to the people" - agitation movement. It failed. The people did not go for the socialists, and the police won them. In response, revolutionaries stood on the path of terror. The end of this path was the murder of Alexander II on March 1, 1881

The experience of the Patriotic War for the first time significantly brought the elite estate with a simple people, making a social abyss between them less significant than national priorities. V.G. Belinsky wrote about 1812 as an era, with which "began new life For Russia, "seeing the meaning of these changes not only" in external magnitude and brilliance ", but primarily in domestic development in the society of" citizenship and education ". New for Russia The idea of \u200b\u200bthe responsibility of the nobility in front of their people, strengthened the influence of the socio-political European thought of the Epoch of Enlightenment, created another cultural phenomenon 19.- The movement of the Decembrists. Decembism in Russia demonstrated a completely new type of Russian man who could challenge the arbitrariness of the despotic power, and became a criterion for several generations to the criste, moral soil for future social transformations for several generations.

It was the noble estate that played a major role in the development of Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century., Since mostly nobles had favorable material and social conditions for education and artistic creativity. Nevertheless, advanced Russian culture predominantly presented by nobles objectively opposed the class inequality, serfdom, autocratic and bureaucan lawlessness. Paradoxal is the fact that the giant leap in cultural development, perfect by Russia in the 19th century, occurred against the background of "late" and largely inconsistent economic and political upgrades.

The rise of Russian culture in the 19th century was caused by a number of circumstances:

○ Russian society experienced a period of radical transformation, the formation of a national self-consciousness and gradual democratization of public life. These changes are most intensively manifested in the second half of the 19th century, in the pureform period, who has faced its own tasks.

○ Specialization is enhanced various spheres cultural activityEspecially in science, where new areas of research appear, and at the same time establishes close mutual influence of philosophy, and at the same time establishes close mutual influence of philosophy and literature, literature and other types of art.

○ The modernization of the economy requires an increasing number of competent, qualified specialists, a network of specialized educational institutions is developing, the base of bourgeois democratic culture is expanding.

○ But remains strong and cargo traditional relationship, Bourgeois society in Russia of the 19th century, has not yet developed. Great Russian culture fully reflected all contradictions and painful conflict of their time, most brightly manifested creative activity Russian intelligentsia.

The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century is a significant stage in the development of spiritual and moral values \u200b\u200bof Russian society. Amazingly, what scales made a creative process, the depth of its content and wealth of forms. For half a century, the cultural community rose to new level: multidimensional, polyphonic, unique.

Prerequisites for the origin and cultural development of the Golden Age

The development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century was due high degree nationwide interests. Humanitarian enlightened, started in Ekaterina the second, gave impetus to the development of education, the discovery of many educational institutions and expand the possibilities for obtaining new knowledge.

The boundaries of the state, in which they lived about 165 of different nations With your customs and mentality. The traditions of their predecessors continued new navigators and discovers.

The Russian-French War of 1812 influenced the formation of patriotic thought, moral and moral values \u200b\u200bof the Russian people. Russia in the first half of the 19th century attracted interest to the national self-awareness who had strengthened in society.

However, the current political situation within the country did not give full freedom to implement all ideas in art. Decembrist uprising and activity secret societies Forced russian emperors Prevent the penetration of advanced thoughts into any cultural spheres.

The science

Improving popular education reflected the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Briefly can be called dual. On the one hand, new educational establishmentsOn the other hand, strict censorship measures were introduced, for example, canceled philosophy lessons. In addition, universities and gymnasiums were constantly under strict supervision of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment.

Despite this, Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century is characterized by a large jerk in the development of science.

Biology and medicine

Accumulated by the beginning of the 19th century material about the animal and vegetable world Required rethinking and developing new theories. This was engaged in Russian natural scientists K.M. Baer, \u200b\u200bI.A. Dvigubsky, I.E. Dyadkovsky.

The richest collections of plants and animals were collected from different corners World. And in 1812, the opening of the Botanical Garden in Crimea was held.

N.I. Pies. Thanks to his selfless work, the world found out what kind of military field surgery is.

Geology and Astronomy

From the beginning of the century waited for its o'clock and geology. Its development covered all Russian lands.

An essential achievement was the preparation of the first geological map of Russia in 1840. Made this scientist researcher N.I. Koksharov.

Astronomy required careful and scrupulous computing and observations. It took a lot of time. The process was much easier than in 1839 a Pulkovsk observatory was created.

Mathematics and physics

In mathematics, the opening of a global scale was made. So, N.I. Lobachevsky became famous for its "non-child geometry." P.L. Chebyshev justified the law large numbers, and M.V. Ostrogradsky was engaged in analytical and heavenly mechanics.

The first half of the 19th century can be called golden times for physics, because the first electromagnetic telegraph (PL Schilling) was created, the result of electric light experience (V.V. Petrov) was obtained, the electromotor (E.H. Lenz) was invented.

Architecture

Russian art culture in the first half of the 19th century attracted significant interest of society. The most important feature Its development has become a quick shift of styles, as well as their combination.

In architecture, classicism reigned until the 1840s. Ampire style can be found in the many buildings of two capitals, as well as many regional centers formerly by provincial cities.

For this time, the construction of architectural ensembles is characteristic. For example, or Senatskaya in St. Petersburg.

Bright representatives of this style gave rise to the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Architecture was expressed in the writings of A.D. Zakharova, K.I. Rossi, D.I. Liberadi, O.I. Bovy.

Ampire replaced the Russian-Byzantine style, in which the Church of Christ the Savior, the Armory (Architect K.A. Ton) were built.

Painting

For this period in painting is characterized by interest in person ordinary person. Artists depart from traditional biblical and mythological styles.

Among other outstanding sculptors of the pore were I.I. TEREBENEV ("Poltava Batali"), V.I. Demoust-Malinovsky, B.I. Orlovsky (angel figure on the Alexandrovsk Column), etc.

Music

The enormous influence of the heroic past experienced the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Music was influenced by folk melodies, as well as national topics. These flows reflect Opera "Ivan Susanin" K.A. Kavos, works A.A. Alyabyeva, A.E. Varlamov.

M.I. Glinka held a central place among composers. He approved new traditions and discovered the genre unprecedented before that. Opera "Life for the king" fully reflects the essence of the entire creativity of the musician.

Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century spawned one more ingenious composerwhich introduced a genre of psychological drama into music. This is A.S. Dargomyzhsky and his great opera "Mermaid".

Theatre

The Russian Theater opened the expanse of imagination, practically abandoning the front-end productions in the style of classicism. Now the romantic motives were dominated there, the tragedy plots of plays.

One of the most famous representatives of theatrical environment was P.S. Mochalov, who fulfilled the role of Hamlet and Ferdinand (on Shakespeare).

Reformed Russian acting art M.S. Shchepkin was an outcomes from the fortress peasants. He filed completely new ideas, thanks to which his roles admired, and the Small Theater of Moscow became the most popular place among the audience.

Realistic style in the theater was generated by works by A.S. Pushkin, A.S. Griboedov.

Literature

The most important social problems reflected the culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Literature strengthened turning to the historical past of the country. An example is N.M. Karamzin.

Romanticism in the literature was represented by such outstanding figures as V.A. Zhukovsky, A.I. Odoevsky, Early A.S. Pushkin. The late stage of Pushkin's creativity is realism. "Boris Godunov", " Captain's daughter», « Bronze Horseman»They are inscribed in this direction. In addition, M.Yu. Lermontov created a "hero of our time", which is an outstanding sample of realistic literature.

Critical realism became the basis of creativity N.V. Gogol ("Shinel", "Auditor").

Among other representatives of literature, which influenced its formation, can be called A.N. Ostrovsky with his extraordinary realistic plays, I.S. Turgenev, who paid its attention to the topic of the fortress village and nature, as well as D.V. Grigorovich.

Literature has made a significant contribution to cultural development Russia. The first half of the 19th century is characterized by the formation of a modern literary language instead of the heavy and vested language of the century of the 18th. The work of writers and poets of this period has become a sign and influenced the further formation of not only Russian, but also of world culture.

Encompassing and rethinking Russian and european civilizations The culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century created a strong foundation for the favorable development of science and art in the future.

XIX century became the golden age of Russian culture. The dominant type of art becomes literature. The change of literary directions determines the development of the entire era.

Russian culture of the 19th century and Europe

Starting with Peter I reforms, Russia was under powerful cultural influence Europe. Features of the development of the culture of the 19th century were expressed in the penetration of Western styles and directions.

Briefly about the culture of the 19th century in Russia, A. I. Herzen said: the reforms of Peter Russia responded to the genius of Pushkin.

Literary styles

At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Sentimentalism was established in the literature. His leading representative was N. M. Karamzin.

In the 20s XIX century Romanticism comes to shift Sentimentalism. First of all, it is associated with the work of V. A. Zhukovsky.

Fig. 1. Portrait of V. A. Zhukovsky. O. A. Kiprensky. 1815.

Romantics were the Decembrists poets:

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• K. F. Ryleev,
• V. K. Kyhehelbecker,
• A. I. Odoyevsky.

From the 30s. In Russian literature, realism is becoming the leading direction. A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol laid the foundations of the modern Russian language. Russian literature joined its golden age.

In the second half of the XIX century, Russian writers are firmly approved in world literature. Works L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov belong to critical realism. They rise in them the most important philosophical and moral problems mankind.

Architectural styles

In the first third XIX. Century in Russian architecture comes a period of "strict" classicism or AMPIR. He came to Russia under the influence of Napoleonic France and is represented by architects:

• K. Rossi (Alexandrinsky Theater);
• A. D. Zakharov (Admiralty);
• A. N. Voronikhin (Kazan Cathedral).

In the 30-50s. The XIX century is formed a new direction - eclectic or historicism. In domestic architecture, it manifested itself in the emergence of the Russian-Byzantine style. According to projects, K. A. Tone was built:

• Church of Christ the Savior,
• Grand Kremlin Palace,
• railway stations in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Fig. 2. Modern view The church of Christ the Savior.

In the second half of the XIX century, the pseudorussian style was a variety of eclectics. It is represented by the following architects:

• A. A. Semenov (Historical Museum in Moscow);
• D. N. Chichagov (Moscow City Duma);
• A. N. Pomerancers (modern GUM).

Styles in painting

In the first half of the XIX century, classicism and romanticism prevailed in the work of Russian artists. For the first it was characterized by the use of antique and biblical plots. The leading representatives of classicism were F. A. Bruni and F. I. Tolstoy.

Romance artists preferred portrait and landscape painting. Among them are allocated:

• S. F. Shchedrin;
• O. A. Kiprensky;
• A. G. Venetsian.

K. P. Bryullov, the top of the creativity of which is the painting "Last Day Pompeii".

In the second half of the XIX century, realism is firmly approved in painting. In 1870, the "Association of Mobile Exhibitions" arises, in which artists-realists united:

• I. E. Repin,
• N. N. GE,
• I. N. Kramskaya et al.

Sculpture of the XIX century

Of particular importance in Russia had monumental sculpturepresented in the following table:

The 19th century was the time of the final formation of Russian national Culture. Russia continued to expand its territories. After the accession of the Northern Caucasus, Asia's average and other land, it became not just a huge, but also truly an immense country - the empire. Launched by Peter 1 transformation also continued. Russia slowly came out of his medieval past and increasingly retracted in a new time. At the same time, its development went unevenly.

The most profound and impressive changes took place in spiritual culture. In this area, the 19th century was the time of the unprecedented take-off and heyday for Moscow. The main merit in this belongs to two great writers - Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. Acquaintance with their creativity was for the West with a real discovery, revelation and shock. Their enormous success contributed to the elevation of the authority of the whole Russian spiritually culture, strengthening its influence and rapid distribution worldwide.

Concerning material culture, economic and socio-political areas, here the achievements of Russia were much more modest. In the first half born domestic engineering. Steam engines get widespread. The first steamer appears (1815). Between Moscow and St. Petersburg begins to act the first railway (1851).

The basis of the born industry is rapidly developing metallurgy, where the key role is played by the Demidov plants in the Urals. Successfully developing textile industry. The growth of industry contributes to the growth of cities, an increase in population. Cities All tangible begin to dominate the village.

Nevertheless, the process of modernization of socio-economic life and material culture is slow. The main brake is the preserving serfdom and autocracy. In this regard, Russia is still a medieval feudal society. The reform of 1861 has changed the situation, but it was inconsistent and half, the political system of autocracy remained practically not affected.

In general, the main and most important events and phenomena that determined the development of the Russian culture of the 19th century were Patriotic War 1812, the uprising of the Decembrists of 1825, serfdom and reform for its cancellation. There was significant successes in the development of education, which contributed to the further progress of science. Mathematics scientists: Lobachevsky, Markova; Astoronomy: Struve. Physics: Petrov, Lenz, Jacobi, Shilling; Chemistry: Mendeleev, Zinin, Butlers; Geography: Bellingshausen, Lazarev; Biology: Pies, Sklifosovsky; History: Karamzin, Solovyov, Klyuchevsky. Significant achievements have achieved linguistics. The activity of Dalya, the compiler is especially highlighted here. Intelligent dictionary living Great Russian. "

The 19th century was the time of the formation of Russian philosophy as an independent science. It critically masters the achievements of Western philosophical thought In the face of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Gartman, Nietzsche, etc. At the same time, it consists of a rich spectrum of distinctive shock and flows - from left-radical to religious-mystical. The largest figures were: Chaadaev, Kireevsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Solovyov. The same can be said about sociology and psychology: they are also experiencing a period of active formation.

The most favorable and fruitful 19th century was for Hood. Culture, which worried unprecedented and flourished and became classic. The main directions of Russian art were sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. the main role belonged to literature.

The founder and the central figure of Sentimentalism was Karamzin. Romanticism had much greater influence and distribution. It existed several currents. The theme of citizenship, patriotism and freedom is most strongly expressed in the works of the Poets-Decembrists: Ryleev, Oroevsky, Kühelbecker. Civil and winsted motifs also sound in the work of Deligov, Kozlov, language. The depths and state of the spiritual world with an attic of antastics and melancholy constitute the content of the works of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov. Philosophical Lyrics, Deep Psychology, Slavophilic ideas and tremendous love for Russia, found an expression in the works of Tyutchev and Odoyevsky.

Along with the literature, flourishing is experiencing music. Huge contribution made " Mighty couch"- a group of Russian composers, where Balakirev, Borodin, Kui, Mussorgsky, Roman-Korsakov included.

Romanticism in Russian painting of the 19th century is Cyprian and Shchedrin, the Russian Theater is successfully developing. Its flourishing is associated with the name of the great playwright of Ostrovsky, creative destiny which was connected to the Small Theater in Moscow. He created the Pieces of "Thunderstorm", "revenue place", "Forest", "Dustpannica", which made the Russian theater classic.

The culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century was experiencing a significant rise. The development of new capitalist relations, the abolition of serfdom and public lifting led to the fact that in all fields of art began to appear new trends, new names.

However, the representatives of the intelligentsia had a variety of views on changes occurring in the country, which led to the emergence of three camps - liberals, conservatives and democrats. Each course had its own characteristics both in political thought and in the ways of expressing themselves in art.

In general, the industrial coup and the growth of the economy led to the fact that culture has become more democratic and open to all the layers of the population.

Education

There was an unprecedented growth in the level of education. Numerous schools began to open, education became goveling - primary School and average. There were numerous gymnasiums and colleges to average, where students not only received general educationBut also mastered the necessary knowledge for the future work. There were female courses.

Education remained paid, so libraries and museums began to gain increasing importance, where they could find knowledge of those who had no money on a lyceum or gymnasium. Were created Tretyakov Gallery, Historical Museum, Russian Museum and others.

Also actively developed science, several were created scientific schoolswho become foundation for the most important discoveries. Human development received history and philosophy.

Literature

Literature also developed actively as other industries of culture. Numerous were published throughout the country literary journalsin which writers published their works. The most prominent can be called "Russian Bulletin", "Patrican Notes", "Russian Thought". The magazines were of different focus - liberal, democratic and conservative. In addition to literary activity The authors in them led an active political discussion.

Painting

Recent famous artists - E.I. Repin, V.I. Surikov, A.G. Savrasov. Headed by I.N Kramsky, they formed a "mobile partnership" that claims his the main goal The need to "carry art in the mass". These artists opened small mobile exhibitions In the most remote corners of Russia to teach people to art.

Music

The group "Mighty hand" led by MA Balakirev. It included many prominent composers of that time - M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin. At the same time worked great composer - PI Tchaikovsky. In those years, the first conservatory in Russia opened in Russia and St. Petersburg. Music also became national TreasureAvailable to all the layers of the population.